Publish Year: 2022 Title: Unusual Repair of a Natural Emerald Abstract: Figure 1. Examination of this 5.24 ct clarity-enhanced emerald revealed unusual repair work. Photo by Iurii Gaievskyi.
A 5.24 ct bluish green emerald (figure 1) was presented to the State Gemmological Centre of Ukraine for identification and determination of the presence of treatment. The client reported that this stone was mined in Colombia. The stone exhibited a refractive index of 1.566–1.571, birefringence of 0.005, hydrostatic specific gravity of 2.67, moderate pleochroism with bluish green to green colors, and a very weak pink fluorescence to long-wave and short-wave UV. Qualitative analysis using EDXRF spectroscopy showed major amounts of vanadium, chromium, and iron and minor amounts of gallium.
Magnification with a gemological microscope revealed an abundance of fluid growth tubes, as well as two-phase and three-phase inclusions. Thick masses of gray matter were revealed inside the cracks of the emerald. Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was subsequently performed to analyze this gray substance. Epoxy resin peaks at 3060, 3035, 3000, 2964, 2932, and 2871 cm–1 confirmed an epoxy resin treatment (M.L. Johnson et al., “On the identification of various emerald filling substances,” Summer 1999 G&G, pp. 82–107).

Figure 2. DiamondView imaging of a patch applied to a corner of the emerald. Image by Iurii Gaievskyi.

Figure 3. The clear, even border between the patch and the emerald, shown in daylight. Photomicrograph by Iurii Gaievskyi; field of view 4.0 mm.
DiamondView imaging clearly revealed the epoxy resin filler within the fissures as a series of blue lines extending over the entire surface against the emerald’s red-fluorescing bodycolor (apparently due to the presence of the Cr3+ impurity). Additionally, careful examination from all sides of the stone revealed a patch in one of the corners. This patch was covered with rounded pits and glowed strong blue in the DiamondView (figure 2). In daylight, there was a clear, even border between the patch and the emerald (figure 3). EDXRF analysis showed additional admixtures of potassium and calcium on the side of the patch. All of these properties suggest that glass was the raw material for this patch, which was presumably used to conceal a damaged part of the cut emerald. This kind of repair is extremely unusual for cut stones. @topic:3


Publish Year: 2016 Title: Afghan Emerald, Tajik Ruby, and Clarity-Enhanced Tourmaline Abstract: Figure 1. Left: Eternity Natural Emerald offered precision-cut Afghan emeralds, including “star” (left), princess (center), and baguette cuts (right, ranging from 6 × 3 mm to 5 × 2 mm). Photos by Robert Weldon/GIA, courtesy of Eternity Natural Emerald.

	Eternity Natural Emerald (Ridgewood, New Jersey) exhibited a number of fascinating stones at the AGTA show. The emerald melee from Afghanistan (figure 1) immediately caught our attention. One of the authors was present in Afghanistan when Eternity’s Arthur Groom examined the original material (called “pencil rough” for its long and thin shape). The color was retained even when cut into small stones.

	This rough is typically not treated, but a consistent supply of Afghan emerald is difficult to obtain. Prices are high, and negotiating is complex. Security concerns make it difficult to move rough in the country, and material is often smuggled to Dubai for the international market. To purchase the material, the company makes four to six buying trips a year, with permanent buyers located in Kabul and the Panjshir Valley. Much of the rough consists of the pencil crystals used for cutting precision melee. Once the pencil rough is sawn and preformed, the stones are cut for maximum brightness and the tightest measurement tolerances possible. All melee is cut in Sri Lanka.

	The emeralds were displayed in a variety of cuts and sizes. Most of the production is between 2 and 4 mm; they try to cut the melee within 0.05 mm tolerance. Mr. Groom expects to unveil 10,000–15,000 carats at the 2016 JCK show in Las Vegas. Eternity Emerald is also purchasing rough from Zambia and Brazil to ensure a continuous supply of melee.

	We also saw a 12.52 ct cushion-cut emerald (figure 2) that came from a 60 ct Afghan rough. The stone was difficult to cut because the rough was highly fractured and color zoned. Also from the 15,000-carat parcel purchased this year were four stones that did not require enhancement, the largest of which weighed 4.61 ct. Mr. Groom estimated that, given the same size and quality, the value difference between treated and untreated emerald ranges from 20% to 100%.

Figure 2. This 12.52 ct cushion-cut Afghan emerald came from a highly fractured and color-zoned 60 ct rough. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Eternity Natural Emerald.

	Also on display was a 17.14 ct ruby that had the intense red color of marble-hosted material and a slightly sleepy transparency. The untreated ruby was cut from a 45.37 ct rough, part of a parcel of more than 1,000 carats, purchased directly from Tajik miners in May 2015. While this rough is available within Tajikistan, Mr. Groom said the material is not easily found on the global market. The asking prices for the rough were high and firm. The parcel was much more difficult to evaluate than ruby from Myanmar or Mozambique, as the rough was highly fractured. This is not uncommon for Tajik ruby, and it makes determining the yield and quality of the finished stones problematic. Due to the fracturing of the rough, heat treatment may not be a viable option for color improvement. The parcel yielded a total of nine faceted stones, none of which were heat treated. The largest, a 21.17 ct stone, was cut from the original 45.37 ct rough. A large black inclusion was still visible after cutting. After being shown to several potential buyers, the ruby was recut to 17.14 ct. The inclusion was less visible in the resulting gem (figure 3), and the color and brightness were also improved. Mr. Groom said recutting increased the ruby’s overall value more than 30%.

Figure 3. The decision to recut a 21.17 ct ruby into this 17.14 ct gem added substantial value. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Eternity Natural Emerald.

	At the booth, we also saw photos of their clarity-enhanced tourmalines. Clarity Enhancement Laboratories (CEL) performs the filling of the surface-reaching fractures. Mr. Groom pointed out that fracture filling of tourmaline is nothing new. Most of the material he has seen in the market has been filled with oils and resins, often without disclosure, since the trade has not traditionally thought of fracture filling as a way to improve tourmaline’s apparent clarity. In August 2015, CEL announced tourmaline clarity enhancement service. The process, which is similar to its ExCel method for filling emerald fractures, is offered in their New York City laboratory for all colors and varieties of finished tourmaline. This treatment is not available for rough material.

Figure 4. The surface-breaking fissure in this faceted Paraíba tourmaline (left) is less visible after cleaning and filling (right). Photos courtesy of Eternity Natural Emerald.

Figure 5. Prior to treatment, the highly visible fissure detracted from the rubellite’s clarity (left). After treatment, the fissures were less visible, and the stone had a more uniform clarity (right). Photos courtesy of Eternity Natural Emerald.

	Although they will fill any variety and color of tourmaline, CEL has mostly received Paraíba (figure 4), rubellite (figure 5), and bicolor material. Mr. Groom attributes this to the intrinsically higher values for these varieties. These color varieties often have surface-reaching fractures, and the filling process makes the material much more marketable. Since there is a high demand for these types of tourmaline, treated goods are still of value to dealers. Mr. Groom hopes to promote CEL’s clarity enhancement method as a positive thing that will be fully disclosed through the value chain. @topic:2


Publish Year: 2019 Title: Wild & Petsch: Sourcing Rough and Cutting in Idar-Oberstein Abstract: Figure 1. This cuprian tourmaline from Mozambique measures 37 × 26.5 mm and weighs 109.62 ct. Photo by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of Wild & Petsch.

Wild & Petsch (Idar-Oberstein, Germany) was formed when two established companies, headed by brothers-in-law Alexander Wild and Thomas Petsch, joined forces. The roots of the merged company go back to 1901. Today the firm is still sourcing rough and faceting stones in their 15-cutter workshop in Idar-Oberstein. Over the last few years they have increased their quality levels, embracing the slogan “Nothing leaves our offices that is not perfect.” While most of their work involves freeform hand faceting, machine-assisted techniques are used during preforming to achieve optimal results. They supply other businesses mainly through trade shows and an international network of distributors.
According to Alexander Wild, high-quality material is not limited to facet-grade rough. Wild & Petsch produces faceted stones, cabochons, and beads, but all must be of the highest quality. To guarantee high standards of their craftsmanship, the firm has started an apprenticeship program. During this three-year period, enrollees learn high-level lapidary skills in the company’s professional workshop while attending school. After this period, they are certified as gem cutters, and after a few more years they can receive the distinction of Master Gem Cutter. The region has seen a renewed interest in lapidary work among young men and women.
All the material cut in the workshop is sourced by Wild & Petsch. They travel to the producing areas and buy as close to the mines as possible. In some cases, this means buying at the source, which requires a strong relationship with the mine owners. Wild & Petsch has such relationships with tourmaline miners in East Africa. Elsewhere, they collect stones in the local markets (e.g., Arusha, Tanzania) where material from a wide area comes together.
Wild said the rough trade has not changed much in the last few decades. As new sources are found, it remains extremely important to maintain contact with the source and the end client to strike the best deals. Flexibility is key, as they must be able to check out new finds right away. For example, the majority of beryl is sourced from Africa, but in the mid-1990s the most amazing materials came from Ukraine and other former Soviet states. Without an extensive international network that covers nontraditional mining areas, such opportunities would be missed.
The biggest change in recent years is likely the speed at which information travels. Today a single social media post about a new find can alert the whole world, but simply having that information is not sufficient. Rough buying is clearly more complex than traveling to mining areas with sufficient funds. Being able to judge parcels quickly in terms of quality and value—and having the confidence to invest in the material—requires years of experience. This is not a skill that can be learned in school. In this area, established companies like Wild & Petsch have an enormous advantage.

