Publish Year: 2023 Title: Small Freshwater Bead Cultured Pearls Abstract: Figure 1. Strands of freshwater bead cultured pearls acquired at the Hong Kong show (top) and freshwater BC pearls submitted for identification (middle) are shown with a strand of 6.60 mm akoya bead cultured pearls (bottom) for comparison. Photo by Adriana Robinson.

Figure 2. Left: Multiple blue color concentrations under the surface of one pearl; field of view 19.27 mm. Right: Blue dye concentration inside a fracture; field of view 2.34 mm. Photomicrographs by Artitaya Homkrajae.
Recently, the Carlsbad laboratory received a strand of 78 light bluish gray near-round pearls for identification. The strand (figure 1, middle) weighed 16.75 g (gross), and the pearls measured approximately 5.45 mm in diameter. Upon first impression, they looked like akoya bead cultured (BC) pearls due to their small size and shell bead nuclei observed down the drill holes with a 10× loupe. Their light bluish gray bodycolor also resembled the unprocessed and untreated akoya BC pearls that have become more popular in the market. However, microscopic observation revealed light blue color concentrations under the surface of many pearls (figure 2, left) and blue dye around a surface-reaching feature on one sample (figure 2, right), suggesting that the colors had been artificially modified.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence chemical analysis showed high levels of manganese, indicating a freshwater origin, as opposed to the saltwater origin of akoya. In 2023, at the AGTA GemFair in Tucson and the Hong Kong International Jewellery show, we saw small near-round to round Chinese freshwater BC pearls around 2–4 mm gaining popularity in the market (Spring 2023 Gem News International, pp. 109–110). These Chinese cultured pearls were available in various colors that were either natural or modified. A strand consisting of 126 small light gray freshwater BC pearls approximately 3.50 mm in diameter (figure 1, top) was acquired at the Hong Kong show to study the internal structures. The light gray bodycolor, likely caused by irradiation considering the dark gray bead nuclei seen in the drill holes, was atypical for natural colored freshwater pearls.

Figure 3. RTX image of freshwater BC pearls. The top strand, submitted for identification, has an average nacre thickness of 1 mm and an average bead diameter of 3.5 mm. The bottom strand, from the Hong Kong show, has an average nacre thickness of 0.8 mm and an average bead diameter of 2.7 mm. Image by Joyce Wing Yan Ho.
Real-time microradiography (RTX) revealed a distinct bead nucleus in each pearl in both the strands submitted for identification (figure 3, top) and the strand obtained from the Hong Kong show (figure 3, bottom), confirming they were bead cultured. All the pearls displayed relatively thick nacre, averaging about 1 mm for the larger strand and 0.8 mm for the smaller strand. The bead nuclei measured approximately 3.5 mm and 2.7 mm in diameter, respectively.
Although this type of small freshwater BC pearl is generally smaller than typical akoya BC pearls, there are also very small akoya BC pearls below 3 mm in the market (Spring 2018 Gem News International, pp. 103–105). Due to the popularity of very small round BC pearls, the size range of these types of freshwater and akoya pearls can be very similar. It could be difficult to separate them through visual inspection, and more advanced methods are likely needed to verify the environmental origin. The slightly flat surface feature previously encountered on white freshwater BC pearls was not present on the samples studied here (Spring 2023 Gem News International, pp. 109–110). Moreover, our freshwater BC pearl samples showed thicker nacre compared with the very small akoya pearls previously reported, with a nacre that was above the usual commercially accepted range (0.15–0.50 mm) for akoya.
Chinese freshwater cultured pearls are widely available in various sizes, shapes, colors, and qualities and have become a major part of the global market. This was GIA’s first examination of such small freshwater BC pearls, demonstrating the versatility of Chinese freshwater culturing methods in adapting to consumer demands. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2020 Title: A Fossilized Shell Blister and Blister Pearl Abstract: Figure 1. Two fossilized specimens, a shell blister (left) and a blister pearl (right), both with their associated shell. Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia; courtesy of Gina Latendresse, American Pearl Company, Inc.

Fossils are the remains or impressions of prehistoric organisms preserved from past geological ages. Some of the most common fossils are shells of various marine mollusks and, occasionally, their associated pearls (Winter 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 432–434). Recently two interesting fossilized specimens were studied by staff of GIA’s New York laboratory. One resembled a shell blister and the other a blister pearl, both with associated shell (figure 1).

Figure 2. Left: Clear striations are visible on the back of the shell blister (measuring approximately 24.4 × 18.6 × 6.5 mm). Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia. Center: Cellular crystal growth patterns are evident on the back of the shell blister. Right: Columnar growth structures are prominent with the cross section of the shell fragment. Photomicrographs by Chunhui Zhou (center and right).
The smaller sample appeared to be a shell fragment measuring approximately 24.4 × 18.6 × 6.5 mm and weighing 12.62 ct. The back of the shell showed even striations and a cellular crystal growth pattern, while the cross section showed a columnar structure (figure 2). A shallow “bump” noted on the face side could be best described as a shell blister, according to a recent study (“Natural shell blisters and blister pearls: What’s the difference?” GIA Research News, https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/natural-shell-blisters-and-blister-pearls). No additional information was provided about this specimen.

Figure 3. A near-round blister pearl seen lightly attached to its host shell. Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia.

Figure 4. Map of North America highlighting the shallow inland seaways present during the mid-Cretaceous period. The arrow indicates the present-day state of Kansas. © Colorado Plateau Geosystems Inc.
The second sample measured approximately 37 × 25 mm and weighed 32.63 ct. Its form resembled a concave shell fragment, and a near-round blister pearl was clearly attached to its inner surface (figure 3). According to our source, this specimen was found in Ellis County, Kansas, and formed within an Inoceramus mollusk genus (an extinct marine bivalve resembling the related winged pearly oysters of the extant genus Pteria). Fossils of the Inoceramus are commonly found in the Pierre Shale of the Western Interior Seaway in North America, where the state of Kansas lies today (figure 4). The specimen is reportedly estimated to be as much as 86 million years old.
EDXRF analysis detected low concentrations of manganese and high concentrations of strontium, typical of marine mollusks. Iron was also detected in both specimens, probably introduced through infiltration from the surrounding environment over millions of years. Microradiography did not reveal any clear internal growth structures. These two intriguing specimens created by Mother Nature and preserved by her until their discovery provide unique insights into ancient mollusks and their associated pearl or pearl-like companions. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2018 Title: Very Small Akoya Cultured Pearls Abstract: Figure 1. The graduated strand of small akoya bead-cultured pearls with nine tiny shell bead nuclei and loose akoya NBC pearls next to a Pinctada fucata (martensii) akoya shell. Photo by Nuttapol Kitdee.

Akoya cultured pearls are produced by the Pinctada genus, specifically Pinctada fucata (martensii). The mollusk and closely related species are found in the seas off Japan, China, South Korea, and Australia, as well as in the Mediterranean and Arabian Gulf and in the waters of other countries between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn such as Vietnam and India.

Akoya pearl farming was first established in the Mie Prefecture in Japan by Kokichi Mikimoto more than a century ago and still exists there to this day. Other suitable locations in Japan such as the waters off the islands of Shikoku and Kyushu, as well as pearl farms in other parts of the world such as Bai Tu Long and Ha Long Bays in the north of Vietnam and in the waters along the southern coast of China from Leizhou peninsula to the border of Vietnam also produce cultured akoya pearls. The round nuclei are commonly fashioned from freshwater shell imported from the USA (T. Hsu et al., “Freshwater pearling in Tennessee,” 2016). The technicians who insert the nuclei usually surgically maneuver one or two bead nuclei, ranging from 1.5 to 1.7 mm, into position within the gonad using a piece of mantle tissue from a donor mollusk to produce the bead-cultured pearls. Akoya mollusks are typically left in the water for 10 to 14 months. The best harvesting time is in the winter season, when cooler temperatures ensure the mollusks produce nacre slowly and more tightly, yielding the highest luster possible in akoya pearls before any processing is applied. Akoya bead-cultured pearls are typically round and range from 2 to 11 mm in diameter, with the most common sizes between 6 and 8 mm.

