Publish Year: 2017 Title: Gem Paintings from Thailand Abstract: Figure 1. While her family had been involved in different sectors of the gem industry for more than 70 years, Wanlaya Suwannapirom found a passion for gem paintings such as the one in this pendant. Photo by Albert Salvato/GIA, courtesy of Than Thong Arts.

The 2017 GJX show hosted a new vendor that manufactures and sells gem paintings, merchandise not typically seen in international gem and jewelry shows. Only a handful of companies around the globe are active in this market segment. Than Thong Arts operates its own factory in northern Thailand. Owner Wanlaya Suwannapirom is from a family that has been in the jewelry industry for over 70 years. She started her gem painting business more than a decade ago and gradually became the industry leader, with both international and domestic clientele (figure 1).

These paintings are handmade by highly skilled artisans in Thailand, using natural uncut gem fragments sourced from all over the world. The fragments come from either mining operations or cutting factories. The paintings’ bright colors are generated by colored gem fragments, while the background and skin tones are created by dyed quartz or calcite powder. Artists also use extremely thin 24K gold leaf to color human hair and other details (figure 2). Unlike many other gem paintings, the gemstones are not glued to paper or canvas but attached to the glass and then framed.

Figure 2. By dyeing ground quartz or calcite in slightly different tones, a realistic gradation
of skin tones can be achieved. Here, 24K gold leaf is used to create a beautiful hair
color for the mother. Photo by Eric Welch/GIA.
The process includes several steps: sketching the painting on paper, a reverse transfer to glass, gluing the gem fragments and the dyed quartz or calcite powder, drying the glue, and framing the artwork. The middle steps are the most critical for the quality of the final product. The fragments are sorted into different sizes. Painters need to follow the order to apply the coarser grains first and then gradually go down to smaller sizes to fill the holes in between the fragments. This step continues until no space left between any fragments and the motif is completely colored by gems. Another challenge is to accurately and naturally reflect the human skin tone (again, see figure 2). To achieve this, painters grind quartz or calcite into very fine powder and dye them to slightly different tones for a very gradational transition of skin tone.

	Wanlaya Suwannapirom - Than Thong Arts Co. Ltd.

In this video, Wanlaya Suwannapirom of Than Thong Arts Co. Ltd. explains the fascinating artistry behind making works of art using natural uncut gem fragments. The different gem colors are arranged with such skill and attention to detail that the end results are remarkable exquisite miniatures in themselves.
To cater to a wide range of customers, paintings are produced in many sizes and framed in various ways (figure 3). Besides wall and desk decor, the paintings are framed in jewelry boxes and wearable jewelry. According to Suwannapirom, smaller paintings require more attention to detail. In addition, crystal glass that contains a higher concentration of lead is used on the wearables to give them a glossier look than the pyrolytic glass used for decor. Therefore, the price range of the jewelry is similar to some of the larger desk decor pieces.

Figure 3. Than Thong Arts’ gem paintings are offered in a variety of sizes, frames, and styles. Photo by Tao Hsu/GIA.
Customized gem paintings based on photos can also be specially created. At the booth, we saw some photo-based portraits made by Suwannapirom and her team. Some prominent figures have hired her to produce their portrait in gems, including the kings of Saudi Arabia and Thailand. The finished products look very accurate and natural. The gems in the paintings offered at the show came with a certificate of authenticity issued by a Thai gemological lab. @topic:6


Publish Year: 2017 Title: Fine Gems and Update from Myanmar Abstract: Figure 1. Suites combining blue-to-violet pastel colored spinels with red to rose-colored gems of similar tone. The blue gems range from 3.63 to 8.30 ct and the pink to red examples from 3.16 to 5.70 ct. Photo by Albert Salvato; courtesy of RareSource.

At the AGTA GemFair, Edward Boehm (RareSource, Chattanooga, Tennessee) showed us a succession of top-quality gems. Boehm is a geologist, gemologist, and accomplished gem dealer who works with rare and higher-end gems. He noted that the price of spinel from Myanmar has increased dramatically, with recent prices at the source more than double those of previous years. He explained that spinel has gained favor in Myanmar, which is reflected by the higher prices at this year’s show.

Boehm noted that a growing appreciation for spinel from all sources is driving higher market prices. As an example, he showed us a beautiful oval 21.56 ct Sri Lankan pink spinel cut to make the most of the gem’s high clarity and moderate dispersion. The size, clarity, and brightness are reminiscent of Tajik spinel. He compared this bright lilac pink Sri Lankan spinel with a strong orangy red square cushion-cut 9.82 ct Burmese gem, which he described as having a “flame” color. The per-carat price of the flame-colored Burmese stone is almost double that of the Sri Lankan spinel—$12,000 per carat wholesale versus $7,000 per ct. A strong red “flame” color makes the price jump significantly. If the stone were above 10 ct, Boehm added, the price would further jump to around $15,000 per carat.

	Edward Boehm - RareSource

In this video, Edward Boehm presents a selection of high-end gems, including red and pastel-colored spinel, spessartine garnet, peridot, demantoid garnet, sphene, and untreated Madagascar morganite. He concludes with a spectacular 31.79 ct Sri Lankan padparadscha sapphire.
Pastel blue to violet spinels are also selling well for Boehm. Designers like to mix these delicate blues with pinks or “rose” colors of similar tone and saturation to produce very attractive suites and sets. The pinks help to highlight the violet or purple in the pale blues, he added. The bluish violet examples he showed us hailed from Sri Lanka and wholesaled for $1,200–$1,500 per ct (figure 1). Complementary rose-colored gems came from a variety of sources—including Vietnam, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar—and ranged from $1,000 to $1,800 per ct.

Boehm explained that the most sought-after color is the “electric” haüyne blue, which comes from Luc Yen, Vietnam, and is only sporadically available in small sizes. He added that the light-toned, gray-to-violet blue colors are more available than in the past—partly because there’s more demand so more people are bringing it to market.

Like Burmese spinel, Burmese peridot is currently in vogue. Boehm showed us a fine 20.41 ct cushion-cut gem (figure 2). The presence of a multitude of tiny inclusions lend it a softness and reduce extinction. By comparison, fine Pakistani peridot—which is also available in large sizes—has a more “crystalline” appearance and deeper color, but shows more extinction. He explained that the price of Burmese peridot has recently gone up sharply. A top gem like the one in figure 8, which would formerly have been in the $250–$350 per carat range, is now wholesaling for $450–500 carat and even up to $600 per carat. He cautioned buyers to check whether a stone shows doubling in the pavilion in the face-up position, which is considered less desirable. Buyers want to ensure the stone is oriented in such a way that doubling isn’t visible through the table.

Figure 2. This cushion-cut 20.41 ct Burmese peridot shows a softer appearance due to a multitude of tiny inclusions. Photo by Albert Salvato; courtesy of RareSource.
Next, he showed us a rich green, 4.81 ct cushion-cut demantoid garnet from Russia, which contained a golden-colored horsetail inclusion. Such a gem would wholesale for $15,000 per ct, he said. According to Boehm, gems of such pure green color rarely come out of the ground—they are typically heated to this color. This treatment has been going on for 10–15 years, he explained. Despite this treatment, the demantoid is still an exceptional stone.

Boehm explained that judicious heating converts a yellowish green gem to a vibrant green but removes some of the stone’s characteristic fire, making it an almost “electric” green color. He prefers a balance of color and fire, acknowledging that the gem’s inherent fire—flashes of red and blue coming off a green bodycolor—is part of its unique appeal. In today’s market, any demantoid over 2 ct is extremely rare, so this gem’s size of almost 5 ct makes it very desirable.

The demantoid was from new production rather than the secondary market, Boehm explained. He added that there is still newly mined supply and treaters are perfecting heating techniques to make gems much more vivid, although not all respond like this one.

Finally, he showed us a striking 31.79 ct Sri Lankan pear-shaped sapphire with padparadscha color—a delicate pink flushed with a bloom of orange (figure 3). He explained that the gem had been recut three times to perfect its shape and proportions. The objective of recutting the original old-style cut was to close the window on the pavilion, but any further work would affect the brilliance and might even lose the cherished pinkish orange color. He added that when cutting padparadscha sapphire, it is very hard to keep that balance of pink and orange, because sometimes the orange might be in just one portion of the stone, which could easily be removed accidentally. A gem of this size is enormous for a padparadscha, he noted, and the wholesale asking price would be in the neighborhood of $30,000–$35,000 per ct.

Figure 3. This 31.79 ct Sri Lankan padparadscha sapphire shows the cherished combination of a pink bodycolor suffused with orange. Photo by Albert Salvato; courtesy of RareSource.
Boehm noted that on October 7, 2016, President Barack Obama signed an executive order lifting U.S. sanctions on Myanmar, allowing Burmese jadeite and rubies, and any jewelry containing them, to be imported into the United States. The sanctions had been imposed in 1997 (see https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Programs/pages/burma.aspx).

Boehm felt fortunate to be in Mogok (figure 4) when the ban was lifted and was able to celebrate with many of the local miners and brokers. He hoped the change would significantly improve the supply of Mogok gems but anticipated that any increase in gems reaching the U.S. from this source would likely take some time. Most if not all Mogok mining licenses have been suspended as the Burmese parliament and ministries work together to rewrite mining laws in Mogok and the jade mining areas in Pagan. These laws have been in place for more than 100 years and have changed little.

Figure 4. In October 2016, an AGTA delegation visited gem markets and mines around the world-famous locale of Mogok. Their mission was to report back on conditions within the local gem and mining industry after the new government took office. Photo by James E. Shigley.
When Aung San Suu Kyi’s National League of Democracy party won a majority of seats in parliament during the November 2015 election, it was able to effect change with a special focus on the environment. The new administration’s objective is to make reclamation integral to obtaining a mining or prospecting license, so that when mining finishes, the licensee will be obligated to return the land to its original condition. The government wants to ensure these laws are enforced and that environmental and ethical standards conform to Western expectations for the gem mining sector. The aim is for the new mining laws to meet the internationally accepted standards outlined by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), a group of 34 democratic countries that develop economic and social policy to support free market economies. These principles are laid out in the policy paper OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264252479-en). For more information on corporate social responsibilities and ethical colored stone supply chains, please see J. Archuleta, “The color of responsibility: Ethical issues and solutions in colored gemstones,” Summer 2016 G&G, pp. 144–160).