Figure 2. A non-cuprian green tourmaline from Mozambique, weighing 37.01 ct and measuring 22 × 17.5 mm. Photo by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of Wild & Petsch.
For Wild & Petsch, the most exciting material in the last five years has been Mozambican cuprian tourmaline (figure 1), which satisfies a market demand created by the original Paraíba tourmalines from Brazil. Another exciting find is green non-cuprian tourmaline from Mozambique (figure 2), with its fresh, minty colors and blue-green tones. Apart from tourmaline, the company works with a wide range of colored gemstones, including different beryls, fine tanzanite, and African garnets.
Wild acknowledged that regional trends strongly impact rough buying and finished goods sales, using the interest in bicolor tourmaline from Asia about 10 years ago as an example. Many dealers had those stones in stock for decades already, with prices established. Clients paid a premium for these tourmalines, and everyone was happy to sell their old stock for an additional profit; this also raised prices at the source. This unusual market behavior did not last, and prices quickly collapsed. As a result, many people are now sitting on very expensive rough material that does not conform to current market prices. Even though those trends impact the trade on different levels, Alexander Wild stands by the motto “Good taste is international.”
Responsible practices have become increasingly important in the gem trade, and Wild & Petsch is working on its own set of standards to provide to customers. Wild said that his larger clients have already requested such information. He noted, “This is a rocky road with many challenges and obstacles. We will have to take a realistic approach and acknowledge that there will be limits to what we can do and not everything is within reach. Unfortunately, you can’t control the world.” Wild does believe that everyone in the trade should see how they can apply responsible practices in sorting, cutting, manufacturing, and exporting. @topic:8


Publish Year: 2014 Title: Indian Ruby Mining Abstract: Figure 1. Top left: Rubies are mined in a mango orchard in Channapatna, India. Top right: This 15 kg rough ruby is from Subramaniam, in the Indian state of Karnataka. Photos by Pooja Shirole. Bottom left: This thin section of ruby is surrounded by an isotropic reaction rim. Bottom right: A corundum granulite showing ruby with blue and pink interference colors. Photomicrographs by Pooja Shirole; crossed polarizers, magnified 4×.

              The Karur-Kangayam and Hole-Narsipur belts, in the southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, respectively, are famous throughout the subcontinent for their gemstones, including sapphire, moonstone, iolite, aquamarine, garnet, sunstone and corundum. The city of Karur itself is well known for rubies. Ruby is also found in Subramaniam (also known as Red Hills), near Madikeri in Karnataka. Channapatna (figure 1, top left), roughly 280 km (117 miles) from Madikeri, is famous for its star rubies. In all of these locations, mining is performed using primitive methods.

Good-quality transparent rubies come from the Karur region, though color varies along this gemstone belt. The mines situated in Karur are located on barren land along the roadside; the nearby towns of Kangayam and Paramatti also have ruby mines.

Madikeri is a remote hill station covered by lush green forests, located in the Western Ghats of India. The ruby found here is lighter, translucent to transparent, and of good quality. A ruby-bearing granulite, commonly called ruby rock, is used for making artifacts such as wands and crystal balls.

In the town of Subramaniam, close to Madikeri, large hexagonal pillars of ruby are mined; deposits are also located in the nearby villages. The stones are mainly hexagonal but come in many sizes and shapes. They have a maroon color, and some show 16 mm dot inclusions of hematite. These rubies range from 20 to 100 mm across the pinacoidal face, with the length across the prism faces varying from 10 to 50 mm. Their weight ranged from 10 g to 2 kg, though specimens are as large as 15 kg, as in the top right image in figure 1.

In the Bangalore district of Karnataka, opaque maroon star ruby is found in the village of Channapatna and other nearby villages. It is extracted from red and yellow soils in mango and coconut orchards, rather than from traditional mines.

Granulite, the host rock of the Karur rubies, is somewhat similar to the host rock of Mozambique rubies (see Winter 2012 GNI, pp. 309–311). Both contain hornblende, biotite, and plagioclase. In certain areas such as Sengal and Kiranur, rubies are found in association with gem-quality iolite (cordierite). The ruby in Pamakondampalayam is found with a reaction rim of spinel, sapphirine, and cordierite (figure 1, bottom left), while the Madikeri rubies are associated with plagioclase, augite, garnet, sillimanite, and sphene in corundum granulites (figure 1, bottom right). Madikeri ruby also occurs in corundum-fuchsite-mica schists, which have a mineral assemblage of fuchsite mica, quartz, corundum, and rutile.

In summary, good-quality transparent ruby comes from host rocks in Karur; tabular hexagonal crystals ranging from transparent to translucent are mined from corundum granulites in Madikeri; and opaque star-ruby is found in the mango and coconut orchard soils of Channapantna. @topic:2


Publish Year: 2015 Title: Exceptional Red Spinels and Fine Aquamarine Abstract: Figure 1. Superb Tanzanian red spinel marquise of 61.29 ct. Photo courtesy of Henn Gems .

              At the GJX show, Axel Henn (Henn GmbH, Idar-Oberstein, Germany) showed a superbly colored 61.29 ct Tanzanian red spinel measuring 36.49 × 18.44 × 13.55 mm (figure 1), along with two pear-shaped gems cut from similar rough. Red spinels of this size, color, and quality are exceptionally rare. Indeed, stones of such deep, rich color larger than 50 ct are almost unheard of.

According to Henn, this gem was from a find of three exceptionally large spinel crystals (one larger than 50 kg) recovered from a dried riverbed in the mid-2000s. Henn heard of the discovery through a local Tanzanian contact. The crystals needed to be hammered and trimmed, but they still produced cuttable rough of significant size, including a suite of gems totaling 174.58 carats. In his opinion, the 61.29 ct marquise is the finest of the lot.

This is likely the same discovery as the widely reported 2007 recovery of four giant spinel crystals weighing 52, 28, 20, and 5.7 kg from a zone in the Ipanko ruby and spinel mining area known as the “Joel Box.” Reported as having a “vibrant orangy, pinkish red color,” the largest crystal was broken up for transportation away from the mining area. The outside portions of crystals had some superb cuttable material, but the cores were mostly lower quality. Although the eventual yield was said to be as low as 3%, the crystals had the potential to produce many thousands of carats of cut gems, including significant pieces of over 50 ct. The 61.29 ct marquise is likely part of this yield.

Henn also displayed a superb 450.08 ct rectangular (corners-on) step-cut aquamarine (figure 2). This gem possessed the coveted pure blue “Santa Maria” color, with no hint of green or yellow (this name refers to a mine near Santa Maria de Itabira in Minas Gerais, Brazil). The gem was of stunning clarity—this cutting style is very revealing of any imperfections—and was fashioned from rough recovered in 1927. Henn said he purchased the rough from an “old gemstone family,” and it had been “kept in the basement” for generations.

Figure 2. Among the many fine aquamarines at Axel Henn’s booth, the standout was this 450.08 ct square step-cut gem. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy of Henn Gems. @topic:2


Publish Year: 2009 Title: Aquamarine from the Masino-Bregaglia Massif, Central Alps, Italy Abstract: Aquamarine from granitic pegmatites of the Masino-Bregaglia Massif, Central Alps, Italy, is investigated by classical gemological methods, LA-ICP-MS chemical analyses, and UV-Vis-NIR and mid-IR spectroscopy. This beryl has typical gemological properties for aquamarine, including iron absorption features, and is characterized by a low alkali content and both types I and II water molecules. Although so far only a small amount of this aquamarine has been polished into gems, it represents an attractive gem material of potential economic interest. @topic:1


Publish Year: 2017 Title: Tektite with a Large Fluid Inclusion Abstract: Figure 1. A large tektite (230.9 g) from Luc Yen, Vietnam, surrounded by six tektite samples from the GIA reference collection. Photo by Wim Vertriest.

Tektites are a form of natural glass related to extraterrestrial impact. When a meteorite hits Earth’s surface, the impact site is subjected to tremendous heat and pressure. This causes the rocks to instantly melt and quickly cool, creating a glass with a bulk composition similar to that of the original host rock. Only the most volatile elements will be removed, because their gaseous phases escape easily. This is the case for fluids and gases such as water and carbon dioxide, as well as certain metals. This melting and cooling results in a silica-dominated glass called tektite that is often very dark green to black.

Tektites are common in many parts of the world. The most famous type is probably moldavite, related to an impact in southern Germany. The world’s largest tektite area is the Australasian field, which covers Australia (australites), southeast Asia (indochinites), and most of the Indian Ocean. It is related to a single impact 790,000 years ago, although the impact crater has not been identified.

The gem mines in northern Vietnam around Thac Ba Lake, which are famous for ruby and spinel, also yield tektite from secondary deposits. Local dealer Geir Atle Gussiås (BalderGems) procured a large tektite weighing 230.9 g (figure 1) with a very large fluid inclusion. The inclusion contained a mix of gas and liquid, which could be seen under strong illumination (figure 2; see video at http://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/tektite-inclusion). GIA’s Bangkok lab examined this unique piece by  comparing it to six tektite samples collected in the mines during several field expeditions to Vietnam.

Figure 2. A close-up view of the tektite sample using very strong backlighting reveals a curved black line, which is the liquid-gas contact. Photo by Wim Vertriest.
We examined the specimen and performed density measurements as well as chemical analysis to determine whether it was a real tektite. The surface features and overall shape of the large piece were very similar to the reference samples, although the reference samples were much smaller. The overall color was black, but when strong light was transmitted through the sample, a brown color was observed. The SG of the reference samples ranged from 2.01 to 2.42. This range can be explained by differences in chemical composition, mainly iron concentration, and the amount of gas bubbles in the matrix, which lowers the SG. The SG of the Vietnamese sample was 1.84, indicating an unusual abundance of fluid and/or gaseous inclusions in the sample. Because this tektite was too large to analyze using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), its chemical composition, along with those of the reference samples, was revealed with energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF). The large tektite had Fe, Sr, Rb, and Zr contents that are comparable to the other Vietnamese tektites.

We then imaged the internal structure using real-time X-ray microradiography (RTX), a technique commonly used in pearl analysis. Because the device has a small  detector, we could not view the whole tektite in one image. The maximum resolution of 4 μm should have been sufficient to pick up any artificial structures such as drill holes. The RTX images show the irregular outline of the tektite’s surface and a large bubble with a smooth outline (figure 3). Several smaller negative inclusions are also visible as dark ovals. When the sample was moved under the RTX, the liquid-gas inclusion was clearly seen because of the motion of the liquid.

Figure 3. This RTX image shows the tektite’s irregular outline on the right side. The
very large negative inclusion has a smooth outline. Several other smaller negative
pockets can also be seen.
Since we did not find a drill hole or any signs of manmade glass, we assume that the liquid in the negative inclusion is a natural phenomenon. Since glass is not porous, it seems most likely that the liquid was included during the tektite's formation. Although this could not be proven, this tektite remains a unique specimen. @topic:1


Publish Year: 2016 Title: Dyed Green Beryl Abstract: Figure 1. A green dye concentration in beryl was observed along fractures and confirmed by spectroscopic testing. Photo by HyeJin Jang-Green.

Emerald simulants and synthetic emeralds have often been submitted for testing to GIA (e.g., Spring 2001 Lab Notes, pp. 57–59). Recently, the New York laboratory examined a dyed green beryl that was intended to imitate natural emerald. The green octagonal step-cut stone, set in a yellow metal ring with near-colorless stones, initially appeared to be emerald.