During the formation of bead-cultured pearls, the accidental formation of some non-bead cultured pearls (NBC), sometimes referred to as “keshi” pearls, may also take place. Those produced by the akoya mollusk are generally very small (the word “keshi” translates in Japanese to “poppy seed”).

GIA’s Bangkok laboratory examined a short strand of what were supposedly the smallest commercially produced akoya bead-cultured pearls available today, together with a selection of randomly picked NBC pearls from the same origin (figure 1), all loaned by Orient Pearl Company. The pearls and the shell reportedly came from Vietnam, and the author was informed that the shell used to culture the pearls was Pinctada fucata (martensii). The graduated strand, consisting of 42 very small bead-cultured pearls, weighed 4.68 ct total, and the pearls ranged from 1.90 to 3.17 mm. Also examined were nine tiny shell bead nuclei between 1.59 and 1.74 mm and weighing 0.30 carats total, as well as 67 loose akoya NBC pearls, ranging from 0.80 mm in diameter to 2.82 × 1.91 × 1.75 mm and weighing 2.31 carats total. The akoya bead-cultured pearls in the strand were round and near-round with a predominantly cream color. The NBC pearls were mostly baroque and predominantly white, with some cream and light gray samples.

Figure 2. RTX analysis revealed the round shell bead nuclei used in the production of the bead-cultured pearls in the strand. A typical-size (7.70 mm) akoya bead-cultured pearl is shown in the center for comparison. Image by Promlikit Kessrapong.
Although observation down the drill holes with a loupe indicated bead-cultured pearls, real-time X-ray microradiography (RTX) proved this beyond any doubt. A clear bead nucleus was visible in each pearl (figure 2). Characteristic small voids and/or organic features seen in many bead-cultured pearls were present in some cases between the shell bead nucleus and nacre overgrowth. Banded structure within the beads and/or differences in radio-opacity between the shell bead nuclei and nacre were other characteristic features of bead-cultured pearls noted when the pearls were examined at higher magnification. Measurements of five randomly selected pearls revealed nacre thicknesses from 0.20 to 0.41 mm, within the usual commercially accepted range (0.15–0.50 mm) expected for akoya bead-cultured pearls. The majority of the larger pearls showed very good nacre thickness, and none of them were below the minimum standard that might lead to durability concerns.

RTX analysis of the loose NBC pearls revealed typical void-like structures expected for akoya NBC pearls in most of the samples (H.A. Hänni, “A short review of the use of ‘keshi’ as a term to describe pearls.” Journal of Gemmology, 2006, Vol. 30, pp. 51–58; N. Sturman, “The microradiographic structures of non-bead cultured pearls,” 2009). Those with less-defined structures needed further RTX analysis in additional directions to find sufficient evidence of their claimed origin (figure 3).

Figure 3. RTX analysis of tiny loose akoya NBC pearls revealed void-like structures in most of them. Image by Promlikit Kessrapong.

Figure 4. RTX analysis of some of the smallest pearls, claimed to be NBC, revealed structures more consistent with natural pearls. Image by Kwanreun Lawanwong.
After additional RTX analysis in other directions, some of the more questionable structures showed features that were clear enough to consider as NBC. Most of the smallest pearls from the group revealed structures that were not consistent with those commonly seen in NBC pearls. Their “meaty” structures, central rounded dark organic features, and/or boundary or fold lines (seen in multi-nuclei/part pearls such as twins or aggregates) are in fact more typical of natural saltwater pearls (figure 4). Advanced analysis such as X-ray computed microtomography (µ-CT) may be required in these difficult cases, but owing to their very small sizes, obtaining clearer imagery is impractical. In this case, the lab gemologists did not find enough evidence to identify these pearls as non-bead cultured. Since most pearls are submitted without any information and laboratory gemologists have to go by what they see, such pearls would likely be considered natural, even if they are not such by definition. This clearly shows the challenges faced by gemologists carrying out pearl identification on some client-submitted items. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2023 Title: Pearls in Traditional Indian Nose Rings Abstract: Figure 1. Two traditional Indian-style pearl nose rings (nath) set with colored gemstones and pearls measuring approximately 6.63 × 6.09 mm to 8.42 mm (left) and 5.38 mm to 8.02 × 7.61 mm (right). Photo by Gaurav Bera.
The beauty of Indian jewelry lies in the artisanship involved in creating intricate, unique designs. One example is the classic Indian nose ring (known as the nath). It is typically cashew shaped, with a chain to connect it to a hairpiece or earring. The nath exemplifies traditional Maharashtrian jewelry and is usually crafted in yellow gold. Made famous during the Peshwa rule, the nath has been crafted using diamonds, pearls, rubies, and emeralds. Today, the nath is worn mainly for weddings or special occasions, while everyday nose adornments take the form of smaller, simpler studs or rings made from gold or silver. Recently, GIA’s Mumbai laboratory received two traditional nose rings for pearl identification.
Each was set with 17 drilled pearls, near-drop and button, ranging from light cream to cream in color. They were skillfully strung together with yellow metal wire and set with colored gemstones of various shapes and cutting styles. The pearls in the larger nose ring (figure 1, left) ranged from approximately 6.63 × 6.09 mm to 8.42 mm, and the item weighed a total of 13.96 g. Those in the smaller nose ring (figure 1, right) ranged from 5.38 mm to 8.02 × 7.61 mm, and this piece weighed 9.05 g overall. When viewed under 40× magnification, the pearl surfaces in both pieces showed typical nacreous overlapping aragonite platelets and a medium to high surface luster. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry revealed manganese levels below the instrument’s detection level and a strontium content averaging 950 ppm. In addition, the pearls were inert to X-ray fluorescence, indicative of saltwater origin. They showed a moderate greenish yellow reaction under long-wave ultraviolet light and a weaker reaction of similar color under short-wave UV. Real-time microradiography imaging revealed internal structures similar to those observed in natural pearl studies for various Pinctada-species mollusks (K. Scarratt et al., “Natural pearls from Australian Pinctada maxima,” Winter 2012 G&G, pp. 236–261; N. Nilpetploy et al., “The gemological characteristics of Pipi pearls reportedly from Pinctada maculata,” Winter 2018 G&G, pp. 418–427). The radiopaque areas visible on the microradiographs of both items correspond to the yellow metal fittings and wire, since they are denser and prevent X-rays from passing through.

Figure 2. Real-time microradiography of the internal structures observed in the larger nose ring consisting of organic-rich acicular structures and growth arcs (left) and a “collapsed core” near the drill hole area surrounded by growth arcs (right).
Five pearls from the larger nath revealed an organic-rich internal structure with varying patchy light and dark gray contrasting areas, along with an acicular structure radiating from their centers that occupied almost half of the internal structure (figure 2, left). Two pearls showed “collapsed cores” close to the drill holes (figure 2, right); the bulk of the cores, if any, were removed as a result of drilling. The remaining ten pearls displayed fine concentric rings and growth arcs, all proving their natural origin.