	Edward Bohm – End of Burma sanctions

In this interview, Mr. Boehm explains the context of the recent lifting of the U.S. trade ban on imports of ruby and jadeite from Myanmar. He draws on his long experience of trading in Burmese gems to predict the supply of ruby to U.S. markets in the near future.
Boehm mentioned the recent AGTA October 2016 delegation (figure 5) to Myanmar that visited the cities of Yangon, Nay Pyi Taw, Mandalay, and Mogok. Along with other U.S. trade and industry bodies, AGTA is seeking to reestablish responsible gemstone trade between the two countries. This is only possible because of the political and economic progress Myanmar has made in the past six years, but it also depends on Myanmar’s gemstone sector meeting international standards such as OECD’s guidelines.

Figure 5. The October 2016 AGTA delegation at Mogok’s Taung ruby and sapphire mine. Edward Boehm and GIA’s Dr. Jim Shigley are at left. Photo courtesy of James E. Shigley.
The delegation, which included GIA researcher Dr. James Shigley and representatives from Jewelers of America, met with a cross section of stakeholders, including the U.S. ambassador, ministers and representatives of the Myanmar government, international and local organizations, trade associations, gem dealers and traders, and mine owners. They visited a number of gem markets and mines, including the Baw Maw mine (figure 6) and the Taung ruby and sapphire mine.

Figure 6. Workers sorting heavy mineral concentrate from the Baw Mar mine near Mogok.
Photo by James E. Shigley.
According to Boehm, the delegation was an impartial group sent to look at the situation “on the ground” in Myanmar, particularly in Mogok. He explained that it was an “eye-opening” experience and although conditions were much better than the group anticipated, there was room for improvement. The delegation made a series of observations that were set out in their white paper, Step by Step – Myanmar Gem Sector Emerges from Isolation and U.S. Sanctions, which is available from AGTA’s website at http://agta.org/info/docs/burmawhitepaper2016.pdf

Boehm indicated that Mogok was still beholden on the U.S. gem industry’s ongoing efforts to ensure that Myanmar’s government follows through with its promise to manage the gem sector properly and that the Burmese people benefit from the gems. He cautioned that a lot of mining licenses remain suspended. Therefore it’s very unlikely that U.S. businesses will see much production until these are reinstated, possibly in late 2017. He forecasts that the U.S. trade at large will have to wait at least another year before production appears in earnest. At that point, he expects many more U.S. buyers will travel to Mogok and competition for scarce goods will drive prices up, but at least the goods can be legally imported into the U.S. once more.

He reported that because of the government’s suspension of mining licenses, Mogok’s mines are currently closed again after a brief reopening. Boehm suspects several reasons for caution on the part of the authorities. Firstly, it would be very tempting for miners to produce as much material as possible now that dealers from the U.S. can legally buy gems in Mogok, so the government wants to buy time to regulate mining ethically to make sure the Burmese people are protected (figure 7). Secondly, they want to prevent large foreign investors from taking over the mining sector. Finally, there are some security issues with traveling the new road leading into Mogok at night, which the authorities want to correct before mining licenses are reinstated. Boehm considers these good signs that demonstrate the Myanmar government’s commitment to security and corporate social responsibility for the good of its citizens.

Figure 7. During the AGTA trip, delegates watched villagers searching for peridot in the waste tailings of the Pyaung Gaung mine near Mogok. Photo by James E. Shigley. @topic:9


Publish Year: 2019 Title: Conversation with Color Source Gems Abstract: Figure 1. Moshe Chalchinsky of Color Source Gems acquired this emerald rough in matrix in Nova Era, Brazil, in the 1980s. Since then it has accompanied him to every trade show. Photo by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of Color Source Gems.
Rough emerald crystals in a black host rock (figure 1) at the Color Source Gems booth stood out against the AGTA show’s variety of cut stones and jewelry. Moshe Chalchinsky, president of New York–based Color Source, first admired the specimen on a supplier’s desk during a buying trip to Brazil. Later, upon receiving the shipment of emeralds he had purchased, he was surprised to find the rough among them. For more than 30 years, it has accompanied him to every show. “It’s like a mascot, a good luck charm,” said Rachel Chalchinsky, his wife and the company’s executive vice president. Although many have wanted to buy the emerald, it is not for sale.
While the emerald rough is their mascot, Color Source Gems has traditionally specialized in ruby, sapphire, and emerald (cut stones and jewelry). Moshe said that the current trend is more affordable gems, so they are branching out into tsavorite, spinel, and rhodolite. This year spinel was very popular—especially gray spinel, according to Rachel—and visitors were particularly drawn to the grape-like purple of their rhodolite garnets. Large pieces are harder to move, Moshe said. On a recent trip to Sri Lanka and Bangkok, he bought stones mostly between 1 and 5 carats.

	Moshe and Rachel Chalchinsky tell us about the emerald rough “mascot.”

Rachel said the gemstones they look for—clean, well cut, and well defined, with beautiful, consistent color—have become less available and more expensive. They stick to classic jewelry designs such as three-stone rings and tennis bracelets. Moshe said the market has changed because jewelry is often sold on memo now, which is not easy to compete with. They have begun focusing more on stones; two of their sons have joined the business and are also more interested in stones than jewelry.

Figure 2. The trend toward parti-color and fancy-color sapphires is exemplified by this 4.08 ct specimen. Photo courtesy of Color Source Gems.
Rachel sees social media, primarily Instagram, as a major force in the demand for colored stones. Instagram influencers, she said, are increasing the desire for stones people may not have been aware of, like Malaya garnet. People want something different now, a little out of the box, according to Moshe. Rachel noted that there’s a big trend toward parti-color and fancy-color sapphires (figure 2) because they are different from traditional sapphire.
While Rachel is the fourth generation of a family in the industry, Moshe was new to the trade 35 years ago. After coming to the United States from Israel, he studied marketing and then sold insurance. He played soccer with people in the jewelry industry, one of whom invited Moshe to work for him. “I was running on 47th Street, up and down, knocking on doors,” he said. In the mid-1980s, he founded MCR Gems (renamed Color Source Gems in 2015). Moshe first came to Tucson more than 20 years ago.
Asked what’s important to him from day to day, Moshe said, “It’s about service….and trust. And I always treat my suppliers the right way.” Rachel added that Color Source has had some of the same suppliers for over 30 years.
“We can’t say no to anybody,” one of Moshe’s sons told him recently. “If it exists, tell them ‘I’ll find it for you.” @topic:2


Publish Year: 2019 Title: Johnkoivulaite: A New Gem Mineral Abstract: Figure 1. This 1.16 ct crystal of the new mineral johnkoivulaite was reportedly discovered in the legendary Mogok Valley of Myanmar in the Pein Pyit mining area. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.

A new mineral, johnkoivulaite, has been named in honor of John Koivula, a renowned microscopist and preeminent researcher at GIA for more than 40 years. In collaboration with scientists from the California Institute of Technology, Dr. Kyaw Thu of Macle Gem Trade Laboratory, and Nay Myo, a gem dealer from Mogok, GIA researchers described johnkoivulaite, which the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) formally accepted as a new mineral species on September 6, 2019.
The world’s first specimen of johnkoivulaite was reportedly uncovered from the Pein Pyit mining area of Mogok in Myanmar. It subsequently passed through the hands of Nay Myo, a local gem dealer. When the 1.16 ct stone (figure 1) could not be identified, Nay Myo suspected he had encountered a new mineral and had the sample sent to GIA for identification. When the researchers first examined the sample and realized its unique gemological properties, GIA made arrangements to purchase the unusual stone from Nay Myo so that additional advanced testing could be performed and the sample could be deposited in the GIA museum. Once the type specimen was housed in the museum (one of IMA’s requirements for describing a new mineral), the team was able to submit a new mineral proposal. According to IMA guidelines, a new mineral can be named in recognition of a person’s significant scientific contributions to the field of mineralogy. This one was named in honor of John Koivula’s lifelong efforts to advance the sciences of mineralogy and gemology.
Single-crystal X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed in collaboration with researchers at the California Institute of Technology and indicated a hexagonal crystal structure that was very similar to beryl and other members of the beryl group such as pezzottaite. Chemical analysis by LA-ICP-MS and EPMA identified enrichment in cesium, boron, and magnesium and confirmed johnkoivulaite’s membership in the beryl family, with its ideal end-member formula as Cs(Be2B)Mg2Si6O18. Standard gemological testing gave a refractive index of 1.608, with a birefringence too low to accurately measure, a specific gravity of 3.01, a hardness of 7½, a conchoidal fracture, vitreous luster, and no reaction to long-wave or short-wave UV. Especially notable is johnkoivulaite’s strong pleochroism from deep violet to nearly colorless when observed with polarized light (figure 2).

Figure 2. Johnkoivulaite shows strong pleochroism, going from near-colorless (left) to violet (right) when examined with polarized light. Photomicrographs by Nathan Renfro; field of view 10.05 mm.

Figure 3. The new mineral johnkoivulaite is named after renowned gemologist John Koivula, best known for his contributions to inclusion research and photomicrography. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.
John I. Koivula (figure 3) developed an interest in minerals and particularly their inclusions during childhood, when he found a quartz crystal with pyrite inclusions in North Bend, Washington. From there, Koivula earned degrees in geology and chemistry before working as an exploration geologist. In the 1970s, his career changed direction when a friend suggested the Graduate Gemologist program at GIA. He joined GIA in 1976 and began publishing gemological articles and short notes while refining his photomicrography techniques. In 1986, he co-authored with Edward J. Gübelin the immensely popular Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, which was followed by two additional volumes. Koivula also wrote The Microworld of Diamonds  and co-authored Geologica with Robert Coenraads. Other highlights of his career include winning first place in Nikon’s Small World Photomicrography competition in 1984, receiving the AGS’s Robert M. Shipley Award in 1996, and being named one of JCK magazine’s 64 Most Influential People in the Jewelry Industry in the 20th Century. In 2002, he was awarded the AGA’s Antonio C. Bonanno Award for Excellence in Gemology. Mr. Koivula also received GIA’s Richard T. Liddicoat Award for Distinguished Achievement in 2009 for his contributions to gemology.
After more than 40 years in the industry, Mr. Koivula still regularly contributes to gem and mineral research and is now a contributing editor for G&G’s Micro-World column.
The discovery of a new mineral is a rare and exciting occasion for the gemological community. It is a special honor for the authors to be able to name this mineral after such a prominent and well-deserving gemologist. @topic:2


Publish Year: - Title: Fall for Autumn Gems Abstract: A sunburst explosion of color and light is created in this Imperial topaz carved by Richard Homer, a pioneer of the concave-cutting style and a former GIA instructor. Concave facets return light along the entire surface of the curved facet, instead of one direction as with flat facets. Photo courtesy of Gems by Design, Inc. Kent, OH. © Richard Homer. Photo by Robert Weldon

Nature gives us a brilliant palette of color-changing leaves and a spectacular kaleidoscope of sunsets during the fall season. Yet, year-round, a treasure trove of gemstones in rich earth tones is ripe for collecting.