The stone had a refractive index of 1.588–1.595 and fluoresced a very weak chalky yellow under long-wave UV radiation and a weak chalky yellow under short-wave UV. Microscopic examination revealed the obvious presence of a green dye concentration in numerous fractures (figure 1) and other natural beryl inclusions such as short needles, particles, and jagged fingerprint patterns. This dyed green material also enhanced the clarity of the stone.

In addition, dyed bands (~610 and 660 nm) were revealed in the visible spectrum by utilizing a high-resolution visible spectrometer (figure 2). The green color in this sample was caused by an organic dye rather than chromium or vanadium elements that give rise to a green color in natural emeralds. When the color was observed under a diffused light source, it became apparent that a near-colorless natural beryl was the starting material. This example shows the importance of spectroscopic testing to confirm the cause of an emerald’s color.

Figure 2. In the beryl’s Vis-NIR absorption spectrum, dye bands were observed at ~610
and 660 nm, while sharp Cr-related features were absent. @topic:3


Publish Year: 2013 Title: Study Helps Identify Nepalese Kyanite Abstract: Blue kyanite has long been used as a sapphire imitation. At a glance, bright blue kyanite from Nepal might be mistaken for sapphire, but they are easily identified by their different inclusions and optical values.

	An article by Ulrich Henn and Klaus Schollenbruch titled “Saphirblauer Disthen (Kyanite) aus Nepal [Sapphire-blue kyanite from Nepal]," published in Gemmologie: Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft (Vol. 61, No. 3, 2012, pp. 91–98), describes the properties of kyanites from two occurrences discovered in 1995 in Nepal and compares them with gems from other deposits. Nepalese kyanite has been produced since 1999 in small-scale mining operations near Daha and Suneri and near Jajarkot and Barah, all west-northwest of Katmandu. Along with material for cabochons and beads, greater quantities of calibrated and larger faceted stones have appeared in the market in recent years. Only a very small percentage of the material is facetable.

	The bulk of the article presents the findings of the author's investigation of kyanites from Nepal. While the nx and nz values of the refractive index lie within the range of kyanites from other sources, the ny value is distinctly lower. These are in accordance with a biaxial positive optical character, whereas kyanite is normally described as biaxial negative. The specific gravity of 3.65 to 3.68 g/cm3 is also equivalent to that of stones from other occurrences.

	The chemical composition, determined by EDAX, showed trace contents of iron, vanadium and titanium in concentrations similar to those in stones from other sources. The blue color is due to the iron and titanium contents, while the vanadium does not seem to influence the color. Traces of chromium appear to be responsible for the fluorescence of some stones. The authors also discuss the absorption spectra and the mechanisms that lead to different colors as well as color change and fluorescence.

	Microscopic inspection reveals the whole spectrum of phenomena and inclusions that are also found in kyanites from other sources: large cleavage fractures, growth tubes, liquid inclusions and black crystals. With oblique illumination, all of these inclusions can produce iridescence. Additionally, many kyanites show strong color zoning.

	While the introduction of the article is just a summary of general information familiar to every gemologist, the results of the investigation are a welcome addition. With the different optical characters and ny values, it is even possible to separate Nepalese kyanites from those of other sources. @topic:2


Publish Year: 2015 Title: Green Nephrite Jade Attracts Buyers in Tucson Abstract: Figure 1. For the first time in the history of the Olympics, the medals from the 2008 Beijing Games were mounted with gemstones. The nephrite jade bi, or flat rings, used in the medals were all from China’s Qinghai province. The gold medal was mounted with white nephrite, the color favored by the Chinese, while the silver and the bronze used greenish white and green nephrite, respectively. Courtesy of China Gems Magazine.

The Jade West Group, a leading nephrite jade company in North America for the past 30 years, drew many buyers at their 2015 GJX booth. Prized in Chinese culture for over 5,000 years, nephrite regained its momentum in the domestic Chinese market after the 2008 Beijing Olympics, when it was used in the gold, silver, and bronze medals (figure 1). The Chinese government launched a campaign promoting the significance of nephrite jade in the country’s history. This reignited the love of nephrite among the Chinese people, and the increasing demand and price drove a new surge of jade rush in northern British Columbia (BC).

A tectonic belt running from Alaska through British Columbia to Mexico favored the formation of nephrite. Tectonic and lithological contacts are the predominant ore body controls. BC has more than 50 known nephrite deposits, distributed mainly along tectonic inclusions of country rocks, dikes, and mafic rock layers within serpentinites, or along the contact between serpentinite and the wall rocks. This formation is very similar to other green nephrite occurrences all over the world. Nephrite is found both in situ and as boulders; the Polar Pride boulder, found in BC’s Polar mine, is a well-known example of the latter (figure 2).

Figure 2. Half of the Polar Pride jade boulder discovered in the Polar jade mine. The original boulder weighed 18 tons. Courtesy of Jade West Group.
Nephrite boulders are the products of erosion from the last ice age. They are usually drilled or sawed to test the quality, and only the good-quality material is transported for sale. While some of today’s nephrite is from boulders, primary deposits supply the bulk of BC’s production. This is partially due to the lack of high-quality boulders; however, the growing demand and price for nephrite also make it profitable to mine the primary deposits.

According to Kirk Makepeace, president of Jade West Group, the price of jewelry-grade jade from BC (figure 3) experienced at least a tenfold increase from a decade ago. Before 2008, top-quality nephrite from BC sold for about $20 a kilo; equivalent stones now range from $200 to $2,000 a kilo.

Figure 3. This strand of 41 nephrite beads is comprised of material from British Columbia’s Polar Mine. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Jade West Group.
The annual production of BC nephrite jade is about 400 tons. Most of the production comes from four active mines; together, they produce about three-quarters of the world’s high-quality green nephrite. Of these four, Jade West operates the Polar, Ogden, and Kutcho Jade mines. Jade West also deals with material from Wyoming and Siberia. Over the last 10 years, approximately 90% of the company’s BC production was exported to mainland China; the remaining 10% was sent to Taiwan, Vietnam, and Thailand.

Figure 4. This Canadian Jade Fish Hook pendant features a piece of nephrite from the
Kutcho Mine. This is one of the styles Jade West has customized for the North American
market. Photo by Robert Weldon, courtesy of Jade West Group.
Jade West sends almost all of its rough nephrite to Guangdong for carving and jewelry manufacturing, with designs customized for different markets (figure 4). In addition to traditional carvings and jewelry, there is demand from Southeast Asian countries for giant Buddha statues and from Western countries for home decorations. This demand leads Mr. Makepeace to be very optimistic about the future availability of BC nephrite. @topic:9


Publish Year: - Title: GIA Lab Reports on a New Cobalt Diffusion Treatment of Natural Spinel Abstract: This faceted cobalt-diffused spinel (left) and polished plate from another sample (right) reveal the penetration of blue color produced by the treatment.

                      Natural spinels colored by cobalt (Co) are prized for their vibrant blue hue. They’re currently in high demand with collectors and gem connoisseurs.

In May 2015, GIA laboratories in New York, Carlsbad, and Bangkok received unusual-looking, strongly colored blue spinels for identification. Other labs, including one in Sri Lanka, reported similar examples, which were determined to have undergone diffusion treatment with cobalt.

Subsequently, the Bangkok-based treater responsible for these cobalt-diffused gems provided GIA with 18 samples ranging from 0.35 to 4.99 ct for this study. He revealed some details of his treatment process, which uses “off-color” natural spinel as a starting material and reportedly involves the use of high-temperature heating with both iron (Fe) and cobalt.

GIA gemologists examined the samples using conventional microscopy, ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectroscopy, and analyzed their chemistry using both EDXRF (energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence) and LA-ICP-MS (laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry). Photoluminescence (PL) spectra were also collected.

Magnification revealed features such as healed fractures and altered inclusions that indicated the stones had been exposed to high-temperature heating. The authors report that in some cases it might be challenging to determine whether the starting material is natural or synthetic, due to the highly altered nature of the inclusions. In these cases, PL spectra can help, as synthetic spinel shows distinctly broader Co-related peaks than natural spinel with this technique.

Unlike diffusion-treated corundum, most of these spinels did not show color zoning conforming to the outline of the finished gem (surface-conformal color zoning). However, when some examples were cut into sections (wafers) for LA-ICP-MS analysis, the blue color was clearly confined to the stone’s edge or rim. Additionally, the stones appeared strong red through the Chelsea color filter, as did the treated outer layers of the wafers.

UV-VIS-NIR spectroscopy revealed features characteristic of both Fe and Co, and trace-element analysis confirmed significant concentrations of both elements. Spot testing of one sample with LA-ICP-MS determined that the concentration of Co was much higher in the treated rim (466 ppma) than at the stone’s center (9 ppma). Fe concentration also appeared more elevated at the rim (up to 1070 ppma) than at the center (670–786 ppma). @topic:3


Publish Year: - Title: Seeking the Legacy of Australian Sapphire Abstract: Terry Coldham (left) and Jack Wilson (right) each have more than 50 years of experience in Australian sapphire mining and trading. They shared their in-depth understanding of the Australian sapphire industry with the GIA team. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

		The moment I held that stone up to the sun and saw a deep vibrant royal blue color throughout the sapphire…I knew I was hooked.

		—Peter Brown, Sapphire Miner and Mine-to-Market Entrepreneur

Some of these sapphire crystals still have host rock attached, which is fairly rare in Australia. Photo by Vincent Pardieu/GIA.

	INTRODUCTION

	Sapphire was discovered in Australia during the 1850s gold rushes and 1870s tin mining. One of the earliest written records is from 1851, when sapphire was found in New South Wales. Though the long history of sapphire mining and commercial production spans at least the past half century, Australian sapphire has not received the recognition it warrants from either the global gem and jewelry industry or the consumer market. The top-quality Australian stones were sold as being from other sources, such as “Pailin” from Cambodia. Australia’s sizable commercial-quality sapphire production and its contribution to the rest of the world, especially the current corundum trading center of Thailand, are under-recognized. The trade between the Aussies and the Thais led to the global sapphire industry’s current dynamics.

	Australia’s Sapphire Legacy

	Australia’s sapphire industry has spurred expertise, innovation, and equipment for colored stone mining throughout the world. Along with having been a major supplier of sapphire for the global market, the legacy of Australia’s contributions to the industry worldwide continues today.