Figure 3. The majority of the pearls in the smaller nose ring showed faint growth arcs and concentric ringed structures, while three of them showed organic-rich acicular cores (marked with arrows) typical of natural pearls.
Microradiography of the pearls in the smaller nath revealed similar internal structures. While the majority of those pearls showed fine concentric rings and growth arcs, three of them (marked with arrows in figure 3) also possessed organic-rich and acicular cores that occupied varying degrees of their structure. The internal structures observed in both items contained classic natural pearl structures similar to those observed in known Pinctada radiata pearls in GIA’s research database. The EDXRF results were also within the range expected for Pinctada radiata samples, with the lower levels of strontium (average of 950 ppm) and manganese (mostly below detection limits) consistent with that mollusk species and below those expected from P. maxima pearls (A. Homkrajae et al., “Internal structures of known Pinctada maxima pearls: Natural pearls from wild marine mollusks,” Spring 2021 G&G, pp. 2–21).
The combinations of natural pearls made these two pieces very attractive. It is no easy task to create traditional nose ornaments with pearls of such size. These two unique pearl jewelry items provide an excellent example of Indian heritage. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2012 Title: Natural Pearls from Australian Pinctada Maxima Abstract: The fascinating and colorful history of natural pearling in Australian waters is presented, from the early six-man luggers to the large ships in modern fleets where pearl culture has been the focus for the past several decades. For the scientific investigation of this paper, the authors retrieved natural pearls from wild Pinctada maxima in Australian waters and recorded the various properties that might help to differentiate between natural pearls from this mollusk and those that are accidental by-products of the culturing process. Three distinct categories of host Pinctada maxima shells and mantle pearls were collected and examined by the authors: (1) from wild shell prior to any pearl culturing operation, (2) from wild shell after pearl culturing and approximately two years on the farm, and (3) from hatchery-reared shell prior to pearl culturing. Data were collected from microscopy, X-rays of internal structures, using real-time microradiography and X-ray computed microtomography, various forms of spectroscopy, and LA-ICP-MS chemical analysis. The results showed that microradiographic structures previously considered indicative of an accidentally cultured P. maxima pearl may not be conclusive, and that such criteria should only be applied with the utmost caution by an experienced technician. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2023 Title: Two Pearls of Indian Cultural Significance Abstract: Figure 1. The Lord Hanumana pearl (left, 33.70 × 32.98 × 24.64 mm) and the Lord Ganesha pearl (right, 10.59 × 10.21 × 9.18 mm). Photo by Gaurav Bera.
In India, pearls (also known as moti or mukta) and pearl-adorned jewelry have historically been coveted by the affluent and served as symbols of cultural importance for centuries. GIA’s Mumbai laboratory has tested various jewelry items set with pearls that were not only artistic in their design but also of great symbolic and religious significance. Two recent submissions consisted of pearls fashioned into the likenesses of Indian deities (figure 1). The first was skillfully crafted to resemble Lord Hanumana, an Indian deity from the epic Ramayana bearing the likeness of a vanara (an ancient race of forest-dwellers). The ornament had a total weight of 24.91 g, and its surface was partially drilled in several positions. Yellow metal fittings set with green, white, yellow, and black enamel formed the head, eyes, body, and striped tail. A translucent red stone set on the pearl formed the tongue of the deity (figure 2, left). This baroque pearl was white and light gray in color with orient and measured approximately 33.70 × 32.98 × 24.64 mm. When viewed under 40× magnification, its surface showed typical nacreous structure with overlapping aragonite platelets, and minor surface openings were present on some areas. Most of the surface had good nacre condition, but a few small areas of the nacre were damaged or worn, and remnants of an adhesive glue were visible around some of the decorative enamel inserts.

Figure 2. Left: External appearance of the Lord Hanumana pearl. Photo by Gaurav Bera. Right: RTX image showing the internal structure. Also indicated are the gemstone tongue, the eyes, the tail, the void, and the filling.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry analysis of the pearl showed manganese levels below the detection level of the instrument and a higher strontium content of 1188 ppm. In addition, an inert reaction to X-ray fluorescence (XRF) confirmed saltwater origin. A moderate greenish yellow reaction was observed under long-wave ultraviolet radiation, and a weaker reaction of a similar color was noted under short-wave UV radiation. Such fluorescence reactions in nacreous saltwater pearls are often associated with pearls from the Pinctada-species mollusk. Real-time microradiography (RTX) imaging revealed the presence of a very large void that appeared to have been partially filled with a foreign material (figure 2, right). The clearest evidence of the void was observed within the ornament’s head as a dark gray area beneath the nacre layer. The outline of this void was consistent with the external shape of the pearl, but the filling material partially masked the void in RTX and made it harder to see the complete structure clearly. (The radiopaque areas visible on the microradiographs represent the adornments decorating the pearl.) While large voids are more often associated with non-bead cultured pearls, the shape and form of this void resembled those associated with natural pearls. Hollow pearls are often filled (wholly or partially) with a variety of materials including wax, metal, resin, cement, and shell to increase the weight and inflate the perceived value (Winter 2022 Lab Notes, pp. 480–481). In the case of older pearls such as this one, filling can provide enough solid material within the pearl to support all the metal adornments, and it can also improve the durability of the item.

Figure 3. Front view of the Lord Ganesha pearl (left) with a line drawing of features (center) and back view (right). Photo by Gaurav Bera.

Figure 4. X-ray fluorescence reaction (left) and an RTX image showing the Lord Ganesha pearl’s internal structure (right). A small twisted void and discoid features can be seen in the center.
Also submitted was a pearl portraying Lord Ganesha (figure 1, right). The white undrilled, button-shaped pearl weighed 6.27 ct and measured 10.59 × 10.21 × 9.18 mm. Its surface was carefully carved to resemble the Indian deity, with the head of an elephant and the seated body of a man on the front and a swirling pattern on the back (figure 3). EDXRF analysis results showed a high manganese content of 598 ppm and relatively low strontium levels at 376 ppm. These readings were supported by a strong yellowish green fluorescence reaction when exposed to optical XRF (figure 4, left), indicating the pearl was from a freshwater environment. RTX imaging revealed the presence of a small twisted void, along with discoid-like features (figure 4, right) typically seen in non-bead cultured freshwater pearls (K. Scarratt et al., “Characteristics of nuclei in Chinese freshwater cultured pearls,” Summer 2000 G&G, pp. 98–109).
The transformation of pearls into valuable pieces of art is a specialized skill. Indian artists have mastered this ability and can transform pearls into symbolic pieces that have a special connection to ancient Indian scriptures. The laboratory staff at GIA in Mumbai continue to examine intriguing pearls of historical and cultural significance in India. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2023 Title: Bead Cultured Abalone Pearls from Chile Abstract: Figure 1. Twelve Chilean abalone cultured pearls and two red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) shells with attached cultured shell blisters, as well as three 7 mm traditional freshwater shell bead nuclei used to culture the pearls. Photo by Emily Lane.
Abalone is the common name of the marine mollusk species that belongs to the Haliotis genus. Various abalone species are distributed worldwide along cold coastal waters. They live in rocky habitats, attaching firmly with their muscular foot. Abalone is highly prized for its meat, shell, and pearls. Due to a marked decrease of abalone populations, harvesting wild-caught abalone is heavily regulated. Thus, approximately 95% of the global abalone supply comes from farms around the world, in countries such as China, South Korea, South Africa, Chile, Australia, Taiwan, Japan, the United States, and New Zealand (P.A. Cook, “Worldwide abalone production statistics,” Journal of Shellfish Research, Vol. 38, No. 2, 2019, pp. 401–404).
Abalone’s ear-shaped shells and pearls are known for their unique, vibrant iridescent nacre, which is sought after in jewelry and decorative items. The iridescence phenomenon is also known as “orient,” and it is attributed to interference and diffraction of light in the multilayered aragonite platelet microstructure and organic components. Due to the rarity of natural abalone pearls, most abalone products used in jewelry today are either abalone shells or assembled cultured shell blisters (also known as “mabe pearls”).
The culturing of whole pearls in abalone mollusks started around the same time as shell blister culturing for producing mabe pearl (assembled cultured shell blister), and various methods have been attempted over the years (C.Y. Wentzell, “Cultured abalone blister pearls from New Zealand,” Fall 1998 G&G, pp. 184–200; M. Monteforte and H. Bervera, “Abalone pearl culture on the west coast of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico,” World Aquaculture, 2010, pp. 12–17). However, due to abalone’s hemophilia and poor tolerance for chemicals and handling, any significant cut could cause major bleeding, and the nucleation and implantation procedures could induce infection that prohibits the mollusk from producing nacre. Therefore, the success rate of bead cultured (BC) abalone pearls was always low and the pearls were of unmarketable quality.