Let’s take a look at some gems, jewelry and minerals in autumnal hues to kick start this colorful season.

Natural, untreated topaz commonly occurs in pale yellow, brown, colorless or gray. Other hues of pink, green, blue and violet occur in nature, but these colors are rarely vivid. Although blue is the most popular color of topaz, the most valuable are the orange, pink, red and purple colors generally referred to as Imperial topaz, which reflect the beauty of autumn sunsets.

This fire opal from Mezezo, Ethiopia exhibits strong play-of-color. Courtesy of Cody Opal. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Gemstone varieties are often named for something they resemble such as sunstone, fire opal and fire agate, all colors in the autumnal spectrum.

Sunstone gets its phenomenon called aventurescence from tiny hematite, copper or goethite platelet inclusions that reflect light. The appearance of the phenomenon depends upon the size of the inclusions: small inclusions create a reddish or golden sheen on top of any bodycolor and larger inclusions create attractive, glittery reflections. Most sunstones have yellow, orange or brown bodycolor. Oregon is a major source of the finest sunstone.

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Fire opals are found in a range of warm hues – red, orange and yellow. They can be transparent, translucent or opaque, usually with a vitreous luster. According to Jürgen Schütz of Emil Weis Opals (Idar-Oberstein, Germany), one of the oldest opal cutting companies in the world, fire opal from Mexico is the only opal mined in quantity that is clear enough for faceting. It ranges from colorless to a dark red that is comparable with ruby. This type of material is available in large quantities and can even be calibrated. The majority of opal worldwide comes from Australia, Mexico and Ethiopia.

This fire agate is an excellent example of iridescence in chalcedony. Courtesy of Commercial Mineral Company, Inc. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Fire agate is a variety of chalcedony, a micro or cryptocrystalline quartz. With its swirling flares of orange iridescence and flashing streaks of brown, yellow and green, it is aptly named. It forms in botryoidal structure, resembling a cluster of grapes. Fire agate is an excellent example of the iridescence phenomenon seen in chalcedony.

Agates can be found in rich fall colors of orange, brown and yellow, often forming in layers or bands of color. Massive agate deposits were discovered in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil in the 1800s and shipped for cutting to Idar-Oberstein. Today, agate from Brazil remains a favorite of gem carvers for its depth of color.

Tourmalines are known for color zoning, often exhibiting two or more colors, and also form in a wide range of single colors. This glowing set of multicolored tourmalines resemble the sunset in an autumnal sky and showcase their versatility of color. Courtesy of Bjorn Anckar. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
October’s birthstones, opal and tourmaline, also offer a broad range of autumnal hues in yellow, orange and brown. Citrine and topaz, the November birthstones, fit well in this season’s theme with yellow to red color ranges.

Several other gemstones also convey the beauty and variety of autumnal colors:

Amber - Yellow and golden amber are most familiar to the consumer, although amber can be transparent red, which increases its value. Rare instances of strong fluorescence give amber a bluish or greenish appearance that increases its value even more. Its amorphous structure makes it a good medium for preservation of plant and animal inclusions.

“Solar Motive” sweetens the gallery collection of orange gemstones in honey-color Baltic amber complimented with citrine, almandine and pearls in an explosive combination of golden rays. Courtesy of the Anthony & Elizabeth Duquette Foundation for the Living Arts. Photo by Orasa Weldon/GIA
Citrine - Natural color citrine is rare. Most of the citrine on the market is a result of heat treatment of pale violet amethyst to an attractive yellow that makes it an appealing alternative for topaz and yellow sapphire.

Garnet - Several species of the garnet group also fall in the autumn color range, the brightest being spessartine, which is typically yellowish orange through reddish orange.

Pearls - Golden South Sea pearls are among the most desired pearls. They are grown in the gold-lip variety of the oyster Pinctada maxima, which gives them thick nacre and warm, golden tones.

This South Sea pearl ring and earring suite offers a soft contrast to the strong orange hues, much like the evening’s first glow at sunset. Courtesy of Wing Hang Diamond, Hong Kong. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Sapphire - We usually think of sapphire as blue, although sapphire comes in all colors and shades. The intense light to medium pinkish orange to orange-pink of Padparadscha sapphire is the rarest.

The bounty of autumn gemstones in a palette of brilliant colored gemstones makes it fun to fall into the mood of the season. @topic:2


Publish Year: - Title: The Glory of Green Gems Abstract: Demantoid garnets provide a field of green for this antique star brooch manufactured in Russia. Demantoid garnets were popular in Russian jewelry from 1875 to 1920. Courtesy of A La Vielle Russie, New York City; photo by Nicholas Del Re © GIA

                      The color green – in all its shades of glory – is the perfect complement to the many colors of flowers that dot our landscapes and the natural settings where we build our homes. It grounds us in nature and reminds us of the cycle of life, symbolizing fertility and growth, as well as freshness and harmony. Green makes us feel safe and rested in a way that few other colors do.

It follows then that green gemstones can uplift and heal our spirits − and have been popular gem choices ever since we began to adorn ourselves with jewelry.

Emerald and jadeite, not surprisingly, come to mind first when thinking of green gemstones. They have held a place of prominence in civilizations since ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Greek and Roman times. In the Chinese culture, jade is considered to be the gemstone of purity and nobility, with the ability to increase vigor and lifespan.

Other green gems include: malachite, maw-sit-sit and peridot.

Gems that come in shades of green include: amber, apatite, Brazilianite, chalcedony (bloodstone and chrysoprase), chrysoberyl (alexandrite), diamond, feldspar, fluorite, andradite garnet (demantoid), grossularite garnet (tsavorite), quartz (aventurine and “greened amethyst”, sapphire, scapolite, serpentine, sphene, spodumene (hiddenite), tourmaline (verdelite, watermelon, cat’s-eye and chrome), turquoise and zircon (beccarite).

Whether you enjoy the many colors of green from the plant world or these exceptional examples of minerals from deep within the earth, these greens are sure to make you feel invigorated!

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Publish Year: - Title: Frozen Splendor: Gems and Minerals Near the Arctic Region Abstract: This stunning trove of colorful gems is found in remote areas near the arctic region. Glacier photo by Brendan Laurs/GIA. Photo illustration by Robert Weldon/GIA

	The glaciated peaks of the Arctic region set the stage for our gemstone quest − in an area that occupies less than 8 percent of Earth’s surface (from Greenland to Northern Europe, Russia and Canada) − to find these rarefied gems.

	Learn about gems from polar regions as we travel east from Greenland through Norway, Finland, Russia and Canada.

	We start our journey in Greenland, probably not on your list when thinking of colored gemstones, though hot red rubies have been found there. Most of Greenland’s gemstones have been found in a region that stretches 160 kilometers (km) (100 miles) along its southwest shores. The area first came to the attention of European scientists more than 200 years ago when they arrived to study the country’s geology. Native Greenlandic Inuit were already familiar with ruby, but tugtupite, another red gemstone, was discovered in 1957 at Tugtup Agtakôrfia on the north coast of Tunugdliarfik Fjord, South Greenland. Limited quantities of this rare gem make tugtupite a collector’s item. Sapphire, lapis lazuli, amazonite, peridot, quartz, spinel, topaz and tourmaline have also been found in Greenland, though not in commercial quantities or qualities.

Tugtupite, a collector’s stone from Greenland, is named after the location it was found, Tugtupit agtakôrfia. Tugtup means reindeer in Inuit. Courtesy of Ice Cold Gems, William Rohtert. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

	Traveling east about 3,200 km (2,000 miles) from Nuuk, the capital of Greenland, we come to the Kongsberg mines in southern Norway, where silver was discovered in the early 1600s in Buskerud County. The mines remained active for more than 330 years. They closed in 1958, but specimens from that locality are considered collector minerals. Today the town of Kongsberg houses the Norwegian Mining Museum, a collection of silver, tools and machinery used by miners, engineers and doctors. Emerald was mined from 1899 to 1909, and significant quantities of green beryl were mined in Byrud, Norway, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries at a working farm. Some of the material was transparent enough for faceting and today, the farm’s owner allows collecting on the mine area for a small fee.

Spectrolite, from Finland, is known for its broad flashes of strong color. Courtesy of True North Gems, Vancouver, B.C. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

	In Finland, 1,400 km (870 miles) east of Norway, we find exceptional labradorite (known in the trade as spectrolite), in a small area of the southeastern region. Spectrolite’s strong, broad flashes of color are reminiscent of the colorful and dramatic Aurora Borealis, which can be seen for more than six months of the year in Finland. Finland is the classic source for labradorite, however, the gem was named for Labrador, Canada where it was first discovered.

	Proceeding in an easterly direction, we pause in the Ural Mountains of Russia, a rich source of colored gemstones long accessed by Russian nobility for use in its imperial jewelry designs. Here we find a large variety of gems: emeralds, amethyst, aquamarine, demantoid garnets, jadeite, yellow beryl, malachite, jasper and alexandrite. Russia is the classic source for alexandrite, which was named for Czar Alexander II of Russia.

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	The next destination takes us to Yakutia, in the frozen tundra of Siberia, 20 km (12 miles) south of the Arctic Circle. This is the land of polar nights where the sun never shines for days in winter. Mir Mine, the world’s largest known open pit diamond mine, was discovered in 1955 by Soviet geologists. It sits at the site of a volcanic pipe that contained trillions of carats of diamonds. The Mir Mine, worked sporadically until 2011, is closed. In its heyday in the 1960s, millions of carats of gem quality diamonds were produced annually. In 1980, a 342.57 carat fancy lemon yellow diamond was found in the Mir Mine. It now resides in the Russian Diamond Fund, Moscow Kremlin.