	To enrich GIA’s global corundum research and learn the full story of the Australian sapphire industry, the Institute sent a group of field gemologists to explore the most important sapphire gem fields in eastern Australia. The group was led by GIA senior field gemology manager Vincent Pardieu and composed of field gemologist Andrew Lucas, Gems & Gemology technical editor Tao Hsu, assistant field gemologist Victoria Raynaud, and field cameramen Didier Gruel and Didier Barriere Doleac. The Institute’s field gemologists have covered all important sapphire fields in Australia—earlier this year another team led by Vincent Pardieu visited Tasmania’s sapphire fields (http://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/searching-sapphire-tasmanian-wilderness).

GIA field gemologists Andrew Lucas (left) and Vincent Pardieu (right) and Gems & Gemology technical editor Tao Hsu (middle) visited an underground sapphire mine in Rubyvale, Queensland. Photo by Victoria Raynaud/GIA.

AUSTRALIAN SAPPHIRE GEM FIELDS

	Of the areas on Australia’s east coast that have reported sapphire deposits throughout history, three regions are widely known as the main sapphire mining districts. From south to north, they are the Inverell–Glen Innes region on the New England Plateau in New South Wales, the Rubyvale-Anakie district in Queensland, and Lava Plains in northern Queensland. All Australian sapphire deposits are alkali basalt–related. Stones are recovered from both secondary deposits along current or previous watercourses and primary or reworked pyroclastic flows or volcanic mudflows (lahars). Taking off from Sydney, the GIA team visited Inverell, Rubyvale, and Lava Plains. Sapphire samples were collected at all three locations.

	On Australia’s east coast are three well-known sapphire mining fields, all closely related
	to Cenozoic basalts. From south to north, they are the Inverell field, the Anakie field, and
	the Lava Plains field.

	The Inverell–Glen Innes region is one of the world’s main suppliers of sapphires. The sapphire deposits are found in both the volcaniclastic rocks and their reworked alluvial placers but not in the lava flows. Due to weathering and vegetation cover, basaltic lava flows can barely be seen as ridges or terraces of different levels. The original volcanic edifice is not visible. Sapphire was reported in northern New South Wales for the first time in 1854, but the first commercial mining began in 1919. The 1960s and 1970s saw the heyday of mechanized sapphire mining in this area due to high demand from Thai buyers (leading to a price increase) and the introduction of new mining techniques.

The sapphire deposits in Kings Plains, New South Wales, are about 45 kilometers northeast of Inverell. Photo by Vincent Pardieu/GIA.

	At the Kings Plains deposits, our team visited a mine under the operation of Wilson Gems & Investment, about 45 kilometers northeast of the town of Inverell. The Wilson family is among the first miners who began working on the deposits in the sixties. The Kings Plains deposits are considered some of the richest sapphire deposits ever mined. According to owner Jack Wilson, there could be more than one sapphire-bearing layer, which might reflect multiple volcanic eruptions. During our visit we saw the miners extracting the clay-like sapphire-bearing layer below the topsoil. The washed material would eventually be handpicked to separate the rough sapphire crystals for further sorting. The majority of the production is cut in Thailand and exported to Russia.

An excavator works on an open pit in the Kings Plains deposits. The grayish layer being scooped up contains sapphire. Photo by Vincent Pardieu/GIA.

	During our visit to Inverell, we had the opportunity to see the Billabong Blue sapphire mine. In contrast to the Kings Plains open-pit operation, this mine is an alluvial deposit along old stream channels. The sapphire-bearing gravel layer is quite shallow on the currently exposed profile. Although there was no active mining when we were there, our team was able to find some stones in leftover washed gravel from the jig from the last production day.

Team members search for sapphire samples from the jig at the Billabong Blue mine. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

View Gallery

	Inverell Fields Gallery

	After crossing the state border into Queensland, we visited a second sapphire field: the Rubyvale-Anakie area in central Queensland. Government surveyor Archibald John Richardson discovered the first sapphire in the region while surveying the railway in 1875. Soon he quit his job and moved to Anakie, filed a claim, and started digging for sapphire. Based on the numerous well-preserved basaltic plugs in this area, many people believe that the basaltic volcanism brought the sapphire to the surface, just as in the other sapphire fields.

	With over a hundred years of sapphire mining history, the locals in the Rubyvale-Anakie
	region are very proud of their sapphire culture. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	Sapphire is recovered mainly from current and previous river channels in this region, and no one is reported to be working a primary deposit yet. The sapphire-bearing sediments are above the granitic basement rocks, show large variation in thickness, and reflect a very high-energy local sedimentary environment.

View Gallery

	Anakie Fields (Open Pit) Gallery

	The sapphire mining boom that began in the early 1970s with the introduction of mechanized operations faded later that decade. Since then tourism and fossicking (hobbyist mining) have grown considerably. Today a good number of mechanized miners and hand tool miners still work on the field, generating a commercially viable amount of stones every year.

View Gallery

	Anakie Fields (underground) Gallery

	The team was hosted by local sapphire miner Peter Brown, who is also an experienced sapphire cutter. Peter’s small-scale operation is very efficient and can even be handled by one person. The team also visited a large-scale machinery operation in Rubyvale, the Capricorn open-pit operation run by Richland, and a small-scale underground mine in Willows Gemfields west of Anakie.

	Fossicking refers to tourists who work the sapphire fields with simple but very effective
	hand-mining tools. Their screening and washing methods require little water and could be
	adopted in artisanal mining areas around the world. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	After a short break in Brisbane, the group flew to Cairns, a city in the far north of Queensland. There we met our local contact, Michael McCann, president of the Mt Rosey Mining Company, who would guide us to visit the Lava Plains sapphire field. The Mt Rosey mine is about 250 kilometers southwest of Cairns, right outside the southern border of Undara Volcanic National Park. Compared to the other two field areas, the volcanic landforms in the Lava Plains field are much easier to see because they represent the most recent volcanic activities on this continent. The sapphire-associated McBride Basalt has an age range of 8–0.1 Ma. Cinder cones, craters, partially collapsed crater walls, and lava flows can all be easily mapped. Sapphires are found in placers and sediment accumulations along linear depressions either within the lava flow surfaces or associated with fissures or faults.

View Gallery

	Lava Plains Gallery

	The Mt Rosey mine camp is at a historical mining operation called the Thai Sapphire Mine. Old mining facilities and multiple human-built water dams are still at the site. Since there is no available written record of this mine, the reason the Thai miners left is unknown. We also visited another historical mining site named The Scot’s Mine. Based on the discarded mining and processing machines, the mine was likely quite large. There is no available record of this mine either.

	THE STONES

	Australian sapphires are associated with volcanic activity and are often referred to as basalt hosted. The sapphire deposits in Thailand, Cambodia, China, Vietnam, and Nigeria are also basalt hosted. The iron content of these types of deposits is usually higher than that of sapphires that form in marble, like in Myanmar, so the blue color is often darker. There is also often a stronger green pleochroic color element.

Victoria Raynaud shows the strong pleochroism of a large rough sapphire from the Kings Plains deposits. Both the blue and green are quite strong at this angle. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	While known for its large production of darker blue basalt-hosted sapphires, Australia can
	also produce bright blue material. Photo by © GIA and Tino Hammid.

Other than blue, sapphires are found in all different colors in Australia. This is a collection of Peter Brown, who mined all these sapphires from his central Queensland mine. They are all natural. There are two parti-colored sapphire in this suite, They are very characteristic of Australian stones. Courtesy of Rubyvale Gem Gallery.

	This dark blue material makes up the vast majority of Australian sapphires, with some almost black. However, some brighter blues can also be found, as well as yellows, greens, and parti-colored stones that show a combination of colors, like green and yellow or blue and yellow. The parti-colored stones are highly prized by the miners and often given to their wives, while foreign wholesale buyers are not as interested. Pink sapphires are rare and orange sapphires extremely rare. Australia is also known to produce black star sapphires and rare green star, yellow star, and blue star sapphires.

View Gallery

	Australian Sapphires Gallery

	THE PEOPLE

	Our team was privileged to interact with members of the Australian sapphire industry who had decades of experience and had seen the market go through many changes. Our expedition guide, Terry Coldham, with 50 years of experience in mining, cutting, marketing, and wholesale, is one of the leading authorities in the industry and has also been extensively involved in the global sapphire industry.

With 50 years of experience in the industry, Terry Coldham was able to put not only the Australian industry but also the global industry into perspective for us. Photo by Vincent Pardieu/GIA.

	Some of the miners we met had seen the dramatic changes as the industry moved from small-scale to larger operations during the boom years of 1967 to 1979, and now to fewer mining operations with often more vertically integrated small-scale business models. To be competitive all the operations had to be extremely efficient and innovative.

	Peter Brown arrived in the Rubyvale, Queensland, sapphire gem fields in 1974, driving an old VW Beetle, and set up camp. He grew his own vegetables and shot wild game for meat. Contemporaries remember him as a penniless hippie.

Peter Brown was an extremely innovative sapphire miner who thought outside the box. He demonstrated how diggers designed for opal mining could be used in an underground sapphire mine. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	Since then Peter and his wife, Eileen, and sons have owned and operated successful sapphire mining operations. The family cuts a percentage of its own stones, manufactures jewelry, and owns a retail store called Rubyvale Gem Gallery. They also converted a miner’s cottage into an inn for tourists and started a restaurant adjacent to their store. The Brown family operates a complete mine-to-market enterprise.

	Peter Brown’s wife, Eileen, proudly holds a trophy awarded to Rubyvale Gem Gallery by
	the Queensland Tourism Industry Council. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	Jack Wilson has also seen the changes over the years and currently operates an open-pit mining operation with his son. His father started mining sapphire in the New South Wales fields in 1964. Jack now mines and runs the business with his wife and two sons and a small crew at Kings Plains. He adapted a magnetic separator to separate the magnetic ore from the sapphire for greater efficiency in processing. Australian sapphire miners have learned to be very efficient, to do more with less so they can be competitive globally.

	With satisfaction Jack Wilson holds a box of sapphire rough from his mine. Photo by
	Vincent Pardieu/GIA.

	Jack Wilson has found that to be competitive globally, he must cut the stones in a factory in Thailand and sell the finished stones as opposed to selling only rough on the wholesale market. He and his family also operate a retail store in Inverell, where they sell finished sapphires and jewelry to tourists.

Mr. and Mrs. Wilson make a mine-to-market team, with Mrs. Wilson designing jewelry for some of the sapphire they mine. Photo by Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	We interacted with sapphire miners including Daryl Mosly, who runs a very efficient mechanized open-pit mine; small-scale miners working underground with jackhammers; a new large-scale open-pit modern operation called the Capricorn mine (due to its proximity to the Tropic of Capricorn) operated by Richland, the former mining company at TanzaniteOne; and another new operation at the Lava Plains fields, managed by Michael McCann. All in all we met a fascinating mixture of innovative and efficient independent miners, small-scale miners and hobbyists called fossickers, and new larger-scale operations.