Figure 2. Abalone mollusks were grown in an aquaculture recirculation system in eight raceways of 5000 liters. A local kelp species (shown on the right) was used to feed the mollusks twice per week. Photos courtesy of Jorge Donoso Mena.
After 10 years of experimenting, scientists from the University of Antofagasta, Chile, have successfully created abalone BC pearls using a patented method for producing free pearls in abalone. Twelve of their cultured pearls and two abalone shells with a cultured shell blister attached (figure 1) were submitted to GIA for study in May 2022. They were the pilot crop of a new pearl culturing technique using traditional freshwater shell bead nuclei (5 to 8 mm) inserted into grafting channels in the visceral mass of Haliotis rufescens (red abalone) imported into Chile from Mexico in the 1990s (figure 2, left) for abalone farming. The BC pearl cultivation takes place during the last 24–28 months of the abalone culture process that usually takes 48–52 months, allowing the abalone meat and the pearl to be harvested at the same time. The facilities include an aquaculture recirculation system in eight raceways of 5000 liters, with continuous aeration by blowers and a culture water flow of 5000 liters per hour (figure 2, right). The local kelp species Lessonia trabeculata obtained from natural, sustainably managed sources is used to feed the mollusks twice a week. Despite a high rate of bead nucleus rejection, the survival rate of the mollusks after grafting has been 99% and is currently at 15,000 grafted mollusks per trial, according to the farm.

Figure 3. RTX images reveal 5–8 mm round shell bead nuclei in a majority of the abalone samples (ABL), with the nacre layer thickness surrounding the bead nuclei ranging from 0.10 to 1.20 mm. A bead nucleus was absent in sample 2, only showing layered growth with void-related features. While it is considered a non-bead cultured pearl, its internal structure resembled the internal structure commonly found in natural abalone baroque pearls. Image by Amiroh Steen.
The cultured abalone pearls produced using this method displayed multicolored nacreous surfaces due to strong iridescence, along with patches and stripes of dark brown organic materials. They exhibited a variety of baroque forms, and four samples possessed horn or tooth shapes often found in natural abalone pearls. A characteristic underlying botryoidal-like surface structure, usually observed on natural abalone pearls and shells, was also present (Fall 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 319–320). Real-time microradiography (RTX) revealed a round bead nucleus in the majority of samples, and the nacre layer thickness surrounding the bead nuclei ranged from 0.10 to 1.20 mm (figure 3). One sample lacked a bead nucleus and was identified as a non-bead cultured (NBC) pearl. Its layered growth with void-related features resembled the internal structure commonly found in natural abalone baroque pearls.

Figure 4. Raman spectra using 514 nm laser excitation showed high fluorescence background and weak peaks of aragonite displayed at 704 and 1085 cm–1. These results are consistent with 10 natural abalone samples selected for preliminary comparison study.

Figure 5. The cultured and natural abalone pearl samples were compositionally similar in trace element concentrations determined by LA-ICP-MS. However, the cultured samples contained lower boron and higher potassium than the natural pearls. All four tested spots of the NBC samples are clearly separated from natural samples in this plot.
Ten natural abalone pearls were selected for spectroscopic and chemical comparison with the cultured pearl samples, and both types of samples showed similar results. No specific patterns were observed in ultraviolet/visible reflectance and photoluminescence spectra, and Raman spectra showed high fluorescence background and weak peaks of aragonite at 704 and 1085 cm–1 (figure 4). Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis revealed all the samples had very low or below detection limit manganese content and high levels of strontium ranging from 1100 to 5000 ppm. High iodine levels were also detected in most samples, which is common in abalone. Trace element concentrations determined by laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) were compositionally similar in both sample types. However, the cultured samples contained lower boron and higher potassium contents. All four tested spots of the NBC samples could be clearly separated from natural samples in the plot of boron vs. potassium contents (figure 5). Since the one NBC pearl showed an internal structure similar to that of natural abalone pearls, the plot can potentially be used to differentiate NBC pearls from natural samples. However, further study on both sample types is required. Additionally, all abalone samples showed higher strontium concentrations than Pinctada species previously studied.
The success of abalone BC pearl production could be a promising addition to the gem and jewelry industry, and this study provided useful information for future reference. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2023 Title: “Edison” Pearls: Increasing Market Presence Abstract: A graduated strand of “Edison” pearls in copper and bronze metallic colors, ranging from 9 to 12 mm. Also shown are three loose pearls: 10 mm peach, 11 mm purple, and 11 mm copper. Photo by Robert Weldon.
Several vendors at both the AGTA and GJX shows carried large and attractively colored “Edison” pearls from China (see C. Zhou et al., “Detection of color treatment and optical brightening in Chinese freshwater ‘Edison’ pearls,” Summer 2021 G&G, pp. 124–134). These round freshwater bead cultured pearls generally ranged in size from 9 to 14 mm. Some baroque pearls were also offered. This year we saw deeper hues and more purple, bronze, copper, peach, and orangy pink colors than in the past; lighter colors such as white, cream, and light pink were more scarce. Popular trends included “rainbow” strands of pearls featuring a mix of colors, strands with alternating blocks of color, and strands with metallic colors (see above). At GJX, we spoke with Amy Hansen of A&B Jewelry (Honolulu, Hawaii) to learn about current purchasing trends and the latest developments at the pearl farms.
Hansen indicated that “Edison” pearls are still finding their place in the market. Her designer clients are seeking larger pearls, and those in the 12–14 mm size range are doing particularly well, with pearls larger than 13 mm in highest demand. She explained the limits in producing larger pearls: Larger sizes (particularly greater than 14 mm in diameter) take much more time to culture, which greatly limits the yield of top-grade product with respect to shape, nacre, surface, and luster. As a result, the highest-quality “Edison” pearls in sizes over 14 mm are rare and considerably more costly. That said, she noted that “Edison” pearls are still a good value, available in an appealing variety of colors and sizes with a price point substantially below akoya and Tahitian saltwater cultured pearls.
Hansen explained that the cultivation of “Edison” pearls in terms of bead size and culturing times is similar to that for saltwater Tahitian pearls. She described improvements in the process, including Chinese freshwater pearl farmers moving inland to access cleaner rivers and lakes and using more sound environmental practices. The move to these newer locations has resulted in more colors being achieved, broadening the offerings of these pearls. Chinese freshwater cultured pearl production has also decreased over the past five years as the focus has shifted more to quality over quantity. The wholesale price of fine-quality “Edison” pearls is still considerably below that of similarly sized Tahitian and akoya pearls, but we expect the price gap to narrow somewhat as the quality and popularity of these beautiful freshwater cultured pearls continues to increase. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2015 Title: A Natural Pearl with an Intriguing Internal Structure Abstract: Figure 1. The 0.95 ct pearl measuring 5.22 × 5.04 mm is shown with a GIA triplet loupe for scale. Photo by Lhapsin Nillapat.

	Aspects of natural pearl formation remain a mystery in many cases; however, one generally accepted principle is that an intruder finds its way into the mantle or gill areas of a mollusk and instigates the pearl formation process. Gemologists are never sure what they will find when natural pearls are examined using microradiography. Substantial real-time X-ray microradiography (RTX) work by GIA staff in various locations has shown evidence of formation cause in only a few pearls.