	Canada is the final destination in our odyssey for polar gems. The geological conditions in British Columbia are similar to the conditions in Myanmar and China, the top two producers of jadeite. An 18-ton nephrite boulder, Polar Pride, was discovered at the Polar Jade Mine in British Columbia. Half of the Polar Pride boulder was carved into the famous 4.65-ton Jade Buddha for Universal Peace in Thailand over a two-year period. It is approximately 2.5 meters (about 8 feet) tall − the largest Buddha ever carved from gem-quality nephrite. The jade Buddha has been on a tour of more than 15 countries since 2009 to inspire people to seek peace in their lives.

This collector specimen from Calgary, Alberta, Canada is an extinct fossilized ammonite shell in matrix. Similar rough would be fashioned into cabochons for jewelry and sold as ammolite. Gift of Korite International. Photo by Kevin Schumacher

	Southern Alberta is a source of ammonite, a fossilized extinct group of marine animals related to modern day cephalopods, such as the squid, octopus and nautilus. They lived 200–65 million years ago, becoming extinct along with the dinosaurs. Most ammonite fossil shells are treated with a colorless hardened substance to increase stability. Some shells show very strong iridescence when polished. They are fashioned into jewelry and known as “Ammolite” in the trade.

	The eastern regions in Canada’s Northwest Territories near the Arctic Circle share a climate similar to the Mir Mine in Siberia, Russia. The relatively new Ekati and Diavik diamond mines, located 300 km (186 miles) from Yellowknife in the Lac de Gras region, are renowned for producing premium quality diamonds that are often marketed as “conflict-free” diamonds. Canada also produces an array of colored gemstones and crystal specimens.

	Our journey through the polar regions of northern continents reveals a richness of gems and minerals that are sure to warm your soul. @topic:2


Publish Year: - Title: The Red Hot Gems of Summer Abstract: "The Crimson Prince Ruby" is a 3.22 ct unheated ruby from Mogok, Burma (Myanmar). Stone courtesy of Jeffery Bergman, Primagem, Bangkok. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

No color evokes more energy, action, emotion and excitement than red. It is associated with the power of fast cars, the passion of crimson roses and the seduction of summer sunsets.
Regal Red Gems
In early cultures, ruby was revered for its similarity in color to blood, the source of life. Deep red, sometimes with a hint of purple, called “pigeon’s blood” in the trade, is the most sought after shade for rubies. No colored gemstone has been more treasured by kings, queens, rulers, moguls and the upper classes than ruby. Even today, fine rubies remain an indulgence of the few.
What draws us to ruby? Does it have a mysterious quality or power – as thought by early civilizations? The scientific explanation for ruby’s subtle attraction lies in its high chromium and low iron content, which creates its red color. The chromium also causes the gem to fluoresce when viewed in ultraviolet light; in natural light, the fluorescence of high quality rubies creates an almost mesmerizing, subconscious glow, reminiscent of heat haze on a desert highway.
Red spinel, cherished by kings and emperors, also has a long and glorious history. Many famous “rubies” were actually red spinels, illustrating how very similar these gems can be in appearance. Spinels mined from 1000 C.E to 1900 C.E., in what is now known as Afghanistan, accounted for many of the red gemstones in jewelry of that era. They were called “Balas rubies,” derived from the Arabic balakhsh, for the Badhakhshan region in Afghanistan where the gem was found. The quality of natural spinel has gained notice and appreciation in recent years, so its presence and value in the market has also increased.

These rubellite (pink) and green tourmaline bottles were carved in China during the turn of the 20th century from the era of the Chinese Empress Dowager Tz’u Hsi. She was a devoted fan of tourmaline, especially the pink tourmaline from San Diego’s Pala District. They bring a refreshing spritz of cool and warm tones. Courtesy of the Bill Larson Collection. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Red garnet necklaces adorned Egypt’s pharaohs thousands of years ago and were entombed with them as prized possessions to be used in the afterlife. Ancient Roman signet rings with carved garnets were used to stamp the wax that secured important documents. Clergy and nobility in the Middle Ages (475–1450 C.E.) also favored red garnet. The availability of this red gem increased with the discovery of deposits in central Europe around 1500. Known as “Bohemian garnets,” this source became the nucleus of a regional jewelry industry that reached its peak in the late 1800s.
Rubellite and pink tourmaline were favorite gems of the Chinese Dowager Empress Tz’u Hsi in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The majority of pink to red tourmaline mined in San Diego County’s famed tourmaline mines (Tourmaline Queen, Tourmaline King, Stewart, Pala Chief and Himalaya) during that period was shipped to China. Much of the material was carved into snuff bottles and other objets d’art, but the finest quality was set in jewelry.

This Oregon sunstone is ablaze in color and shows the fiery sparks of aventurescence or schiller. Courtesy of GIA Dr. Edward J. Gübelin Collection. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Hot Red Gems
The hot, dry, high desert of eastern Oregon is home to Ponderosa, Dust Devil and Sunstone Butte mines – the primary sources of sunstone. According to Native American legend, the blood of a great warrior – wounded by an arrow – dropped onto pieces of Oregon sunstone. The blood carried his warrior spirit into the stones, coloring them with shades of red and giving them sacred power. The Oregon mines produce enough material to supply mass marketers as well as carvers and high-end jewelry designers.
Sunstone often exhibits aventurescence, a sparkly, metallic-looking luster caused by flat, reflective inclusions, sometimes called “schiller” by sunstone fanciers. Sunstone can be a variety of either microcline or oligoclase feldspar with an orange/brown background color. The color in Oregon sunstones comes from copper platelets that give it flash and sparkle.

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Fire opal is a transparent to translucent opal with a background color that has smoldering hues of yellow to orange to red (some colorless fire opal is also found). Mexico is the primary source of fire opal, and material found there generally exhibits a strong play of color, though on rare occasions, no play of color. Smaller amounts of fire opal are produced in Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Honduras, Guatemala, Nevada and Oregon.
Rare Red Gems
Sweet Home Mine in Alma, Colorado, discovered in 1873 for its silver, produced the world’s finest rhodochrosite. The mine closed in 1967 after moderate success, but reopened from 1991 to 2005, during which it produced an estimated $100 million in rhodochrosite specimens. These gems are housed in several prominent mineral museums and private collections around the world. The largest known rhodochrosite crystal, the Alma King, is on display in the Denver Museum of Nature and Science and the Alma Queen is displayed in the Houston Museum of Natural Science.

Sweet Home Mine in Alma, Colorado produced the Alma Rose, a mineral specimen consisting of five large crystals of rhodochrosite described by the owners as “cherry red." Courtesy of Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks and Minerals, Hillsboro, Oregon. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA
Red beryl, also known as bixbite, is a North American gemstone found only in the Wah Wah Mountains of central western Utah. Most cut specimens are less than one carat. Since it is no longer mined, it has become rare, historical material.
Rhodonite is found in the sultry region of Minas Gerais, Brazil and Australia, Peru, Russia and the United States. Transparent rhodonite crystals are rare and seldom larger than one gram, but their hardness makes them excellent cut gemstones. The name rhodonite is derived from the Greek rhodon meaning rose.

The Moussaiff Red is a famous 5.11 ct Fancy red diamond. A red diamond without any modifier is rare. The pure red color and size of the Moussaiff Red diamond make it peerless. Courtesy of William Goldberg Diamond Corp. Photo by Elizabeth Schrader/GIA
Taaffeite (pronounced tar-fite) is named after Richard Taaffe, who found the gem in 1945 in a jewelry shop in Dublin, Ireland. It is the only gemstone to have been identified from a cut and polished specimen. Prior to Taaffe’s discovery, most pieces were misidentified as spinel due to their similar crystal form. It is one of the rarest gemstone minerals in the world.
The Moussaieff Red, originally named the Red Shield, is the ultimate in collectible red gemstones. It is an internally flawless, breathtaking 5.11 ct Fancy red natural color diamond. Discovered in the 1990s by a farmer in Brazil and cut from a 13.90-carat rough by the William Goldberg Diamond Corp., the rare red diamond was displayed in 2003 as part of the Smithsonian Institution’s “The Splendor of Diamonds” exhibit.
Although these red gemstones are often associated with the heat of summer, our passion and desire for them knows no season. @topic:2


Publish Year: 2018 Title: Gem Localities and Formation Abstract: Figure 1. The four mine locations in the vicinity of Mogok from which the samples in this study were sourced. Inset: A map of Myanmar showing Mandalay and Mogok.
Blue Sapphires from Mogok, Myanmar
Ungkhana Atikarnsakul, Wim Vertriest, and Wasura Soonthorntantikul
GIA, Bangkok
Myanmar (formerly Burma) has been one of the most important producers of high-quality blue sapphires for centuries. The gemstones are mined from various parts of the Mogok Stone Tract and show some variation according to their specific origin within the tract. It is widely known within the gemological community that separating metamorphic sapphires from Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and other geologically similar sources still poses some challenges. In this study, 69 untreated samples from four distinct sapphire mining areas in Mogok were examined (figure 1).
The aim of this research was to characterize the gemological properties, inclusions, spectroscopic features (FTIR, UV-Vis-NIR, and Raman), and chemistry of Burmese blue sapphires in order to assist with country-of-origin determination. The samples exhibited colors ranging from blue to violetish blue. Standard gemological properties recorded were consistent with most natural blue sapphires: refractive index (RI) of nω = 1.769–1.770 and nε = 1.760–1.762, birefringence of 0.008–0.009, and hydrostatic specific gravity (SG) of 3.81–4.04. The samples were inert under short-wave ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The majority were also inert under long-wave UV radiation, although some violetish blue samples displayed a weak red reaction. Under magnification, lamellar twinning, silk, particle bands, negative crystals, variously shaped thin films, brownish platelets of ilmenite, iridescent fluid inclusions, and various minerals (such as crystals of zircon, feldspar, mica, green chromite, and nepheline) were typically observed. The Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra revealed the presence of minerals such as boehmite, kaolinite, and diaspore, and/or a single very weak peak at 3309 cm–1. Ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectroscopy revealed the typical patterns seen in metamorphic blue sapphires, including three absorption peaks at 377, 388, and 450 nm related to Fe3+ ions and one absorption band centered at 580 nm in the ordinary (o-) ray and at 700 nm in the extraordinary (e-) ray of Fe2+-Ti4+ pairs.
One of the most interesting results to come from the study was the slight variation observed in the chemical signatures between sapphires from the different areas in Mogok and other metamorphic blue sapphire sources, revealed by laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analysis. In cases where few or no inclusions were present to assist with origin determination, plotting Fe versus V provided useful supporting data by which to separate Mogok sapphires from Sri Lankan and Madagascan sapphires. The moderate to high Fe content (up to 2300 ppma) of these sapphires from certain areas of Mogok sets them apart from other sources with lower Fe. This study proved that a combination of various analytical techniques and interpretation of the subsequent data, especially that obtained from LA-ICP-MS, FTIR, UV-Vis-NIR, and microscopic observation, should be taken into account when providing opinions on the country of origin for Burmese blue sapphires.
REFERENCES
Kan-Nyunt H.P., Karampelas S., Link K., Thu K., Kiefert L., Hardy P. (2013) Blue sapphires from the Baw Mar mine in Mogok. G&G, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 223–232, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.49.4.223