View Gallery

	Australian Sapphire Miners Gallery

	AUSTRALIA’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE GLOBAL SAPPHIRE INDUSTRY

	Over the decades Australia has made major contributions to the global sapphire and colored gemstone industries. In the late 1950s to early 1960s, Australian sapphire miners converted jigs used by tin miners near Inverell for use in sapphire mining. As time went by, simple sluices used for sapphire recovery now incorporated pulsating jigs and trommels in a more sophisticated system. Sapphire miners also discovered that spinel and some of the iron oxide materials could be separated using a magnetic separator, greatly reducing the amount of material that had to be handpicked. Variations of these jigs are used in many colored gemstone mining areas, including Southeast Asia and Africa.

The innovation and ingenuity of sapphire mining and processing expanded from Australia to Southeast Asia and on to Africa for colored gemstones. The mining and processing of colored gemstones around the world would not be where it is today if not for the Australian miners. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	The connection between Australia and Thailand has helped shaped the modern sapphire market. The demand from Thailand led to the boom years of production from 1967 to 1979. This fueled more mining operations and larger mechanized operations. In turn the influx of large quantities of Australian sapphire greatly helped to expand the Thai sapphire cutting, treatment, and trading market, helping to push Thailand to the forefront of the global sapphire industry. A leading factor was Thai dealers implementing heat treatment to clarify the Australian stones—previously unusable sapphires from Australia could then be faceted and sold in jewelry around the world in large quantities. The rough from Australia was used to cut large quantities of calibrated blue sapphire to supply mass jewelry manufacturers and then large retailers.

We saw evidence of the past huge production of Australian sapphires as well as potential for future production. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

Beginning in the 1960s, Thai sapphire buyers came to Australia to purchase raw material for processing in cutting and treatment centers in Bangkok and Chantaburi. Photo by Terry Coldham.

	This not only provided the fuel and capital to expand the Thai industry but also influenced consumers around the world to see dark blue sapphires from Australia as the norm. Later other volcanic-associated sapphires from Thailand, China, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Nigeria would come to consumers. Thailand would become the center for cutting and treating sapphires from all sources, including the geuda sapphires from Sri Lanka in the late 1970s, when they treated the translucent grayish material to create a very attractive blue color.

	Peter Brown and his son represent years of experience and the passion of Australian
	sapphire miners. Photo by Vincent Pardieu/GIA.

	In the last few years, demand has increased, but it is still not nearly as high as in the boom years. Thai buyers are coming to the Australian sapphire fields again, looking for larger dark blue-black stones they did not want before. Beryllium treatment can give these stones an attractive golden color. A newer treatment has helped to create a demand again. @topic:2


Publish Year: - Title: Alumni Members Across the Globe Offer Guidance, Support Abstract: Chapter leaders from the Monterrey-Mexico chapter, from left, Perla Solis, treasurer, Daniela Califa, vice president, and  Melissa Villarreal, president and founder. The chapter hosted a Gema-Cinema event, featuring a documentary on jewelry brands, in March. Photo courtesy of the Monterrey, Mexico Chapter

	The actions of GIA alumni benefit countless others around the world. Each is a wonderful example of our alumni network and its members providing advice and guidance so others can progress in their careers and enhance their gem and jewelry knowledge.

	I see the value and scope of our alumni relationships in my daily work with members and chapters and also first-hand at the trade fairs I attend. I was fortunate to have the opportunity to connect with fellow alumni at the following shows so far this year:

Tucson Gem and Mineral Show: Tucson is a very important show for GIA and our alumni. The annual alumni dinner dance and reunion "Party at the GIA Gem Mine" is a favorite venue to reconnect and have fun together and an Alumni Chapter Leadership Forum meets to share ideas and issues that will benefit chapters. See more information on this year’s Party at the GIA Gem Mine – and images of alumni members celebrating together.

Baselworld: Glamour abounds at this fair, attracting global brands, suppliers and attendees to Basel, Switzerland. I was able to meet with alumni chapter representatives from Germany, Mumbai, Portugal and Switzerland!

AGS Conclave: This annual event hosted by the American Gem Society (AGS) brings together a vast array of its members (most are GIA alumni) from across the U.S. and Canada for a multi-day education conference. As in past years, many of our chapter leaders were in attendance.

	It’s exciting to see lifetime friends reconnect in person or new friendships form at these trade shows. Members offer mentorship and share knowledge and business relationships are established. It’s a constant reminder of how many individuals can trace their connections and colleagues to fellow GIA graduates.

	The GIA Alumni Association and its network offer a variety of opportunities and services for its members − all you have to do is be an active participant to benefit. GIA has participated in more than 25 trade fairs since the start of the year, reaching our industry constituents and alumni in Africa, Asia, Europe, Middle East and North America. If you aren’t a member already, stop by one of our booths to find out how to get involved.

	Stay connected. Stay informed.

	Taiwan chapter guest welcomes attendees to a year-end event. Photo courtesy of the Taiwan chapter

	Chapter Activities:

	A particularly beneficial way to build industry relationships is through GIA alumni chapter meetings and activities worldwide. Chapters have been busy hosting more than 50 education and networking events for their members since January.

		A meet-up at the Inhorgenta Fair in Munich was coordinated by Germany and attended by local and visiting alums.

		Film screenings related to the gem and jewelry industry were presented in Northeast and South Florida, Washington D.C. and Monterrey –  Mexico.

		Auctions, antique and ancient jewelry was the focus of talks in  North Carolina ,  Seattle  and Washington D.C.

		Year-end chapter celebrations were held in   Cincinnati  ,  Hong Kong  and Taiwan.

		Member socials were hosted by Metro-Phoenix, Ontario – Canada, Switzerland and by Texas’s Lone Star and  Houston clubs.

		Post-Tucson market reviews and show-and-tells were held in  Houston ,  North Carolina  and Washington D.C.

		Lapidary skills were shared by award-winning gemstone cutter and mineral trader Brett Kostnar, with guests of Colorado’s Mile High chapter.

		Mediterranean coral talks were presented by Andres Neves Bento, president of Spain’s chapter to the  Monterrey – Mexico  and Portugal chapters.

		Jewelry design, art jewelry and watch talks were held in   San Diego  ,  Manhattan  and Metro-Phoenix.

		CAD/CAM design and 3-D printing, gemological instrumentation and application were subjects of meetings for  Monterrey – Mexico  and Ontario – Canada.

		Hands-on study sessions and labs were held in  Manhattan  and Twin Cities – Minnesota.

		A museum tour featuring a Cartier exhibit and field trip to Macau’s jewelry pawn district were held for the  Switzerland  and Hong Kong members, respectively.

		Colored gemstone and subject matter experts are always eager to share their knowledge at chapter meetings. Jeff Mason, of Mason Kay, Inc. spoke on jade and the state of the marketplace at a   New England   chapter; Bruce Bridges, of Tsavorite USA, Inc., shared his lifetime experience of Tsavorite mining in Kenya at the  Golden Gate  chapter; and author Renee Newman presented exotic gems in St. Louis.

		Identification of synthetic gemstones and diamonds were presented by Antoinette Matlins and Danny Baruch to the  Golden Gate  and Manhattan chapters.

		GIA representatives including Andy Lucas, Shane McClure, Dr. James Shigley and Dr. Tao Hsu shared their expertise and provided updates in   Atlanta  ,  London , Hong Kong, San Di ego a nd  Los Angeles.

		New chapters were launched in   Vermont  ,  Portugal  and Tucson.

		New chapter leadership was elected in   Hong Kong  ,  London , Malaysia and Wash ington D.C.

 The North Carolina chapter held a post-Tucson market reviews and show-and-tell in March. Photo courtesy of the North Carolina chapter

 Looking Ahead

GIA Alumni Japan will celebrate its 25th anniversary on May 22 in Tokyo with a reception and presentation from GIA.

 JCK Las Vegas : Don’t miss GIA’s in-booth briefings, museum experience, hands-on seminars and alumni cabana at JCK Rocks the Beach. Learn more about GIA’s schedule of social and educational activities.

The Malaysia chapter invites all alumni to attend its second annual international conference in Sri Lanka in August. The chapter plans to coordinate education opportunities, visit gem markets and attend the 2016 Facets Jewelry Show. For further details please contact the chapter.

	The GIA Alumni Association offers students, graduates and members of the trade boundless opportunities to grow their knowledge, relationships and industry networking. I encourage all of you to consider getting more involved. @topic:6


Publish Year: - Title: GIA Field Gemologist Documents Madagascar Ruby Rush Abstract: Madagascar Ruby Rush

	Join GIA’s recent field expedition to the ruby rush in Madagascar’s Zahamena National Park.

	The landscapes and people of Madagascar spring vividly to life in this video from GIA’s field gemology department. We invite you to trek through the Malagasy jungle with GIA field gemologist Vincent Pardieu on a quest for ruby. Pardieu’s companions on this arduous two-week trip include cameraman Didier Gruel and gemologist Manuel Diaz. “We’ve been traveling for approximately 98 hours,” says Diaz in the video. “In that 98 hours, we’ve covered not less than 50 kilometers.”

	It’s late September 2015, and Pardieu is in this area in because a ruby “rush” is taking place in the northeast of the island. There’s news of miners converging on a remote area in Zahamena National Park in search of the lucrative red gem. “It’s about 100 kilometers of mountains covered with jungle, in which you have ruby deposits and sapphire deposits everywhere,” remarks Pardieu.

	These new rubies are reportedly similar to ones collected during an earlier rush in Moramanga in 2005, but this time they’re of higher quality overall. While the specimens from the earlier find were mainly candidates for glass filling, most of these newer rubies have no need of that treatment.

	The expedition starts in Antananarivo, Madagascar’s capital and largest city, followed by a drive to the bustling town of Andilamena, where the group stops to buy provisions. It’s more than five hours (382 km) northeast by road from Antananarivo. Here they see evidence that Sri Lankan buyers are becoming more prominent in the Malagasy ruby business. The group visits some dealers and sees rubies from this latest find. “It’s good material,” Pardieu says.

	From there, by way of numerous villages and small settlements, they travel to the site of the new ruby rush. The main mining site, where the current activities started about three months ago, is to the south and east of Andilamena within Zahamena National Park. On the approach to the national park, the going becomes tougher, with the group leaving their vehicles and trekking by foot into the area. “Sometimes you have to do field gemology with the feet,” explains Pardieu with a wry smile.