	Early in 2015, a cream semi-baroque button pearl measuring 5.22 × 5.04 mm and weighing 0.95 ct (figure 1) was submitted to GIA’s Bangkok laboratory with nine other pearls. Externally the pearl appeared similar to many other previously examined natural pearls, but the microradiography uncovered something that was far from normal.

	After initial RTX examination, the apparent initiator of this specimen’s formation was found to be very different from anything encountered, to our knowledge, in a natural pearl. RTX revealed an attractive radiating structure within a central conchiolin-rich boundary and associated external arcs within the surrounding nacreous overgrowth (figure 2). The radial object displayed clear solid arms extending from the central core of the structure. Given the nature of the core, further investigation was performed in order to identify the radial feature and see whether the pearl was natural or formed via human intervention using an organic nucleus as a “bead.”

Figure 2. The RTX images of the pearl’s structure (left and right viewed from the side; center viewed from the top) revealed an intricate feature that might be an example of a foraminifera. The central feature measures approximately 1.95 × 1.93 mm, as determined by RTX and μ-CT.

	Computed microtomography (μ-CT) analysis was used to perform a 3-D examination of the radial feature. The μ-CT results revealed a magnificent structure with a snowflake-like intricacy to its form (figure 3). The structure created some doubts about the natural formation of the pearl. The dark organic/conchiolin-rich growth structure, with some gaps between the nucleus and the surrounding nacre, has been noted in other unusual natural pearls of known origin. This differs from the so-called “atypical bead-cultured pearls” that almost always display a tight structure (lacking growth arcs) around the inserted nucleus. Almost all of the whole shell nuclei experimentally inserted into Pinctada maxima hosts have shown the boundary of the shell/nacre interface to merge tightly with one another, with very little in the way of organic arcs within the surrounding nacre. This curious structure led to further investigations into published claims of natural organic nuclei within natural pearls.

Figure 3. The μ-CT images reveal the structure in even more detail. Here, the nature of the organic-looking natural core is shown in three different μ-CT slices in the three different directions examined.

	Similar but not identical structures have been documented in RTX and μ-CT work carried out on two pearls recovered from natural P. maxima shells by GIA staff (“An expert’s journey into the world of Australian pearling,” 2014). Pearls with unique structures have also been reported by others (K. Scarratt et al., “Natural pearls from Australian Pinctada maxima,” Winter 2012 G&G, pp. 236–261). The exact origin of the pearls studied in Scarratt et al. is unclear, although they are more likely to be natural in at least two of the examples cited. For instance, the whole shell of one sample mentioned by Scarratt et al. showed characteristics similar to the specimen described here, with visible arcs within the nacre surrounding a shell nucleus that has a notable void/organic interface between the shell and nacre. The very small drill hole present in the shell, as opposed to the larger drill holes commonly found in cultured pearls, also strongly suggests a natural origin.

	The nucleus of the 0.95 ct pearl under discussion appeared to be an organism such as coral. In order to find a match, coral samples were analyzed by RTX and μ-CT methods to compare their structures. Results indicated that the feature within the pearl may well be coral, but no exact match was noted. During the recent International Gemmological Conference (IGC) in Vilnius, Lithuania, it was suggested that the similar internal feature of a different pearl (N. Sturman et. al, “X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT) structures of known natural and non-bead cultured Pinctada maxima pearls,” Proceedings of 34th International Gemmological Conference, 2015, pp. 121–124) could well be a remarkably preserved foraminifera, a marine micro-skeleton member of a phylum of amoeboid protists. They are usually less than 1 mm in size; their structures vary, and many live on the sea floor. Given the environment, size, and features evident in the form within the pearl under discussion, it may well be that the internal structure is a type of foraminifera sphere with a porous structure for passive filtration (see figure 6 at www.mdpi.com/1660-3397/12/5/2877/html). The μ-CT results revealed the interconnecting channels and radial structure characteristic of these spherical foraminifera.

	Whatever the true nature of the central form, the author considers the structure of this pearl to be natural based on the characteristics noted. It is also interesting to see that this pearl was small and not of particularly fine quality, other characteristics of natural pearl samples collected from the field. GIA’s own experiments with small pieces of shell and coral using P. maxima hosts have produced larger pearls with different external appearances and generally finer quality than the specimen studied here. Further research into the differences between unusual structures in natural and atypical bead-cultured pearls will continue. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2022 Title: Atypical “Box Bead” Cultured Pearls Abstract: Figure 1. The five “box bead” cultured pearls examined ranged from 8.00 × 7.26 × 6.05 mm to 9.93 × 7.86 × 5.86 mm. Photo by Lhapsin Nillapat.
Gemologists are aware of two main types of bead cultured pearls—bead cultured (BC) and atypical bead cultured (aBC). BC pearls are cultured with the typical round, predominantly freshwater shell bead nuclei, while aBC pearls are cultured with any material that is not typical. Atypical bead nuclei include fancy-shaped shell beads, pearls of any kind, plastic beads, gemstones, or other materials of various shapes. GIA’s Bangkok laboratory received five loose undrilled pearls as research samples for examination. These were reportedly sold as “tissue box pearls” in the Indian market by a trader known to some GIA staff. Externally they exhibited a smooth surface with luster resembling that of South Sea Pinctada maxima cultured pearls. The samples ranged from 8.00 × 7.26 × 6.05 mm to 9.93 × 7.86 × 5.86 mm, weighing between 2.50 and 3.49 ct, and exhibited a baroque form with a white to cream color (figure 1).

Figure 2. The five “box bead” cultured pearls (top) together with their X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT) slices showing the obvious rectangular bead demarcations resembling a box shape (bottom). The red arrow indicates the additional structural feature observed within sample 2. Photos by Lhapsin Nillapat.
Microradiographic examination revealed unusual box-shaped demarcation outlines uncharacteristic of traditional BC pearls (figure 2). To the author’s knowledge, this kind of internal rectangular shape is never seen in natural pearls. Sample 2 revealed an additional structural feature extending from the shorter side of the “box bead” (see red arrow in figure 2). Sample 3 possessed two distinct radio-translucent areas around the box-shaped outline; these are expected for voids or certain organic-rich features in pearls. Samples 4 and 5 also showed similar radio-translucent features, but to a lesser extent. Since the rectangular internal structures are not observed in natural pearls, the clear demarcation features with a box-shaped outline are enough to identify these as aBC pearls.
The box-shaped beads clearly influenced the external shapes of their pearl hosts when they formed within the mollusks, as seen in figure 1. Samples 2 and 3 were cut in half for further examination of their internal structures. Under magnification, each half showed an obvious demarcation between the box-shaped bead and the nacre overgrowth. The “box beads” appeared to be more translucent than traditional beads and exhibited platy structure and banding in some areas, proving they were fashioned from shell. Additionally, the feature in sample 2 possessed a radial structure and appeared somewhat translucent. Observation through a gemological microscope revealed that the gaps around the nucleus in sample 3 were in fact voids with areas of dark organic-rich material, likely conchiolin, present within (figure 3).

Figure 3. A: Cross section of sample 2. B: Radial columnar structures, identified as calcite by Raman, observed in an area within the nacre overgrowth covering sample 2’s bead nucleus. C: Cross section of sample 3. D: Magnified view of one of the void features with dark organic-rich material attached to the inner surface. Photos by Ravenya Atchalak; fields of view 14.40 mm (A and C), 7.20 mm (B), and 2.88 mm (D).
Another point of interest was the inert reaction of the shell nuclei in each half of both samples under optical X-ray fluorescence. Since most freshwater bead nuclei show strong yellowish green or greenish yellow reactions, it was clear that the “box beads” were not fashioned from freshwater mussel shells.