Kane R.E., Kammerling R.C. (1992) Status of ruby and sapphire mining in the Mogok Stone Tract. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 152–174, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.28.3.152

Soonthorntantikul W., Vertriest W., Raynaud-Flattot V., Sangsawong S., Atikarnsakul U., Khowpong C., Weeramonkhonlert V., Pardieu V. (2017) An in-depth gemological study of blue sapphires from the Baw Mar mine (Mogok, Myanmar). News from Research, https://www.gia.edu/doc/Gemological-Study-Blue-Sapphires-Baw-Mar-Mine-Mogok-Myanmar-GIA.pdf
Geographic Origin Determination of Ruby and Sapphire Using Sr-Pb Isotopes
Mandy Y. Krebs1,2, D. Graham Pearson2, Andrew J. Fagan3, and Chiranjeeb Sakar2
1GIA, New York
2University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
3Hummingbird Geological Services, Vancouver, Canada
The geographic origin of gemstones has emerged as one of the major factors affecting their sale on the international market, in large part due to the prestige attributed to certain origins (e.g., rubies from Myanmar or sapphires from Kashmir), but also because of political and ethical reasons (trade bans and fair trade). This provides a strong motivation to establish accurate scientific methods to identify the provenance of high-end colored gemstones such as ruby and sapphire.
Methods used to determine ruby provenance include the observation of inclusions and gemological features, trace element analysis, and oxygen isotope analysis. All these have proven useful in distinguishing corundum from different geological settings, but none of these methods are yet able to reliably distinguish between gems from different geographic regions that share a similar geo-logical setting (Groat and Giuliani, 2014). So far, no unique fingerprint exists and geographic origin remains a challenge, especially for high-clarity stones, emphasizing the need for a more powerful tool.
Using a novel offline laser ablation technique followed by column chromatography and thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), we were able to precisely measure radiogenic isotope compositions in ruby for the first time. We demonstrate, using rubies from three different localities and two different deposit types, that radiogenic isotopes offer a potentially powerful means of provenance discrimination even for geologically similar deposits (Krebs et al., 2016).
Here we present Sr and Pb isotope data for gem corundum from several localities of geologically similar deposits: rubies from amphibole-related (Mozambique, Greenland, Madagascar, and Tanzania) and marble-related deposits (Myanmar, Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Tanzania) and metamorphic blue sapphires (Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Madagascar). This data will be evaluated with regard to its usefulness in determining the geographic origin of both ruby and sapphire, and the method’s usefulness for the development of a unique fingerprint for the country-of-origin determination will be discussed.
REFERENCES
Groat L.A., Giuliani G. (2014) The geology and genesis of corundum deposits. In Geology of Gem Deposits, Second Edition. Short Course Series Volume 44. Mineralogical Association of Canada, Quebec, pp. 113–134.
Krebs M.Y., Pearson D.G., Fagan A.J. (2016) Constraining ruby provenance using Sr-Pb isotopes and trace elements and dating ruby crystallisation using Pb-Pb geochronology: a new approach. Geological Society of America Meet-ing Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 48, No. 7, https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2016AM/webprogram/Paper285603.html
Golden Sheen Sapphire and Syenite/Monzonite–Hosted Sapphire
From Kenya
Yusuke Katsurada, Makoto Miura, and Kazuko Saruwatari
GIA, Tokyo
Golden sheen sapphire (GSS) has recently become popular in the gemstone market. This material was recovered from undisclosed deposits in a remote locality in northeastern Kenya near the Somali border. Its unique shimmering effect is created by hematite and ilmenite inclusions, and chromophores of its blue and yellow bodycolors have been studied in some publications. We compared the trace-element concentrations of these GSS with published data for blue sapphires from other localities and found similar compositions in sapphires from Garba Tula, central Kenya (Miura et al., 2018). The Garba Tula sapphire mine is known as a primary deposit of syenite/monzonite dikes within migmatites and gneisses in the Mozambique belt. The purpose of this study is to clarify the relationship between these localities by comparing GSS with Garba Tula sapphires.
In addition to the 23 GSS samples documented by Miura et al. (2018), we obtained six blue and five yellow cabochons from the same supplier. These 11 samples were reportedly from the same deposit. Being less included, they were more suitable for comparing trace-element concentrations. We also obtained more than 60 rough samples from Garba Tula from another reliable source. These samples were mainly blue with some yellows, and some were heavily included with hematite/ilmenite needles. The included samples were similar to GSS in their characteristic mineral inclusions such as hematite, ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, mica, and carbonate minerals. From the Garba Tula samples, pieces with fewer inclusions were randomly selected for quantitative analysis with LA-ICP-MS.
The 11 less-included GSS samples and the included GSS had similar trends in their key elements. Less-included samples also showed a Mg-Ti ratio corresponding with coloring theory: a higher ratio in yellows and a lower ratio in blues. The blue sapphires from Garba Tula had a wider range of elements but overlapped with GSS in all key elements for both blue and yellow bodycolors. The similarity of inclusions and trace-element trends indicates that the geological background of GSS is strongly related to that of Garba Tula sapphires. Garba Tula is located in the up-slope area of a drainage basin of the Juba and Shabelle Rivers, which flow into the Indian Ocean. Bimodal seasonal precipitation and poor vegetation coverage can cause severe weathering and erosion, and the weathered corundum-hosting rocks are sometimes washed and transported downstream. Topographic features suggest that materials with high specific gravity such as corundum might be deposited close to the Somali border, where meandering channels are predominant in the sub-basin of the Lag Dera seasonal river, a branch of the Juba and Shabelle Rivers. This is a useful example of combining chemical analyses and inclusion studies with geomorphological interpretation to approach origin determination of gemstones whose placer deposit locality is unknown.
REFERENCE
Miura M., Katsurada Y., Saruwatari K. (2018) Gem News International: Update on trace-element chemical characteristics of golden sheen sapphire. G&G, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 238–241.
Magmatic Sapphire from Yogo Gulch, Montana, and from Bingham Canyon, Utah: Some Surprising Commonalities
Jeffrey D. Keith1, Aaron C. Palke2, and James E. Shigley2
1Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
2GIA, Carlsbad, California
Recent LA-ICP-MS analysis performed on sapphire crystals from Bingham Canyon, Utah (figure 1, left), found broad similarities with sapphire from Yogo Gulch, Montana (figure 1, right). Bingham Canyon sapphire occurs in at least nine different volcanic units that are approximately the same age as the Cu-Au-Mo mineralization (which occurred 39 Ma). These volcanic units are small-volume block-and-ash flow eruptions that comprise the flanks of a large inferred stratovolcano. Sapphire does not occur in older or younger magmatic events unrelated to Cu mineralization. Bingham Canyon and Yogo Gulch sapphires have broadly similar chemistry in terms of Mg, Fe, and Ga. V and Cr contents are moderately higher in Bingham Canyon sapphire. However, one important distinction is that the Ti enrichments (as well as Nb and Zr) found in the Bingham Canyon sapphires suggest the presence of significant Ti-rich micro-inclusions, which is not typically seen in Yogo sapphires. Broad similarities are not unexpected considering that they are both related to mafic/potassic Eocene magmatism in the western United States. Sapphire at Bingham Canyon occurred after primitive magma transected Proterozoic mica-rich lithospheric mantle and melted Al-rich rocks such as phlogopite-bearing veins. At Yogo, phlogopite is also a fundamental mineral in the lamprophyric dike that hosts the sapphire. Modeling suggests that primitive mafic magma ponded at the base of the crust and melted Al-rich Proterozoic metapelites.