	As they travel deeper into the national park, the rugged, hilly country and the muddy trails prove challenging. The group has to ford rivers, scale numerous muddy slopes, and transit though many villages where they meet hardworking, hopeful Malagasy people drawn to take their chances digging for precious stones in the absence of other economic opportunities.

	Finally they reach the main mining site, a scene of concentrated activity and bare, exposed earth, where diggers and washers work alongside their makeshift camps.

	“These miners here are motivated,” adds Diaz, looking at the pits the miners have driven into the jungle floor with hand tools and hard labor. The team follows a stream bed in the mining area upslope.

	“If we go up, we’ll be able to find people with bigger stones,” explains Pardieu. As you’ll see in the video, they do find miners with larger rough gems. “For sure, we are the first lab to visit this area,” says Pardieu. “I think we’ll have to do that again next year.” @topic:9


Publish Year: 2024 Title: Update on Inclusion Scenes in Mozambican Rubies Abstract: Figure 1. Colorless crystals with high relief (left) in a ruby mined near Caraia in the Montepuez region. Placing the ruby between crossed polarizers (right) revealed a stress halo caused by low-dose radiation emitted by the zircon inclusion. Photomicrographs by Wim Vertriest; field of view 3.6 mm.
In August 2022, a team of GIA gemologists visited the ruby mines near Montepuez in the Cabo Delgado province of northern Mozambique (Fall 2022 GNI, pp. 383–386). This included a visit to the deposits farther west in the region, near the village of Caraia. This mining area is north of the N14 road, while most of the previously known productive ruby deposits are southeast of this highway.
Ruby mining near Caraia has been ongoing for more than a decade but was mostly limited to artisanal mining activity until 2017. In the last few years, the ruby deposits have been developed on a larger scale by Fura Gems. The first official sale of this material took place in late 2021, and regular auctions have been organized since then (Fall 2021 GNI, pp. 276–277).
During GIA’s visit in August 2022, gemologists collected a large suite of rough rubies directly from the wash plant and sort house at the mine site. The samples ranged from 0.1 to 1.2 g and were transparent and fracture-free. The vast majority contained some crystal inclusions, and an extensive inclusion study of this material matched well with the known data from Mozambican ruby, with one exception. The most common inclusions are bands of fine silk, short needles, and particles, including reflective platelets. Mozambican rubies typically show three distinctive types of solid crystals: transparent greenish amphibole crystals with a stubby to elongated shape; pseudohexagonal frosty mica crystals with small expansion fractures; and black opaque sulfide crystals with a metallic luster. All of these features were prevalent in the rubies mined near Caraia.
However, one observation stood out: In 8 of the 85 studied samples, zircon crystal inclusions were found. While zircon crystals are also transparent, their relief is higher than that of the more common amphibole crystals. They also tend to be smaller and are rarely elongated in rubies. The most efficient way to identify them is by viewing the stones between crossed polarizers, which highlights the obvious stress halos around the slightly radioactive zircon crystals (figure 1). In all of GIA’s samples, the identification was also confirmed by confocal Raman spectroscopy.
To our knowledge, zircon crystals have not been previously documented in rubies from Mozambique. They are, however, a hallmark for rubies from Madagascar (A.C. Palke et al., “Geographic origin determination of ruby,” Winter 2019 G&G, pp. 580–613). The presence of zircon crystal inclusions is often a decisive discriminator in the origin determination of rubies. The inclusion scenes of high-quality Mozambican and Malagasy rubies can look very similar, but only the latter were known to have abundant zircon inclusions. This is no longer true now that zircon inclusions have also been identified in rubies from Mozambique.
Trace element analysis can often assist in separating rubies from East African sources. But even there, some overlap occurs between Mozambique and Madagascar, especially for stones with higher iron concentrations. All the Mozambican rubies with zircon inclusions showed a trace element signature that matched completely with other Mozambican rubies when analyzed with both energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence and laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry. Fortunately, the rubies from Caraia tend to have a low iron concentration, reducing the likelihood that their trace chemistry composition will match with Malagasy rubies, which tend to have higher iron concentrations.

Figure 2. This chart shows the FWHM vs. the peak position of the most important peak (1015 cm–1) in the Raman spectrum of zircon inclusions in Mozambican and Malagasy rubies.
Raman spectra of the zircons in rubies from Mozambique (15 inclusions in 6 different stones) and Madagascar (27 inclusions in 13 different stones) showed that the main peak (1015 cm–1) in Mozambican zircon inclusions tends to have lower full width at half maximum (FWHM), but there is no clear separation between the two populations based on the Raman spectra of the zircon inclusions (figure 2).
The discovery of zircon inclusions in Mozambican rubies has a potentially major impact on the origin determination criteria used for the two most common sources of East African ruby. These new discoveries also highlight two important aspects of origin determination research: the critical need to keep collecting samples from known deposits to identify new features in current production, and the power of the microscope as an identification tool in a gemological laboratory. @topic:9


Publish Year: 2019 Title: New Find of Deep Blue Aquamarine from Nasarawa State in Nigeria Abstract: Figure 1. Nigerian aquamarine from a new find in Nasarawa State. The faceted stones range from 1.55 to 2.63 ct. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.

The most unusual and exquisite things are often found in unexpected places. This has been seen in the explosion in gem discoveries in East Africa since the latter part of the twentieth century. However, West Africa has remained relatively underexplored, despite the development of some promising and productive gem deposits, including sapphire and Paraíba tourmaline in Nigeria. West Africa’s gemological horizons expanded earlier this year with the find of a small batch of aquamarine with exceptionally deep and saturated color (figure 1). Reportedly found in Nasarawa State, the stones were recovered by small-scale artisanal miners whose workings reached only the near-surface exposure of a weathered pegmatite body. Mining was short-lived, starting likely in January and ending in May 2019, when the miners exhausted the surface deposit but lacked resources to continue with hard-rock mining once they hit bedrock. Through a local buyer in the Abuja market, author JH was able to obtain a large parcel that may account for the lion’s share of the production from this deposit to date. This parcel amounted to 763 grams, of which 200 grams would cut stones over one carat.

Figure 2. Two wafers of the new Nigerian aquamarine in unpolarized light (left), and with light polarized along the extraordinary ray (center) and along the ordinary ray (right). Photos by Aaron Palke.

Figure 3. UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of a polished plate of Nigerian aquamarine showing both the ordinary (o-ray) and extraordinary (e-ray) ray absorption.
Standard gemological testing showed properties consistent with aquamarine, with a uniaxial negative optic character, a refractive index of 1.582–1.590, a birefringence of 0.008, and a specific gravity of 2.71–2.73. The stones were inert under short-wave and long-wave UV light. The most exceptional feature of this new find of aquamarine—besides its attractive, saturated blue color—is its unusually strong pleochroism, going from deep, saturated blue with light polarized parallel to the extraordinary ray to an unsaturated (almost colorless) greenish blue with light polarized parallel to the ordinary ray (figure 2). The origin of this extreme pleochroism is seen in the UV-Vis spectra (figure 3), in which the main feature is a highly polarizable broad absorption band at approximately 680 nm caused by Fe2+-Fe3+ intervalence charge transfer (IVCT). This IVCT absorption is the cause of blue coloration in (non-Maxixe) aquamarine (e.g., I. Adamo et al., “Aquamarine, Maxixe-type beryl, and hydrothermal synthetic blue beryl: Analysis and identification,” Fall 2008 G&G, pp. 214–226). Also seen are an absorption band at 835 nm related to octahedral Fe2+ and narrow absorption bands at 372 and 428 nm related to octahedral Fe3+. The reason for the intense pleochroism is simply the increased intensity of the highly polarizable Fe2+-Fe3+ IVCT chromophore relative to most other aquamarine. Note that the two wafers in figure 2 were cut from the same piece of rough and were used in a pilot heat treatment experiment. The larger one on the left was not heated, while the smaller piece on the right was heated at 400°C for two hours, with no apparent change in its color or appearance. It is not clear, however, if any of the material had been heated before it reached the market; further experiments may be warranted.

Figure 4. Needle and platelet inclusions are ubiquitous in this new find of Nigerian aquamarine, as seen with transmitted light polarized along the o-ray (left) and e-ray (right). Photomicrographs by Nathan Renfro; field of view 1.43 mm.
Microscopic observations showed an abundance of highly reflective, opaque, elongate needles and platelets that appeared light brown to black in darkfield and transmitted light (figure 4). Confocal Raman spectroscopy could not isolate the inclusions, but their dark color and reflective nature suggest they might be Fe oxides, which would be consistent with the iron-rich nature of these stones.

Trace element content of the Nigerian aquamarines was measured by LA-ICP-MS (table 1). They were extremely enriched in alkali metals, especially Li, K, and Na (up to 9400 ppm). To the authors, these high concentrations of alkali metals seem unusual for gem-quality aquamarine among global deposits (including saturated material from Santa Maria in Minas Gerais, Brazil). The unique chemistry of this new material almost warrants the use of the term “alkali beryl,” even though this term is nonstandard in the mineralogical community. Also notable is the relative enrichment of Cr from 4 to 49 ppm, compared to around 1 ppm Cr or less in aquamarine from most other deposits. The Cr enrichment was also indicated by the prominent Cr fluorescence measured by photoluminescence spectroscopy. Finally, the deep blue color of these stones was explained by their relative enrichment in Fe from 11,000 to 12,600 ppm. Such a high concentration of Fe increases the probability of having adjacent Fe2+ and Fe3+ cations, thereby facilitating and enhancing the Fe2+-Fe3+ IVCT interaction. For now, this new deposit of fine Nigerian aquamarine lies dormant, but the world awaits the next important gem discovery in West Africa. @topic:9


Publish Year: 2018 Title: Colombian Emerald Industry: The New Generation Abstract: Following author AL’s 2015 visit to Colombian emerald mines and cutting operations, we again had the opportunity to interview two representatives from this important source country. As part of the new generation of the Colombian emerald industry, both shared with us their experience and vision for the industry.

Luis Gabriel Angarita, director of the CDTEC gem laboratory in Bogotá, comes from a family that has been heavily involved in the industry for over 40 years. Since 2009, Angarita has been working on branding Colombian emerald. He recently resigned as president of the Association of Colombian Emerald Exporters and is working full-time for the gem lab. Angarita updated us on the large production coming from the Chivor mines. He said that while the production has been low for over 20 years, the quality of extracted stones is quite high.