Figure 4. The cross sections of sample 2 (top left) and sample 3 (top right) under white light and their inert reactions under X-ray fluorescence (bottom). Photos by Ravenya Atchalak.
Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) results of the “box bead” nuclei, outer nacre layers, and the radial calcitic area revealed major amounts of calcium, along with high levels of strontium ranging from 1209 to 1986 ppm, and manganese below 63 ppm. The low levels of manganese detected by EDXRF corresponded to the inert optical X-ray fluorescence reaction (figure 4), as the intensity of any reaction is directly correlated to the manganese levels (P. Kessrapong et al., “Atypical bead cultured Pinctada maxima pearls nucleated with freshwater non-bead cultured pearls,” GIA Research News, April 6, 2020, https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/atypical-bcp-nucleated-with-nbcp). The high strontium and low manganese concentrations indicated saltwater origin.
Under long-wave ultraviolet radiation, the sawn surfaces exhibited a bluish reaction. Sample 2 showed additional very weak orangy reactions associated with the columnar feature partially surrounding the bead (figure 5).

Figure 5. The cross sections of sample 2 (top left) and sample 3 (top right) under white light and their reactions under long-wave UV (bottom). Photos by Ravenya Atchalak.
Short-wave UV fluorescence spectra were also collected from the pearl surfaces using a GIA-developed spectrometer. The spectra showed two distinct peaks around 330 and 360 nm with counts above 10,000, indicating the surfaces were not processed using bleach or any whitening/brightening agents (C. Zhou et al., “Detection of color treatment and optical brightening in Chinese freshwater ‘Edison’ pearls,” Summer 2021 G&G, pp. 124–133).
Raman analysis using 514 nm laser excitation on the “box bead” surfaces and outer nacreous layers of the sawn surfaces showed typical aragonite features at around 701/704 cm–1 (doublet) and 1085 cm–1. The columnar radiating area on sample 2 was also analyzed, revealing features at around 154, 281, 711, and 1085 cm–1 that were consistent with calcite (J. Urmos et al., “Characterization of some biogenic carbonates with Raman spectroscopy,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 76, 1991, pp. 641–646).
All the data obtained from the advanced testing methods as well as observation under magnification prove the “box bead” nuclei were fashioned from saltwater shell.
Although this is not the first time GIA has encountered saltwater cultured pearls containing non-traditional bead nuclei, the box shape of the beads in this sample group has never been documented in the gemological literature and is therefore notable. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2021 Title: Melo Pearl Found in a Melo Shell Abstract: Figure 1. A Melo pearl measuring 20.50 × 19.25 × 18.85 mm and weighing 55.10 ct. A fine crack is visible across the center of the surface. Photo by Nutapol Kitdee.

Over the years, there have been a number of reports relating discoveries of natural pearls in edible oysters (e.g., Fall 2019 Gem News International, pp. 439–440; Fall 2020 Lab Notes, pp. 420–422). However, similar discoveries are much rarer in gastropods, such as species of the Melo genus. Such finds often make headlines, as was the case recently in Thailand when a few discoveries were reported on social media. One of these remarkable stories, titled “A delicious find,” was posted on www.facebook.com/GIAEducation on April 9, 2021. It detailed the discovery of a large oval orange Melo pearl measuring 20.50 × 19.25 × 18.85 mm and weighing 55.10 ct that was submitted to GIA’s Bangkok laboratory for testing in September 2020 (figure 1). The owner claimed to have accidentally found this pearl in an inexpensive Melo shell he purchased with another shell from a local market in Rayong Province, eastern Thailand.

Figure 2. Various flame structure patterns visible on the pearl’s surface: short patchy flames with a fine surface-reaching crack (left), thin elongated flames with some minor natural features (center), and flames reminiscent of Christmas trees (right). Photomicrographs by Kwanreun Lawanwong; fields of view 19.20, 7.20, and 3.60 mm, respectively.
This note offers additional detail on the pearl that was the subject of that story. To the eye, the pearl looked exactly as a Melo pearl should. Its size and color were consistent with that type of pearl, and it exhibited various flame structure patterns on its surface: short patchy flames, thin elongated flames, and “triangular” flames reminiscent of Christmas trees (figure 2). These features were consistent with flame structures previously observed on Melo pearls (D.J. Content, Ed., Pearl and the Dragon: A Study of Vietnamese Pearls and a History of the Oriental Pearl Trade, Houlton, Maine, 1999, pp. 90–92; H. Htun et al., “Melo ‘pearls’ from Myanmar,” Fall 2006 G&G, pp. 135–136; V. Pardieu, “Concise Field Report: Melos and their pearls in Vietnam,” GIA Research News, https://www.gia.edu/ongoing-research/melo-pearls-from-vietnam, 2009). Some other associated minor surface features were visible, together with a long fine crack traversing one area (figure 2, left).

Figure 3. Microradiographs in two directions showed no obvious internal growth structure. Only a fine dark line showed in one orientation, which corresponded to a surface-reaching crack (left, indicated by the white arrows).
Microradiography revealed no obvious internal growth structure (figure 3). Only the fine crack previously mentioned showed as a dark fine line in the correct orientation (figure 3, left, indicated by the white arrows). The absence of any surface modification and the presence of natural surface features, in addition to the lack of banded structure typically observed in shell samples, proved this was a pearl and not an imitation fashioned from Melo shell (Summer 2006 Lab Notes, pp 166–167; N. Sturman et al., “An imitation Melo pearl,” GIA Research News, https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/imitation-melo-pearl, 2011).
Spectral analyses using Raman, photoluminescence (PL), and UV-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy proved the pearl’s color was of natural origin. Raman spectra revealed features at 701, 705, and 1085 cm–1 identifying aragonite, together with polyenic peaks at 1130 and 1520 cm–1 responsible for the orange coloration. These polyenic peaks are consistent with other naturally colored porcelaneous pearls (S. Karampelas et al., “Polyacetylenic pigments found in pearls and corals,” 30th International Gemmological Conference Proceedings, 2007, pp. 49–51; Summer 2018 Lab Notes, pp. 211–212).
An interesting declaration made by the pearl’s owner probably explains the presence of the fine eye-visible surface crack. The Melo shell containing the hidden pearl was boiled, and the Melo pearl was only discovered when the meat was being prepared for consumption. Hence, it is likely that the temperatures and duration applied during the cooking process caused the crack’s formation. This point has been mentioned by a number of pearl traders during discussions with lab gemologists over the years, so it seems an important consideration when such cracks are observed. Even so, the notable size, unmodified surface, perfectly formed oval shape, and intense natural color all combined to make this a desirable and special pearl. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2018 Title: Two Natural “Horse Conch” Pearls Abstract: Figure 1. Two natural “horse conch” pearls and the shell from which they were reportedly extracted. Photo by Johnny Leung.

GIA’s Hong Kong laboratory recently examined two strongly saturated reddish orange non-nacreous pearls weighing 126.20 ct and 4.89 ct, and measuring 40.80 × 23.70 × 20.96 mm and 10.53 × 8.55 × 7.68 mm, respectively. The client who submitted the pearls also provided the shell from which they were reportedly extracted (figure 1). While such information must be treated with a degree of caution, our client also stated that the shell and pearls were handed to him by a fisherman who claimed to have found them in the waters off Isla Mujeres, near Cancun, Mexico. The shell measured approximately 47 × 24 × 24 cm and appeared pinkish orange with an orangy brown periostracum. Its large size, characteristic shape, pinkish orange color, and fine slender flame structures enabled us to identify it as a member of the Triplofusus genus, most likely Triplofusus papillosus or Triplofusus giganteus, sometimes referred to as Pleuroploca gigantea (E. Strack, Pearls, Rühle-Diebener-Verlag GmbH & Co., Stuttgart, Germany, 2006, p. 108; Fall 1994 Lab Notes, p. 195). These are all names that have been used to describe the Florida horse conch, though differences of opinion on the correct nomenclature applicable exist (D.P. Berschauer, “What’s in a name – the Florida horse conch,” The Festivus, Vol. 49, 2017, pp. 110–116). The Triplofusus genus is part of the Fasciolariidae subfamily which is a very diverse group of marine gastropods. The parallel line patterned Pleuroploca trapezium is another member of the Fasciolariidae subfamily said to produce unusual horse conch pearls (H. Bari and D. Lam, Pearls, Skira Editore S.p.A, Milan, 2009, pp. 70–73).