Figure 1. Side-by-side example comparing the morphology of sapphires from Bingham Canyon (left) and Yogo Gulch (right). Photos by Aaron Palke.
At Bingham, sapphire crystals (50–500 μm) are two orders of magnitude smaller than those at Yogo, but they are uniformly distributed in most of the intrusive and volcanic units that comprise the stratovolcano. The question of origin remains for both Bingham Canyon and Yogo sapphires: Are they xenocrysts in the traditional sense, or are they intimately related to formation of each magma?
Tourmaline-Sapphire-Phlogopite Rocks of the Badakhshan Province of Northeastern Afghanistan: Insights into a Favorable Environment for Blue Sapphire Development
Darrell Henry1, Barbara L. Dutrow1, and Ziyin Sun2
1Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
2GIA, Carlsbad, California
The sapphire-bearing metamorphic rocks found in the Badakhshan Province of northeastern Afghanistan provide insights into the chemical and mineralogical environments that favor development of the blue sapphire variety of corundum. These rocks comprise a matrix of randomly oriented pale brown to pale green phlogopite with porphyroblasts of dark blue tourmaline and blue to colorless sapphire. Minor amounts of green spinel, feldspar, and apatite have also been noted as coexisting phases in these rocks. The tourmalines are prismatic. The phlogopite exhibits minor alteration to clinochlore. The sapphires display a range of color intensities from colorless to dark blue, and some show color variation in different sectors. As expected, no quartz occurs in the samples.
Backscattered electron imaging and electron microprobe analysis of a representative sample reveal the intriguing textures and mineral chemistry of the tourmaline and phlogopite. The tourmalines commonly display oscillatory zoning in the interior of the grains, with patchy zoning on the outer portion that mimics the texture of the matrix phlogopite. Analytical data collected along traverses across a tourmaline porphyroblast establish that they are Ca-rich dravite (XMg = 0.92–0.97) with an average core zone formula of (Na0.60Ca0.32□0.07) (Mg2.70 Fe0.23Al0.07) (Al6.00) (Si5.93Al0.07O18) (BO3)3 (OH3.00) (OH0.63O0.25F0.12) and an outer zone formula of (Na0.64 Ca0.24□0.12) (Mg2.73Al0.15Fe0.12) (Al6.00) (Si5.97Al0.03O18) (BO3)3 (OH3.00) (OH0.69O0.24F0.07). A narrow overgrowth of magnesio-foitite occurs at the outer margin of the grain. The tourmaline core zone has a more intense blue color and is notably more enriched in Fe. The phlogopites are extremely magnesian (XMg= 0.94–0.96) and exhibit a range of compositions (K1.66–1.80Na0.06–0.11□0.10–0.27) (Mg4.95–5.24Al0.39–0.73Fe0.23–0.37) (Si5.47–5.91Al2.09–2.53O20) (OH3.70–3.92F0.07–0.27). Tourmaline and phlogopite have unusually low Ti contents of near or below electron microprobe detection limits of ~150 ppmw. The blue coloration of the tourmaline is presumed to be related to interactions of Fe2+ and Fe3+ in the absence of appreciable Ti, similar to that in blue-colored elbaites. LA-ICP-MS data on the tourmaline confirm the unusually low Ti (262 ppmw) and V (27 ppmw) contents of the tourmaline, but other trace elements are relatively enriched, including Sr (240 ppmw), Ga (21 ppmw), Ce (10 ppmw), and La (5 ppmw). The blue coloration in sapphire is considered the result of interactions of Fe2+-Fe3+ and Fe2+-Ti4+ intervalence charge transfer.
The unusually K-, Mg-, Al-rich and Si-, Ti-poor bulk composition of the sapphire-bearing rock is consistent with a metasomatic modification of a precursor rock composition. It is likely that boron-bearing fluids fluxed the rock system. The oscillatory zoning in tourmaline suggests the former presence of dynamic fluids during initial tourmaline growth. Patchy zoning on the outer portions suggests that the tourmalines overgrew and replaced matrix micas. A metamorphic overprint on rocks with these unusual bulk compositions and mineral assemblages is commensurate with the development of sapphire.
Trends in World Colored Gemstone Production, 2006–2016
Thomas Yager
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) publishes world production figures for more than 80 mineral commodities annually. Colored stone production, unlike that of diamond, is inherently difficult to estimate because of the fragmentary and commonly informal nature of the industry, the lack of government oversight in many of the source countries, and the wide quality variations for each gem material. For these reasons, world production figures for colored stones were not published by the USGS until 2008, when production of emerald, ruby, sapphire, and tanzanite between 1995 and 2005 were estimated. Based on government data, company reports, and a review of the colored stone mining literature, the agency has estimated global production of amethyst, emerald, lapis lazuli, ruby, sapphire, spinel, tanzanite, and tourmaline for the years 2006–2016.
From 1995 to 2005, Colombia was the world’s leading emerald supplier, accounting for about half of global production by volume. Because of the long-term decline in Colombia’s production and the increased production at Zambia’s Kagem mine, Zambia subsequently became the world’s leading producer. In Brazil, mining continued in Bahia and Minas Gerais states and ended in Goiás. Russia’s Malyshev mine accounted for a substantial share of world production before shutting down in 2008. Ethiopia, which previously produced emeralds intermittently, emerged as a potentially large-scale source in late 2016.
Ruby production in Myanmar (formerly Burma) continued the long-term decline that began in the late 1990s. Madagascar’s ruby production also declined sharply between 2006 and 2016. In Kenya, production of mostly low-grade ruby gradually increased. Mozambique emerged as a new source of gem-quality ruby, and large-scale mining operations started at Montepuez.
Sapphire mining declined in Cameroon and China. Madagascar’s output fell with the depletion of near-surface deposits at Ilakaka and Sakaraha, as well as the 2008 ban on rough gem exports, before increasing because of new discoveries. Mozambique became a source of sapphire with the discovery of new deposits at Montepuez. Production also increased in Kenya.
Rio Grande do Sul State in Brazil appears to produce a substantial majority of the world’s amethyst (table 1). Uruguay’s production was estimated to have nearly tripled between 2006 and 2016. In Bolivia, Tanzania, and Zambia, production peaked in 2009.
In Kenya and Mozambique, tourmaline production peaked in 2013. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, and Rwanda also emerged as sources of tourmaline in recent years. @topic:2


Publish Year: 2015 Title: High-End Colored Gems Abstract: Figure 1. Constantin Wild displays a unique 290 carat multicolored gem suite. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA.

At GJX, Constantin Wild (W. Constantin Wild & Co., Idar-Oberstein, Germany) showed us a remarkable multicolored suite composed of 12 gems from all over the world. The total weight was 290 carats, with each gem weighing approximately 25 ct and measuring 19–20 mm. The suite included aquamarine and an unheated purple copper-bearing tourmaline from Mozambique; rubellite, yellow beryl, green tourmaline, and Imperial topaz from Brazil; peridot and kunzite from Pakistan; mandarin (spessartine) garnet from Nigeria; tanzanite from Tanzania; green sphene from Sri Lanka; and “canary” tourmaline from Zambia (figure 1).

	W. Constantin Wild & Co.

In this video, Idar-Oberstein’s Constantin Wild showcases a unique 290 ct multicolored suite of specimen-quality gems from all over the world, rare “canary” tourmaline from Zambia, fine rubellite from Brazil and Nigeria, and an array of sets aimed at enterprising jewelry designers and manufacturers.
Wild specifically highlighted canary tourmaline (figure 2). He remarked that its intensity of color is reminiscent of Paraíba tourmaline. Found intermittently in the 1980s and marketed since the early 2000s, this typically yellow-green material is rich in manganese (up to 9.18 wt.% MnO). Wild had two significant oval-cut gems of 19.83 and 26.18 ct, both unheated. For more information on this unique gem, see www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2007-yellow-tourmaline-zambia-laurs.

Another standout at Wild’s booth was a superb suite of rubellite tourmaline totaling 339.42 carats (figure 3). Wild called it a suite “from two continents,” as it contained both South American and African gems. The suite featured a spectacular cushion-cut 77.16 ct Nigerian rubellite centerpiece from new production, measuring 28.30 × 24.87 mm, framed by nine perfectly matched Brazilian rubellites from previous inventory weighing 262.26 carats.

Figure 2. 26.18 ct and 19.83 ct “canary” tourmalines from Zambia. Photos by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy of Constantin Wild.
Besides his higher-end single gems and suites, Wild also displayed some mixed-color sets, which he described as more “fashion-oriented” combinations (figure 4). Intended as concepts for jewelry designers, they included color combinations such as opal with pink tourmaline and morganite beryl with red tourmaline, tanzanite, tsavorite, and treated blue topaz, along with more unusual arrangements: demantoid and “Mali” garnet with fire opal, or yellow beryl and mandarin garnet.

Figure 3. This superb 339.42 carat suite of 10 rubellite tourmalines contains Brazilian gems with a Nigerian center stone. The gems in the suite range from 39.61 to 77.16 carats (center stone). Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy of Constantin Wild.
Another trend was the use of facet-grade rough for cabochons. These were often of large size and superb color. Of particular note were a 104.83 ct tanzanite and a 140.95 ct kunzite spodumene (figure 5).

Figure 4. Constantin Wild’s selection of mixed-color sets for jewelry designers included some interesting combinations. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy of Constantin Wild. @topic:2


Publish Year: 2017 Title: World of Gems Conference Abstract: Figure 1. A gathering of the presenters at the fifth World of Gems Conference, held in Chicago in September 2017. Photo by Scott Drucker.

The Gemworld International team, headed by Richard Drucker, hosted the fifth World of Gems Conference September 23–24 at the Loews Hotel in Chicago. The event was bookended by optional classes, making it an ideal opportunity for attendees to learn about new topics from a diverse group of international speakers (see above) and brush up on their practical gemology skills. Between presentations, the conference held its first-ever poster session. The posters included interactive discussions on jet and the identification of light blue stones using the polariscope and the conoscope, hosted by Sarah Caldwell Steele (Ebor Jetworks, Whitby, United Kingdom) and Kerry Gregory (Gemmology Rocks, Weavering, United Kingdom), respectively.

Invited speaker Emmanuel Fritsch (University of Nantes, France) opened with a talk about the identification of melee synthetic diamonds. He noted that while the majority of specimens are not hard to identify, near-colorless HPHT-treated synthetic melee may still be challenging. Dr. Fritsch also provided a brief history of synthetic diamond production and the current state of the industry, as well as basic and advanced methods of separating synthetic from natural. Isotropy and anomalous double refraction—otherwise known as strain—were covered in some detail, as he considered these very useful identification aids. Jon Phillips (Corona Jewellery Co., Toronto) reviewed world diamond production and the output of mines such as Jwaneng in Botswana, which accounts for 15% of total global production. Meanwhile, Canada’s five operating mines rank among the top 19 producers. One key takeaway from his talk was that De Beers plans to invest US$140 million on a marketing campaign aimed at women buying diamond jewelry for themselves. This should not be ignored by jewelers. Mr. Phillips also reflected on the threat of synthetic melee in the market. This author (GIA, Bangkok) reviewed the different types of pearls (nacreous and non-nacreous) seen in the market and the various mollusks that produce them. The presentation detailed the surface structures of a wide selection of non-nacreous pearls and concluded with a summary of the more frequently encountered treatments. Roland Schluessel (Pillar & Stone International, San Francisco) provided a comprehensive look at Burmese jadeite and defined the various types, including the term fei cui (kingfisher) for the vivid green variety. He examined cultural aspects and discussed factors such as grain size and orientation, which relate to transparency and overall quality. Mr. Schluessel also provided insight into the different colors and patterns, as well as the differences between omphacite and jadeite. Ҫiğdem Lüle and Stuart Robertson (Gemworld International, Glenview, Illinois) reported on various gem treatments that provide enough supply to satisfy market demand. Frequently encountered treatments and the pricing of untreated vs. treated material were reviewed. Diamond was offered as an example of a gem where treatments markedly affect the end value, while tanzanite shows little if any price difference between natural and treated material. A very lively presentation from Kerry Gregory about the daily happenings in the pawnbroking world rounded out day one. Ms. Gregory discussed some of her experiences saving valuable pieces that would have otherwise been destroyed due to lack of resources, training, and time. She also provided insight into her use of simple yet valuable gemological methods (such as the polariscope and conoscope) in identifying light blue stones removed from items destined for the melt.