Even though Angarita no longer heads the exporters association, promoting Colombian emerald as a brand is still at the top of his list of priorities. He sees several challenges in branding the Colombian emerald. First, the Colombian emerald industry lacks a well-accepted standard. This causes inconsistency between different players and makes it extremely hard to face the global market as a unified entity. Effectively educating consumers is another obstacle in branding. Angarita admitted that the Chinese market has the greatest potential for emerald. However, most Chinese consumers only want emeralds with no oiling. Goods with moderate oiling are almost unsellable. This misunderstanding of emerald value factors hinders the stone’s promotion. Inconsistent description among major gem laboratories further complicates the situation. Angarita also shared some information about a new emerald treatment being developed in Colombia. Finally, he informed us that the second World Emerald Symposium will be held in Bogotá in October 2018.

Luis Gabriel Angarita and the Emerald IndustryLuis Gabriel Angarita talks about the challenges present in today’s emerald market.
Edwin Molina, a fourth-generation Colombian emerald miner, serves on the board of directors of the Cunas mine in Santa Rosa. He also became president of APRECOL (the Association of Emerald Producers of Colombia) in 2017. Molina’s family has played a critical role in emerald mining in the Muzo area, and he was partially responsible for the transaction that formed today’s Muzo International. The family later switched its interest to the Cunas mine, which has been a joint venture with foreign investors since 2009 and is now one of the biggest in the area. According to Molina, production from Cunas is quite large. Although the mine typically lacks the very high-end stones with large sizes like those from Muzo, the quality is very stable. Compared to other operations in Muzo, Cunas is more controllable because its entrance is located far from the extraction points. There are three emerald-bearing zones in the mining concession, and so far only one is being worked on. Therefore, Cunas still has plenty of potential.

Molina also related his experience during this profound transformation from a family business to a formal mining corporation. He admitted that at the beginning of this journey, building trust with the investors was a challenge due to lack of supporting data from previous miners and operations. When he became involved, a new emphasis was put on formalizing the operation through environmental protection, infrastructure construction, and mining community building. Molina informed us that the mine would focus on increasing production by working on more extraction points within the 0.6 km2 concession. This is very important because foreign investment will dry up if the mine has no production for a prolonged period, as has happened before in the Muzo area. Another important factor in attracting and keeping foreign investors is the security of the mine and production. With the support of the national police, a local police department will soon be formed to help with security. Molina has always believed that the only thing investors need to worry about is the production of a mine. As a miner and businessman who grew up in the United States and went back to his motherland of Colombia, Molina wants local miners to go out and see the world. Putting the industry in a global framework will enable them to adapt to a new environment and seize new opportunities.

A Talk with Edwin Molina
Fourth-generation emerald miner Edwin Molina discusses the Cunas mine and relates his own industry experiences.
During the interviews, both Angarita and Molina expressed confidence in the future of the Colombian emerald industry and optimism about global demand for this “Mother Gem” of Colombia. @topic:9


Publish Year: 2016 Title: Tremolite and Diopside Bead with Unusual Texture and Color Abstract: Figure 1. This 6.39 gram barrel-shaped bead was unusual for its texture and color. Photo by Yanjun Song.

In recent years, Buddhist prayer beads have become increasingly popular in Chinese jewelry. These beads are made into a variety of shapes from many kinds of gem materials.

At the 2015 China International Jewelry Fair in Beijing, a barrel-shaped bead with unusual green and white color (figure 1) attracted our interest. The bead weighed 6.39 g and measured approximately 30.5 × 10.8 × 10.5 mm. The hydrostatic specific gravity (SG) was 3.05, but it was difficult to obtain individual spot RIs from the white and green areas. The entire sample was inert to both long-wave and short-wave UV. The infrared reflectance spectrum (figure 2) of the whitish mineral indicated tremolite, with characteristic peaks at 1093, 988, 902, 743, 676, 529, and 470 cm–1, while the greenish mineral’s spectrum matched that of diopside, with peaks at 1060, 979, 921, 681, 511, and 410 cm–1.

Figure 2. IR spectroscopy identified the whitish mineral in the bead as tremolite (red
trace, peaks at 1093, 988, 902, 743, 676, 529, and 470 cm–1) and the greenish one as
diopside (blue trace, peaks at 1060, 979, 921, 681, 511, and 410 cm–1). The spectra
are offset for clarity.
Raman spectra of the white and green areas (figure 3) were obtained using 785 and 532 nm laser excitation, respectively. Peaks at about 1058, 1028, 754, 673, 394, and 224 cm–1 indicated tremolite, while those at 1013, 667, 559, 393, and 326 cm–1 were consistent with diopside.

Figure 3. Raman spectra of the barrel-shaped bead. Left: Peaks at 224. 394, 673, 754, 1028, and 1058 cm–1 were indicative of tremolite. Right: Peaks at 326, 393, 559, 667, and 1013 cm–1 were consistent with diopside.
Tremolite and diopside are common gem materials in the jewelry trade. Both occur in nephrite, where tremolite is the main mineral and diopside is an accessory mineral. This was the first time we had encountered diopside rather than tremolite as the major mineral when both occurred within the same sample. @topic:2


Publish Year: 2017 Title: Mysterious Iridescence in Aquamarine Abstract: Figure 1. This 40.27 ct aquamarine contains eye-visible parallel stringers that could be responsible for interference colors seen when the crystal is viewed along the c-axis with a fiber-optic light. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.

Iridescence is a common interference phenomenon seen in many minerals and gems. It occurs when light travels through a stone and interacts with a thin film that has a different refractive index (RI) than the host material, producing a rainbow effect. Iridescence caused by a layered structure occurs on or near the surface of many gems, including iris agate, “rainbow moonstone,” and the fossilized ammonite gem known as Ammolite. Iridescence can also indicate the presence of a fracture or cleavage (see Fall 2016 Micro-World, pp. 312–313).

An appealing 40.27 ct aquamarine crystal on calcite matrix owned by Lucas Fassari (Costa Mesa, California) featured eye-visible, cloud-like stringer inclusions that extended from the base of the crystal parallel to the c-axis (figure 1). Inexplicably, examining the stone down through the c-axis with oblique fiber-optic illumination revealed a concealed iridescent, slightly three-dimensional “shimmer” that shifted colors as the light source moved (figure 2). What was puzzling was that in the iridescent regions  there seemed to be no evidence of a break, thin film, liquid inclusion, or other discernible feature that would cause these interference colors. We hypothesize that the cloud-like stringers could be creating dislocations, producing a structure capable of generating interference colors in the localized region just above the stringers.

Figure 2. The surface of the aquamarine crystal contains a hidden iridescence that is only visible when the light source is at certain angles relative to the surface of the stone. The angle of the oblique fiber-optic illumination in the photo on the left does not make the iridescence visible. As this light is swept across the surface, changing the angle of illumination, colorful iridescent colors appear (center). The appearance of the phenomenon alters along with the angle of illumination (right). The large dark area in the right portion of each image is a reflective void. Photomicrographs by Nathan Renfro; field of view 4.8 mm.
This aquamarine crystal is one of the most interesting the authors have encountered because of its unusual and unexplained iridescence. @topic:3


Publish Year: 2020 Title: Unmasking Emerald Filler Abstract: Figure 1. An emerald with irregularly shaped cavities, shown in darkfield illumination. Photomicrograph by E. Billie Hughes; field of view 4 mm.

Of the treatments we see in the laboratory, fissure filling has become one of the most ubiquitous. We have observed this treatment in a variety of stones, including emerald, ruby, sapphire, spinel, tourmaline, tanzanite, and more. The filling of fractures minimizes their appearance, making the gems appear cleaner. Fissure filling can be detected with a variety of methods. One way is to examine the infrared spectrum, where some fillers display distinctive peaks. Another is the hot point method, where oils can be observed leaking out in droplets. Some fillers are unmasked with simple observation in the microscope, because they display flashes of color or because they include visible dyes.
In addition to these methods, another tool in our arsenal is the long-wave ultraviolet flashlight, which can be used in conjunction with the microscope. Because some fillers display a chalky fluorescence when illuminated with long-wave UV light, shining a long-wave UV flashlight at the specimen is a simple technique that helps us to not only to detect the filler, but also to see its exact location in the stone. This helps the gemologist gauge the extent of filling and its impact on the stone’s overall appearance.

Figure 2. When the same inclusion scene is lit with a long-wave ultraviolet flashlight, it becomes evident that the cavity contains a filler that fluoresces a chalky blue color in long-wave illumination. The irregular shapes can also be seen to contain rounded gas bubbles. Photomicrograph by E. Billie Hughes; field of view 4 mm.
Figure 1 offers a great example of this. This inclusion scene in emerald shows an irregular cavity. When illuminated with a long-wave UV flashlight (figure 2), it is immediately evident that the cavity is filled with a substance that displays a chalky blue fluorescence. Observation under long-wave UV light also makes it easier to observe gas bubbles in the filled areas. @topic:3


Publish Year: 2018 Title: Rose in Demantoid from Madagascar Abstract: Figure 1. A negative crystal growth blockage followed by an etch tube is observed in a faceted demantoid from Madagascar. The use of Rheinberg illumination gives the inclusion a red color reminiscent of a rose. Photomicrograph by Jonathan Muyal; field of view 1.99 mm.

Garnets have been known since antiquity. However, it was only during the late nineteenth century that the green variety demantoid—named for its “diamond-like” luster—was discovered in the Ural Mountains of Russia. A few decades later, Fabergé and other jewelers helped demantoid gain more exposure and popularity. Today demantoid garnet is found in various deposits around the world, including Russia, Namibia, Italy, Iran, Afghanistan, and Madagascar.
The authors recently examined a 0.33 ct round brilliant demantoid from Antetezambato, Madagascar—a skarn-related deposit—that was of particular interest for a large inclusion resembling a flower (see above). Further microscopic examination revealed the inclusion to be a growth blockage followed by a large etch tube.
The observed shape immediately evokes a flower in repose. The subtle oblique illumination also reflects a shadow on the opposite facet, adding more three-dimensionality to this “still-life” image. Finally, the use of Rheinberg illumination (Fall 2015 Micro-World, pp. 328–329) enhances the colors and gives the inclusion a suitable rose red color.
Even though horsetail inclusions are the more heralded internal feature of demantoid, the beautiful flower inclusion in this demantoid specimen from Madagascar proves once more that the exploration of the microscopic world in gemstones will always reserve for us endless surprises. @topic:13


Publish Year: 2017 Title: Unusual Dark Orangy Red Cordierite Abstract: Figure 1. This 8.13 ct cordierite had an unusual dark orangy red color. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

The New York lab recently examined the transparent dark orangy red cordierite shown in figure 1. Cordierite, a magnesium aluminum cyclosilicate with the formula Mg2Al4Si5O18, is better known by its gemological name of iolite, which comes from the Greek ios (violet). The term is reserved for the violet through slightly violetish blue gem-quality variety of cordierite. Iolite’s typical colors have been compared to blue sapphires and tanzanites. These colors are thought to come from the charge transfer between Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions.