Figure 2. Short spiky flame structure on the 4.89 ct pearl (left, field of view 3.74 mm), and fine, elongated flame structure on the 126.20 ct pearl (right, field of view 2.83 mm). Photos by Sharon Tsz Huen Wu.
The larger of the two pearls displayed an uneven coloration with some lighter areas blending into a more saturated reddish orange. The smaller pearl was more homogeneous in appearance. The flame structures appeared spiky on the smaller pearl but were fine and elongated on the larger pearl (figure 2). Real-time microradiography revealed small void-like features in the center of the smaller pearl and toward the tapered end of the larger pearl. Such voids are not uncommon in the pearls of a number of porcelaneous pearl-producing mollusks. GIA has recorded similar features in examples from species of Tridacna/Hippopus, Strombus gigas, Cassis, and Melo. While the flame structures bore some similarities to those seen in Strombus gigas (conch) pearls, their strong reddish orange color and internal structures aligned more closely with horse conch pearls. Raman spectroscopy using 514 nm laser excitation detected aragonite peaks at 702, 706, and 1086 cm–1, as well as peaks at 1130 and 1520 cm–1 attributed to naturally occurring polyenic pigments responsible for the strong reddish orange color. The natural coloration was further supported by the presence of numerous polyenic-related peaks in the PL spectrum (figure 3) collected with the same laser excitation.

Figure 3. The PL spectrum of the 4.89 ct horse conch pearl displayed numerous peaks associated with naturally occurring polyenic pigments.
Although GIA handles a wide range of pearls originating from different mollusk species, horse conch pearls are among the rarest examined. It was, therefore, very rewarding to handle the 126.20 ct pearl and its smaller partner together with the shell from which they reportedly originated. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2014 Title: Natural Pearl Aggregates from Pteria Mollusks Abstract: Figure 1. These 10 loose natural pearl aggregates from the Pteria species ranged from dark brown and purple to gray. Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia.

              Both natural and cultured pearls of Pteria-species mollusks from the Gulf of California, Mexico (M. Cariño and M. Monteforte, “History of pearling in La Paz Bay, South Baja California,” Summer 1995 G&G, pp. 88–104; L. Kiefert et al., “Cultured pearls from the Gulf of California, Mexico,” Spring 2004 G&G, pp. 26–38) are examined in GIA laboratories from time to time. But a recent submission to the New York lab of 10 loose pearls, ranging from 8.17 × 7.65 × 3.89 mm to 17.85 × 11.16 × 6.80 mm (figure 1), proved interesting owing to their shapes and internal growth features. All the pearls had a “grapelike” cluster appearance, as if multiple smaller pearls had combined into aggregates. Their colors ranged from dark brown and purple to gray, with strong orient consisting of mainly bluish and pinkish overtones.

Figure 2. Microradiograph images of the pearls revealed multiple growth units with central conchiolin-rich cores in each unit. Images by Yixin (Jessie) Zhou.
Microscopic examination revealed that the pearls formed with continuous nacre layers. Microradiography further demonstrated that their internal structures were composed of multiple small pearls related to their growth (figure 2). Conchiolin-rich centers were observed in all of the sub-units, indicating natural formation. Additional advanced testing (UV-Vis reflectance spectrophotometry, photoluminescence spectroscopy, and EDXRF spectrometry) showed that all 10 of the pearls had a natural color. More importantly, all 10 exhibited medium to strong orangy red to red fluorescence under long-wave UV, which is characteristic of pearls that form in Pteria mollusks (figure 3).

Figure 3. The pearls produced this striking characteristic red fluorescence under long-wave UV. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.
Pearls grown from the aggregation of smaller pearls are sometimes associated with freshwater culturing practices (Summer 2012 Lab Notes, pp. 138–139). Yet these samples clearly did not appear to be cultured. Our client later informed us that the pearls were obtained more than 40 years ago, reportedly off the Mexican coast, which further supports the identity of these unique pieces. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2015 Title: Nonbead-Cultured Pearls from Strombus Gigas Abstract: Figure 1. These two nonbead-cultured pearls (1.40 and 2.22 ct) from a parcel of eight specimens produced by Strombus gigas show a light pink and yellowish orange color with a discreet flame pattern. Photo by Olivier Segura.

Among the saltwater porcelaneous (non-nacreous) pearls, those of Strombus gigas gastropods are probably the best known among jewelers and collectors because of their vivid to pastel colors ranging from pink to white to brownish. Also known as “pink pearl,” “conch pearl,” or “Queen conch pearl,” this material was used extensively in Art Deco jewelry, and many designers are now incorporating them into modern pieces. Various articles and books have described the extraordinary beauty, use and related traditions, and early attempts at cultivation of pink pearls (see E. Fritsch and E. Misiorowski, “The history and gemology of the queen conch ‘pearls’,” Winter 1987 G&G, pp. 208–231). The typical structure responsible for the sought-after “flame pattern” was detailed extensively a decade ago (S. Kamat et al., “Structural basis for the fracture toughness of the shell of the conch Strombus gigas,” Nature, Vol. 405, No. 6790, 2000, pp. 1036–1040; H. Hänni, “Explaining the flame structure of non-nacreous pearls,” The Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp. 85–88). Found in the Caribbean region, where Strombus gigas live and are fished for meat, the pearls had no documented cultured counterpart until the work of Hector Acosta-Salmon and Megan Davis at Florida Atlantic University in 2009.

The Laboratoire Français de Gemmologie (LFG) recently had the opportunity to analyze a parcel of eight samples, presented as cultured conch pearls, from a new farm based in Honduras (figure 1). The colors ranged from white and pinkish white to yellowish orange. The shapes varied from oval to baroque, and weights ranged from 0.21 ct (2.7–3.4 × 4.1 mm) to 3.13 ct (6.5–7.6 × 9.3 mm). Their luster was porcelaneous, and the surface was very smooth and homogenous with no defects. Almost all the samples possessed a typical but subtle flame pattern (figure 2).

Figure 2. These six nonbead-cultured pearls from Strombus gigas range from 0.21 to
3.13 ct. Inset: Detail of a 0.47 ct pearl, showing a typical thin flame pattern. Photo by
Olivier Segura.
Initial examination revealed no indication of the culturing process, but X-radiography analysis left no doubt about the material’s origin. The samples’ inner structures revealed a darker central zone, suggesting a less dense material, typical of the graft remainder of the nonbead culture process (figure 3, left). This kind of pattern is not found in the natural conch pearls we have examined in the laboratory (figure 3, right).

Figure 3. Left: An X-ray of the pearl seen in the figure 9 inset. It shows clear evidence of a nonbead culturing process. Right: An X-ray of a natural conch pearl. Images by Olivier Segura.
According to the farm owners, queen conch pearl culture is undergoing intensive development, and the quality—size, flame pattern, and color—improves with each harvest. While current laboratory techniques are adequate to unambiguously identify nonbead cultured pearls from Strombus gigas, the LFG has established a close working relationship with the pearl farm, paying close attention to possible developments in their distinctive inner structures. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2019 Title: A “Hollow” Pearl Filled with Foreign Materials Abstract: Figure 1. The submitted 28.49 ct pearl, alongside a Thai one-baht coin measuring 19.50 mm in diameter for reference. Photo by Nuttapol Kitdee.