J.C. (Hanco) Zwaan (Netherlands Gemmological Laboratory, Leiden) started the second day with a comprehensive look at the geological formation and gemological characteristics of metamorphic sapphires from Sri Lanka and to a lesser extent Montana. The search for a primary sapphire deposit in Sri Lanka and the discovery at Wellawaya (which Dr. Zwaan was involved with) were illustrated. Subsequent discussions on the use of chemical plotting in the separation of Sri Lankan and Montana material, from one another and from other sources, showed that it is beneficial but care is still needed with some cases that may overlap. Ҫiğdem Lüle followed with a solo talk about the various natural and “non-natural” black gem materials and the limitations encountered when testing such materials. She covered black diamonds in some detail, outlining the differences between the rare naturally colored stones and heated or irradiated specimens. Al Gilbertson (GIA, Carlsbad) reported on the status of GIA’s fancy-cut diamond grading project and showed the challenges faced when producing a system that takes all variables into consideration and satisfies all opinions. This was reinforced after receiving feedback from 440 participants in six global locations who were asked to look at various fancy cuts and answer a series of questions. Alan Bronstein (Aurora Gems, New York) took attendees on a journey through the colorful world of fancy-color diamonds, looking at the subtleties of the main colors available: yellow, orange, pink, red, green, and blue. Mr. Bronstein was clearly in favor of retaining the original cut of a diamond and not re-cutting it. Chameleon diamonds were also briefly covered. “Beauty trumps rarity” was Mr. Bronstein’s motto. Richard Drucker brought the presentations to a close with a look at some challenges that affect the pricing of gemstones. From the small print in pricing guides that might not be fully understood by users to gemological reports that raise doubts or cause confusion in appraisers’ minds, it became very apparent that the valuation of some colored stones needed careful thought.

The conference ended with a Q&A session in which Mr. Drucker opened the floor to all attendees. Topics such as correct nomenclature and disclosure, brand name cooperation with items submitted for valuation, and color diamond grading consistency were covered. @topic:2


Publish Year: - Title: Bargaining for Gems in Chanthaburi Abstract: Buyers await sales offers at the teeming Chanthaburi gem market, held every weekend. Many buyers post handwritten signs detailing their wants at the front of the table or on the walls behind them.

                      A middle-aged woman in a floral dress and sun visor zips open a plastic bag and spreads an array of polished rubies across a desk blotter, taking care to keep them in the sunlight, where the colors come through richer. Behind the desk, a bushy-bearded buyer combs through the parcel with his tweezers, setting aside a dozen stones in about as many seconds. The dealer punches a per-carat price into her calculator. The buyer types in a counteroffer, and the two silently bargain until a deal is struck.

At the Chanthaburi gem market in southeastern Thailand, where buyer and seller often speak no common language, the calculator is a universal translator.

	Buyers sort through a prospective parcel of polished ruby at the Chanthaburi market while the runner awaits their offers. For buyers who don’t speak Thai, the calculator serves as the universal translator.
Chanthaburi’s gem trade dates back centuries—accounts of mining and trading there began in the 15th century—and today its gem market remains one of the world’s largest and liveliest.

Thailand is one of the world’s leading colored gemstone cutting and trading centers. It exported an estimated $650 million worth of gemstones during 2012—about half of that sapphire, according to the Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand. While most traders keep their export offices in Bangkok, the traditional center of the colored stone industry, the place where nearly all of the cutting is done, is Chanthaburi. This town of about 30,000 lies 150 miles southeast of Bangkok, near the old ruby and sapphire mining area of Pailin on the Cambodian border.

	A buyer checks a large parcel of blue sapphire in the open-air Chanthaburi market while the dealer holds the rest of the lot.
The Chanthaburi gem market is a relatively quiet place during the week, with a few dozen dealer shops on narrow Si Chan Road offering loose gemstones, gold settings, and equipment, such as electronic scales, lighting, and loupes and tweezers. But the weekend is when the market truly comes alive, spilling into the neighboring streets and alleys. Beginning at 10 am Friday, hundreds of dealers from around the country and many parts of the world set up makeshift stands with scales, calculators and, of course, gems. Within 30 minutes, the streets are teeming with buyers, brokers, sellers and an occasional tourist. The trading continues until dusk. Unlike traditional markets, most of the people sitting at the tables and desks are buyers, not sellers.

	Some of the buildings along Si Chan Road are weekend stone exchanges where buyers and sellers don’t have to worry about the sudden downpours that can arrive at any time during the spring and fall.
The center of the action is at the intersection of Si Chan Road and Thetsaban Road, where the streets serve as an impromptu gem exchange. Buyers will find a seat at a table, sometimes posting a sign listing their wants, and wait for brokers or dealers. Runners working with the dealers dash from table to table, taking orders, showing gems and carrying price offers back to their bosses. Some dealers hurry to intercept the buyers before they get to the tables so they don’t have to pay commission to the table owners.

What’s for sale? Not surprisingly, a vast majority of the dealers were offering ruby and sapphire of all colors—some for as little as $2 or $3 per carat. Are treatments disclosed? The price is the disclosure, said one dealer who’d stopped by to show a parcel of ruby. Sellers also showed spinel, various colors of tourmaline, tsavorite and spessartite garnet, and even amethyst and citrine. Between the gem vendors and exchanges is a veritable smorgasbord of street food, with vendors offering noodles, barbecue chicken, mangoes and soup bowls.

	Si Chan Road leads to the gem market in Chanthaburi—the street lamps pay tribute to the main commerce in this city of 30,000 inhabitants.
On the side streets behind the market are dozens of “burners,” operations that apply heat and other treatments to gemstones. Most of these have no sign out front but are well known to the local trade.

Veteran dealers say the trading at the market is quieter than a decade ago. They blame Western governments’ sanctions on Myanmar and the general economic malaise in many key consuming markets. But the market has survived transitions before. Indeed, Chanthaburi’s gem trade has been rejuvenated to some degree by diffusion treatments that can turn unattractive (and unsellable) corundum into low-cost yellow sapphire. Because of this, at least 10 mine sites are now in operation near Khao Ploy Waen and Ban Ka Cha. Additionally, one site produces black star sapphire that is not treated.

	The Chanthaburi province was once a prolific producer of ruby and sapphire. This mine, about 10 miles from the city, is a source of yellow sapphire.
Despite the slower sales, dealers such as the woman in the floral dress believe Chanthaburi will always have a place in the world gem business, because the skills and the infrastructure vital to the industry are still concentrated here. @topic:9


Publish Year: - Title: The Smithsonian Gem and Mineral Collection Abstract: This raspberry-and mint-colored tourmaline—nicknamed the “Steamboat”—is one of the world’s finest and most valuable mineral specimens. Photo by Duncan Pay © GIA, courtesy The Smithsonian Institution http://geogallery.si.edu

                      “Born of fluid, heat, and pressure, minerals and gems dazzle us with their breathtaking colors, shapes, and diversity.” These words welcome visitors to the gem and mineral displays at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History. As they explore—and come face to face with nature’s artistry—they end up with an understanding that gemstones actually came out of the earth in beautiful—but rough—form.

It’s what the museum’s curator, Jeffrey Post, Ph.D., calls a “teaching moment” for a lot of people. That’s the goal, he says—for people “to have that exciting moment, to think about the earth in a different way.”

	Earth’s Treasures

	Join curator Jeff Post as he introduces some of the Smithsonian’s gem and mineral treasures.
In early 2013, Dr. Post hosted a team from the Gemological Institute of America’s (GIA) Carlsbad, California, campus. This series of videos documents that visit and gives you an intimate view of the museum’s public displays and scientific research collections.

View Gallery

	This slideshow takes you on a tour of the Smithsonian and its gem treasures.

	In the Janet Annenberg Hooker Hall of Geology, Gems, and Minerals, the geometry and size of these topaz crystals capture visitors’ attention. Photo by Duncan Pay © GIA, courtesy The Smithsonian Institution http://geogallery.si.edu

THE SMITHSONIAN
The Smithsonian Institution is the world’s largest museum and research complex. Located on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., the complex includes 19 museums and galleries, the National Zoological Park, and nine research facilities.

The Institution’s original funding came in the form of a bequest to the US federal government, established by British scientist James Smithson (1765-1829) and awarded upon his death. In 1836, his legacy—with a value at the time of about $500,000—was officially accepted by Congress. After additional years of debate, the Smithsonian Institution was finally established in 1846 as a trust to be administered by a Board of Regents and a Secretary of the Smithsonian.

Today, the National Museum of Natural History is part of that vast complex. It opened in 1910 and houses exhibits that encompass the animal kingdom, human origins, world cultures, and the earth sciences.

Tucked into the eastern wing of the museum’s second floor is the Janet Annenberg Hooker Hall of Geology, Gems, and Minerals. Dedicated to the earth sciences, it houses one of the world’s largest gem and mineral collections, including such world-famous gems as the Hope diamond, Logan sapphire, and Rosser Reeves star ruby, along with countless thousands of less-famous but equally spectacular gem and mineral specimens.

Directly behind the public display area is the mineral research wing, where the GIA team was allowed unprecedented access to this national treasure.

THE MINERAL REFERENCE COLLECTION
The museum’s mineral reference collection is one of three in the Department of Mineral Sciences: minerals (including gems), meteorites, and rock and ore. Dr. Post explains that this part of the museum deals with the “hard, non-living part of the earth…A small oasis of mineral sciences in a large sea of biology” within the museum. But, he adds, “since the earth is mostly made up of rock, we understand the importance of our role here.”

	Smithsonian curator-in-charge Jeffrey Post explains the Smithsonian’s mineral storage and cataloguing system. Photo by Duncan Pay © GIA, courtesy The Smithsonian Institution http://geogallery.si.edu
The research collection houses about 375,000 mineral specimens from around the world. It’s one of the largest collections of its kind, with great value to the scientific community. The purpose of the collection is to support scientific research. All specimens are available for use by researchers around the world, who either come to the museum or have specimens sent to them. Some of the Smithsonian’s own researchers also work in the Institution’s laboratories.

The minerals are arranged according to the Dana System, which classifies minerals into numbered categories based on chemical composition and crystal structure. The system was originally developed by James Dwight Dana (1813-1895), an American geologist and mineralogist. He outlined the original concept in his System of Mineralogy (1837). In 1997, the work was updated by a team of mineralogists to accommodate newly discovered materials and retitled Dana’s New Mineralogy, Eighth Edition.