	The stone’s RI ranged from 1.515 to 1.547, with a birefringence of 0.037. This refractive index is much lower than what is listed in the literature for iolite, and we believe the discrepancy is due to the stone’s lower Fe content. Specific gravity was measured as 2.56. The stone showed strong trichroism ranging from orangy red to dark brown to purple. There was no fluorescence observed with exposure to long- and short-wave UV. Raman spectroscopy using 514 nm laser excitation conclusively identified the stone as cordierite (figure 2) with a strong match to the cordierite spectra in the RRUFF database (http://rruff.info).

	Figure 2. Raman spectroscopy identified the orangy red stone as a cordierite.

	Microscopic examination with fiber-optic illumination revealed fingerprints, rows of flaky whitish inclusions, and large fractures throughout the stone that had been filled with an unknown clarity-enhancing material (figure 3). The larger surface-reaching fractures in the stone appeared to have a “heat wave” appearance (figure 3B), that could be characteristic of the clarity-enhancing material. Cordierite, which is structurally similar to beryl, will easily develop fractures and is commonly clarity enhanced with oil-based fluids. Both cordierite and beryl are structurally similar in that they are cyclosilicates, containing linked six-member rings of tetrahedra that result in channels within the crystal structure. These channels are capable of trapping water along with cations such as from the alkali and alkaline earth metals. The high water content within the stone was represented by the strong overtone bands seen in the Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum, with very similar features to that of hydrothermal natural beryl spectra. Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) detected trace levels of alkali and alkaline metals.

	Figure 3. Various inclusions within the dark orangy red cordierite. Numerous partially enhanced fractures are visible (B), along with low visibility on the surface (D). Field of view 4.77 mm (A), 14.48 mm (B), 3.57 mm (C), and 3.57 mm (D). Photomicrographs by Augusto Castillo.

	A similar red cordierite, examined in December 2015, was said to be from the Iakora district of Fianarantsoa Province in southeast Madagascar (Spring 2016 GNI, pp. 97–98). The visible absorption spectrum we observed was similar to the one described by Fritsch et al. (figure 4). The spectrum had a decrease in absorption in the 400–500 nm region and low absorption between 600 and 800 nm, resulting in a transmittance window in the orange to red region that produced the color of the stone. These regions of low absorption are characteristic of the trichroic color components noted in the stone. We compared this visible spectrum to a GIA reference spectrum of ordinary iolite. The violet color of iolite is produced by a strong absorption band centered at approximately 580 nm, resulting from intervalence charge transfer to either valence state of Fe cations that might have occupied the divalent and trivalent sites in the crystal structure (substituting for Mg and Al, respectively; see M. O’Donoghue, Gemstones, Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, 1988, p. 77). Although the red cordierite contained a considerable amount of iron, this charge transfer did not appear to be taking place. The potential causes of the color are still unknown but can be linked to manganese (up to 486 ppmw in the orangy red sample and 248 ppmw in the violet sample) or iron, both of which were detected by LA-ICP-MS. This orangy red cordierite appeared to have roughly half as much iron as a saturated violet iolite (approximately 25,000 and 40,000 ppmw, respectively). No other transition metals varied significantly between the orangy red and violet samples. Regardless of the origin of color for the orangy red cordierite, naming this variety “iolite” could be misleading according to the definition of the term.

	This is the first time GIA has encountered a cordierite of this color.

	Figure 4. In these visible absorption spectra, notice the large window between 600 and 800 nm for the orangy red cordierite sample and the absorption band centered at 580 nm for the GIA reference spectrum of violet iolite. @topic:1


Publish Year: 2020 Title: Man-Made “Inclusion”? Abstract: Figure 1. Fiber inside a cavity filled with liquid resin in a cushion-cut emerald measuring 8.2 × 7.3 × 3.1 mm. Photomicrograph by Holman Alvarado.
Two important internal features in gemstones are inclusions and fissures. Inclusions are an important source of information in the gemological evaluation process. They can often provide indications about geographic origin (see, e.g., S. Saeseaw et al., “Three-phase inclusions in emerald and their impact on origin determination,” Summer 2014 G&G, pp. 114–132); growth conditions (e.g., A. Cheilletz et al., “Time-pressure and temperature constraints on the formation of Colombian emeralds: An 40Ar/39Ar laser microprobe and fluid inclusion study,” Economic Geology, Vol. 89, No. 2, 1994, pp. 361–380; J.G. Toloza et al., “Similarities and differences between fluid inclusions hosted by Colombian emeralds,” Special Issue on the 15th IAGOD Symposium, 2018, pp. 166–167); natural or synthetic origin (e.g., N.D. Renfro et al., “Chart: Inclusions in natural, synthetic, and treated emerald,” Winter 2016 G&G, pp. 402–403); and whether the stone has been treated to improve clarity.
Fissures are openings in the stones, and those “empty” spaces affect clarity in a negative way. Therefore, gemstones are treated to fill those gaps with different substances. Fillers can generate physical phenomena that resemble natural inclusions and may be misleading to the untrained eye.
Emeralds are most commonly enhanced with fissure filling. Fillers in emerald are identified by looking at the flash of color (blue, violet, orange, and yellowish) shown when the transmitted light of the microscope hits the inclusions or with the use of FTIR or Raman spectroscopy.

Figure 2. Fiber seen inside the cavity under 365 nm UV light at 50× magnification. Photomicrograph by Luis Gabriel Angarita.
Recently the authors identified a man-made “inclusion” in a 1.15 ct cushion-cut Colombian emerald (figure 1) measuring 8.2 × 7.3 × 3.1 mm. It displayed a typical yellow flash most commonly seen in emeralds filled with liquid resin, which was later corroborated by FTIR spectroscopy. The “inclusion” was barely visible and almost transparent under regular microscope light sources (transmitted and reflected). Therefore, a 365 nm UV light was employed to check whether the foreign object fluoresced, and in fact it did (figure 2).

Figure 3. Three fibers under 365 nm UV light. A: Cotton handkerchief used to remove oil from the surface of the stone. B: Net fiber in which emeralds are placed for the enhancement process. C: Jewelry cleaning cloth also used to remove oil from the surface. Photomicrograph by Javier Toloza.
In the authors’ opinion, the fiber could only have come from one of three sources: a cotton handkerchief, a microfiber jewelry cloth, or the net used during the immersion of the stones in the enhancement container of the oiling machine. The first two would imply that a piece of fiber got stuck to the surface of the stone before the enhancement procedure took place, which is highly unlikely. The third source seemed the most plausible. In order to test that hypothesis, three strains of fibers were collected and compared using Raman spectroscopy with a Horiba HR Evolution with the laser operating at 532 nm. Although the spectra showed peaks in the 500 to 1500 cm–1 range, they were not specific for either of the fibers. Using the Olympus BX 41 microscope at 1000×, the diameter of the fiber was measured, and there was consistency with the diameter of the fiber collected from the net, about 50 μm. A 365 nm UV light source was also used to differentiate among them. A clear difference was evident between the nylon fiber from the net and the other two fibers (figure 3). This second test corroborated the authors’ hypothesis. @topic:3


Publish Year: 2021 Title: Flux-Induced Fingerprints in Flame-Fusion Synthetic Sapphire Abstract: Figure 1. Face-up view of the 2.81 ct flame-fusion synthetic sapphire with flux fingerprints. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

The Carlsbad laboratory recently received a blue cushion mixed cut measuring 9.07 × 7.07 × 4.62 mm (figure 1). Standard gemological testing gave a refractive index of 1.760–1.768, consistent with sapphire. Microscopic examination uncovered a fingerprint resembling those found in natural sapphires (figure 2). Closer examination revealed the fingerprint to be a flux fingerprint. When the stone was immersed in mineral oil, curved color banding diagnostic of flame-fusion lab-grown sapphire became visible (figure 3).

Figure 2. This flux fingerprint in the lab-grown sapphire is similar to the fingerprints found in natural sapphire. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro and Michaela Stephan; field of view 1.76 mm.

Figure 3. When immersed in mineral oil, curved color banding is visible along with a natural-looking flux fingerprint and large gas bubbles. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro and Michaela Stephan; field of view 7.19 mm.
Typically, a flame-fusion-grown ruby or sapphire with healed fractures has undergone a process known as “quench crackling,” where fractures are created in the stone by heating and subsequent rapid cooling. This stone did not show the characteristic cellular fracturing created by this process, making the healed fractures appear even more natural. The randomly fractured stone had been immersed in a flux melt. The flux melt filled and partially healed the fractures while the stone gradually cooled, which resulted in natural-looking fingerprints of residual flux. This treatment is usually seen in flame-fusion synthetic rubies (K. Schmetzer and F.-J Schupp, “Flux-induced fingerprint patterns in synthetic ruby: An update,” Spring 1994 G&G, pp. 33–38). @topic:3


Publish Year: 2016 Title: Iridescent Inclusions in Scapolite Abstract: Figure 1. Orange platelet inclusions give this 2.21 ct scapolite an orange color and aventurescence similar to that of Oregon sunstone. Photo by Jonathan Muyal.

	A 2.21 ct phenomenal scapolite (figure 1), reportedly from Tanzania, was recently examined by this author. Of particular interest was its striking resemblance to Oregon labradorite feldspar, which displays aventurescence and is known in the trade as sunstone. Raman microspectrometry confirmed the stone’s identity as scapolite. Vibrant thin-film iridescence created by brownish orange exsolution platelets (figure 2) was revealed by microscopic examination; these platelets are responsible for the stone’s orange bodycolor. The exsolution platelets are presumed to be hematite based on their color, morphology, and high levels of iron detected by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), although it was not possible to confirm this identity through Raman analysis. This scapolite’s aventurescence and pleasing orange bodycolor make it an interesting collector’s gemstone.

Figure 2. Under magnification with oblique illumination, the platelet inclusions reveal vivid multicolor iridescence. Photomicrograph by Jonathan Muyal; field of view 1.42 mm. @topic:1