The Smithsonian’s minerals are arranged in long banks of drawers, with all similar kinds of minerals grouped together. He points to the drawers in front of him, where quartz specimens are arranged alphabetically by locality.

Each specimen has a number that’s keyed to a computerized database, where they can find information about the specimen and also keep track of its location. If a researcher is interested in studying a particular mineral, museum staffers take a chip off the larger specimen and give or send it to the researcher, with the agreement that the researcher will then share the results of his or her study with the museum. This information is added back into that specimen’s database. Any scientist in the world has access to the reference collection as long as they’re connected to a legitimate research organization.

	A World-class Resource

	Curator Jeff Post introduces the Smithsonian’s mineral reference collection and explains its value to the world’s scientists.

ORGANIZING THE COLLECTION
Arrangement according to the Dana System means all similar kinds of minerals are found together, making it very accessible for scientists. “Not very good for the public,” Dr. Post observes, “but good for scientists.”

As he explains the collection’s layout, he’s standing in front of the beryls: “One of the more dramatic silicates in terms of crystals and colors.”

He has his assistant pull out a few beryl drawers. They hold a wonderful variety of crystal sizes and shapes and all the colors that make beryl so popular: blue-green aquamarines, pink morganites, green emeralds, gold-colored heliodors. Each specimen has a box and its own number, which is keyed to the collection’s computerized database.

The beryls are arranged alphabetically by where they came from. In the first drawer are the A’s and B’s—places like Afghanistan and Brazil; the next drawer includes Burma, California, Colombia; then a drawer with beryls from Colorado, Ireland, Italy, Mozambique, and Namibia. He points out that the alphabetical arrangement accommodates a mixture of states and countries.

Later, when asked about the possibility of different mineral types growing together, he takes out a large, spectacular specimen from a fairly new locality—Erongo, in Namibia. It’s studded with beautiful aquamarine crystals and two varieties of tourmaline, all embedded in a matrix of white albite for striking contrast.

	This specimen is a combination of aquamarine and tourmaline in albite. It’s from Erongo, Namibia, and is a superb example of how different mineral species can grow together. Photo by Duncan Pay © GIA, courtesy The Smithsonian Institution http://geogallery.si.edu
Dr. Post states that the advantage of the national research collection is that it will always be there, so that hundreds of years in the future, a scientist can re-study a sample of the same specimen studied by his centuries-earlier counterpart. This makes it the standard mineral collection for the international scientific community, available to present and future generations of scientists.

	Organizing Minerals

	Curator Jeff Post takes us through areas of the museum’s mineral collection and explains how its logical organization benefits scientists.

IN THE BLUE ROOM
The collection’s main secure storage area, which they call the Blue Room, is where they store the more high-value portions of the mineral collection. The Blue Room and the nearby Gem Vault contain about 20,000 mineral specimens. This area is the source of most of the pieces selected for public display. It also serves as an acquisition area: As new specimens come in, they’re placed in a secure work area for unpacking and classification.

	This drawer is one of many in the gem collection’s Blue Room. It contains beryl specimens from localities all over the world. Photo by Duncan Pay © GIA, courtesy The Smithsonian Institution http://geogallery.si.edu
Dr. Post explains that visitors to the exhibits have some idea where gems come from, but don’t always make the connection all the way back to the earth. However, when they walk into the galleries and see the beautifully formed crystals and extraordinary colors of the exhibit’s mineral specimens, they experience what he calls “a-ha moments.”

To illustrate, he cradles a spectacular specimen from Zambia—multiple emerald crystals still embedded in their surrounding matrix. “A specimen like this one,” he says, “really helps (people) make that connection.”

	Zambian emeralds glitter against a backdrop of coal-black mica in this superb mineral specimen. It’s one of the Institution’s most recent acquisitions. Photo by Duncan Pay © GIA, courtesy The Smithsonian Institution http://geogallery.si.edu
As an aside, he mentions that it was purchased for the Smithsonian by a member of the Smithsonian Gemstone Collectors, an elite support group that helps with financial support as well as acquisition of spectacular specimens like the one he’s holding.

IN THE GEM VAULT
Around the corner from the Blue Room is the Gem Vault, where they store high-value specimens and new arrivals under highly secure conditions.

He shows off a fairly new addition to the collection: a magnificent platinum and diamond necklace with a fascinating emerald carving as its centerpiece. It was willed to the museum by Madeleine Murdock, a New Jersey resident. The emerald itself weighs about 100 carats. What’s unique and unusual about it is that it’s a slice, a cross-section through an emerald crystal that still possesses the six-sided outline of the crystal’s original hexagonal shape. Its magnificent color is zoned from light-toned in the center to a darker green along the outer surface.

	This historic carved emerald is set into a platinum, gold, and diamond necklace. Possibly acquired in Colombia by Spanish conquistadors, the emerald was carved in the Mogul style, then set into the pendant and necklace in France around the turn of the 20th century. It was donated by Madeleine H. Murdock in 2007. Photo by Duncan Pay © GIA, courtesy The Smithsonian Institution http://geogallery.si.edu
Based on its characteristic inclusions, museum researchers identified Colombia as its source. From there, it was probably shipped to India in the 1600s, where the Mogul rulers were particularly fond of emeralds from the New World. Its lotus-blossom motif was carved soon after its arrival in India. Two small drill-holes through the sides mean it was originally meant to be sewn onto cloth or ribbon as an amulet or garment decoration.

Markings on the setting indicate that the emerald carving eventually made its way from India to Paris in the 1920s, during the Art Deco period. In Paris, it was reset into a magnificent platinum and diamond setting. Eventually, it made its way to Mrs. Murdock’s collection. Dr. Post cites it as a wonderful example of an emerald moving around the world: from Colombia, to India, to Paris, to New Jersey, and finally to Washington, DC.

	Historic Emerald Pendant

	Jeff Post shows off one of the museum’s recently acquired treasures: a magnificent emerald pendant with a fascinating history.
Showing another specimen from the Gem Vault collection, Dr. Post holds a nondescript object that looks something like a small brown rock. It’s from an opal-mining area near a small town called Yowah in Queensland, Australia. He describes it as “a curious-looking object” that locals call a Yowah Nut. Of course, it’s not a nut—it’s actually an ironstone concretion. When miners break one open, they sometimes find opal inside.

	This unique Yowah Nut opal is divided so one side has the appearance of a black opal, while the other side appears lighter. Both sides feature beautiful play-of-color. Photo © Eric Welch, courtesy The Smithsonian Institution http://geogallery.si.edu
This one, first presented to Dr. Post by a particularly enthusiastic opal miner, was cracked open to reveal an especially beautiful opal interior. The “nut” was not cut exactly down the center, so the thinner layer—with its dark mineral background—shows a deep blue color, while the thicker layer has a more typical white opal appearance. Both sides display dazzling play-of-color. The miner called it his “OMG opal” because every time he opened it up to show someone, they’d exclaim “Oh my gosh!!” Thanks to one of the museum’s generous donors, it later became part of the museum’s collection.

Dr. Post enthuses that this falls in the category of “…when you think you’ve seen everything…”

“It reminds you that earth is a pretty amazing place and we haven’t seen everything yet…It’s one of nature’s really nice little surprises.” He also observes: “It’s not always the value of the object, it’s the sense of surprise…of something different. That’s one of the reasons we like things like this. We like to jar people out of their normal way of thinking a little bit.”

	Yowah Nut Opal

	An unpromising nugget opens to reveal a hidden interior: a beautiful opal with spectacular play-of-color. Curator Jeff Post explains how this opal miner’s find-of-a-lifetime came to be in the museum’s collection.
As Dr. Post tells it, the purpose of the Smithsonian’s public gem and mineral display, as well as its research collection, is to make people aware of how fascinating the earth really is. Inspired by that philosophy, Dr. Post and his staff have designed a vast and deep collection of the earth’s wonders and opened them up for all of the world to see. @topic:8


Publish Year: 2010 Title: Gem Localities of the 2000s Abstract: While the past decade saw some impressive discoveries of diamonds and colored stones (such as corundum, spinel, garnet, and tourmaline), it also witnessed reduced gem production in many areas as a result of high development costs, environmental considerations, and the downturn in the global economy. With legal and ethical restrictions on the trade in gems from some nations, and with premium market values paid for certain stones from particular sources, “locality of origin” determinations took on increased importance for some colored stones such as ruby, sapphire, emerald, and copper-bearing tourmaline. This article reviews the geographic sources of diamonds and colored stones, as well as the areas of production for both natural and cultured pearls, that were commercially important during the years 2001–2010. Maps of most of the important gem-producing regions of the world are included on an accompanying wall chart.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Diamond Localities
Diamond and Colored Stone Localities, by Country
Localities of Minor Colored Stones
Complete Reference List for Text and Tables
Complete Listing of Acknowledgments
Pearl Localities, by Location and Mollusk
	August 15, 2010 @topic:9


Publish Year: 2000 Title: Gem Localities of the 1990s Abstract: The past decade saw growth in gem exploration, production, and marketing worldwide. Important colored stone–producing regions included: Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam), Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, and Namibia, as well as Madagascar), South America (Brazil and Colombia), central and southern Asia (Sri Lanka, India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Russia, and China), and Australia. The major sources for diamonds were Australia, central and southern Africa (Botswana, South Africa, Namibia, Angola, and Zaire), and Russia (mainly in the Republic of Sakha), with exciting discoveries in northern Canada. Cultured pearls from French Polynesia, Australia, and China became increasingly important, as production from Japan declined. This article provides a comprehensive overview of those gem deposits that were either new or remained commercially significant in the last decade of the 20th century.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Pearl Localities Table - Expanded Version
	Submitted by Dona Dirlam
	January 29, 2001 @topic:2


Publish Year: 2009 Title: Gem-Quality Andalusite from Brazil Abstract: Widely known as a rock-forming mineral, andalusite is not frequently encountered as a gem material. This article documents the gemological and spectroscopic properties of numerous rough and cut samples of gem-quality andalusite from Brazil. The color varied from yellowish green and green to brownish pink (including bicolored green and brownish pink), and some were faceted with the pleochroic colors attractively oriented. Transparent samples of the chiastolite variety of andalusite were particularly interesting. All the samples displayed a complex growth pattern, with the various inclusions oriented along the growth directions. Heat treatment produced subtle changes in color, if any, but fracture filling with resin resulted in obvious improvements in apparent clarity.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Supplementary Photos
	Summer, 2009 @topic:1