The interior structures of pearls are always of interest, as they are never revealed until the analysis begins. External appearance may provide experienced pearl testers with some clues on what to expect when microradiography commences, but sometimes the structure revealed is beyond expectation (Spring 2014 Lab Notes, pp. 66–67; Winter 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 434–436).

Figure 2. The pearl’s base showing the filler (yellow-brown area) exposed at the surface (A). Field of view 19.20 mm. A magnified view of the filled area showing the largest shell-like material (B and C, red arrows) with other fragments within the transparent light yellow host filler. Field of view 7.20 mm. The gas bubbles in the filler are easily visible in this magnified view (D, blue arrows). Field of view 1.44 mm. Photomicrographs by Kwanreun Lawanwong.
In early 2019, a semi-baroque white and cream pearl, weighing 28.49 ct and measuring 19.23 × 16.44 × 15.05 mm (figure 1), was submitted to GIA’s Bangkok laboratory. Its external appearance and size gave no obvious preliminary clues about its identity. A fairly small oval area on the base measuring approximately 5.20 × 3.10 mm differed in appearance from the rest of the pearl. Initial examination with a loupe and microscope revealed that the pearl’s surface had been worked and heavily polished, producing a lustrous appearance. Many surface areas had been modified, including the small oval area already mentioned. More detailed observation using a stereomicroscope revealed foreign materials within the yellow-brown area on the base (figure 2), including a piece of shell-like material (figure 2B and 2C, red arrows) together with other random fragments within a transparent light yellow substance enclosing several gas bubbles (figure 2D, blue arrows). Similar features were observed in the filler material used in natural blisters previously submitted to GIA (Summer 2016 Lab Notes, pp. 192–194). Although the surface structure indicated that the pearl was most likely filled with foreign materials, such an assumption could only be proved after more detailed study.

Figure 3. Top: Two RTX images reveal the complex internal structure observed in two different directions. Field of view ~21.19 mm. Bottom: Two μ-CT images reveal the structures in more detail. Field of view ~21.07 mm. The off-round features with a dark organic ring toward the center and a white core could be a natural seed pearl (C and D, blue arrows), while most of the other pieces seem to be fragments of shell. The identity of the more radio-translucent object (D, red arrow) with part of an additional white radio-opaque impurity within the filler is unknown and can only be solved through destructive testing. Images by Kwanreun Lawanwong and Promlikit Kessrapong.
Real-time microradiography (RTX) and X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT) revealed the pearl’s internal structure, including a large dark and fairly irregular outline that indicates the pearl was hollow at one time. RTX analysis (figure 3A) showed that some parts of the structure clearly reached the surface at the base. After RTX examination in a number of different orientations, however, it was very apparent that the structure was no longer hollow. Instead, it was completely filled with foreign materials, displayed as an array of disorderly fragments (figures 3A and 3B). The μ-CT images revealed clearer structures, with the outlines of fragments in various sizes apparently suspended in the former void. The μ-CT results also showed a degree of structural variance in the materials present within the filler. One off-round feature displayed an organic-rich ring at its center, with a very small white core possibly indicating the presence of a small natural seed pearl (figure 3C and 3D, blue arrows). Other irregular features with a similar radio-opacity seemed to be related to pieces of shell (as seen with the microscope at the surface of the filled area on the base), while an unidentified, more radio-translucent feature was also noted (figure 3D, red arrow). An additional small radio-opaque white impurity (likely a metal fragment) was observed in association with the latter and may be seen with all the other components in the supplemental μ-CT videos bellow.

	μ-CT of “Hollow” Pearl Filled with Foreign Materials

The “hollow” form bears some similarity to previous cases, such as a natural hollow pearl (N. Sturman, “Pearls with unpleasant odors,” GIA Laboratory, Bangkok, 2009, www.giathai.net/pdf/Pearls_with_unpleasant_odours.pdf) or the voids seen in some non-bead cultured pearls (N. Sturman et al., “X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT) structures of known natural and non-bead cultured Pinctada maxima pearls,” Proceedings of the 34th International Gemmological Conference, 2015, pp. 121–124). Nevertheless, we cannot be certain why this void was filled with a variety of materials. The most plausible reasons are that (A) the feature needed to be filled so the pearl could be used in jewelry, and a selection of natural “shell-related” materials were mixed with adhesive to achieve this goal, or (B) the process was carried out to add weight to the pearl so it could be sold for a higher price, or both.

Figure 4. A strong blue fluorescence was visible on the pearl’s surface under the DiamondView; the largest piece of shell and some of the smaller pieces with a matching appearance within the filler reacted in a similar manner. The other pieces in the filler exhibited slightly weaker reactions; the surrounding transparent filler showed a yellow-green color. Image by Kwanreun Lawanwong.
The pearl’s fluorescence in the DiamondView was a strong blue, typical of many previously examined pearls. However, there was a degree of inhomogeneity that might be due to the surface condition (figure 4). The main reason to expose the pearl to the radiation of the DiamondView was to see how the materials in the filled area reacted. The results showed that the largest fragment and the pearl’s surface produced a similar reaction, which supports the possible presence of shell pieces. Other smaller constituents showed weaker reactions, and the surrounding transparent host exhibited a yellow-green reaction.
Raman spectroscopic analysis of the filler confirmed the presence of shell based on a match with aragonite spectra, which is characteristic of many mollusks and pearls. The transparent filler material produced spectra that closely matched with a polymer. The chemistry of the largest piece of shell visible at the filler’s surface was checked by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry and showed manganese (Mn) and strontium (Sr) levels characteristic of a saltwater environment.
Since the void within the pearl had been completely filled with foreign materials, it was unclear exactly what its original structure was prior to the work undertaken. Several scenarios are possible:

The pearl contained natural organic matter and formed naturally.
It had a large void with some organic matter in it, typical of some non-bead cultured pearls.
The large void contained a bead nucleus that was intentionally broken and mixed with bonding material and other components to fill the void and mask the identity, or the pieces of broken bead were removed before the void was filled with shell and other materials.

Where doubt about the actual identity exists and each possibility has merit, it is unfair to the client to simply make an educated guess. After explaining the situation to the client, we left the identity of this pearl as “filled” but of an “undetermined” origin (natural, bead cultured, or non-bead cultured). Accordingly, a report was not issued. @topic:5


Publish Year: 2013 Title: Splendour and Science of Pearls Abstract: The book delivers a broad overview of the world of natural and cultured pearls. The well-researched and lavishly illustrated presentation covers the history of pearls, world localities, classification, treatments, identification, fashion, and the future of the industry. One chapter focuses on the story of pearls in India, while another includes results from a GIA research study on natural pearls from the Arabian Gulf
But as a general reference, the book serves its purpose well. The appendices alone are useful, covering a wide range of subjects and providing charts on birthstones, ring sizes, hallmarks, and more. Overall, this volume would make a nice addition to any gemological library if cost is not an issue.
Reviewed by GIA Library Staff
Carlsbad, California @topic:5


Publish Year: 2016 Title: Exhibition Review: Lustre: Pearling and Australia Abstract: Figure 1. Pearls scattered over an oyster shell. Photo courtesy of Cygnet Bay Pearls.

	Australia’s pearling history reaches back more than 20,000 years, far longer perhaps than many would expect. The exhibition Lustre: Pearling and Australia (figure 1) at the Immigration Museum in Melbourne details how the lustrous shells and pearls have been objects of passion not only as key items in indigenous rituals and mythology, but also as prized objects in the quest for economic wealth since the 1800s. In a well-balanced mix of exhibits, multimedia, and interactive presentations, the exhibition tells the Australian history of pearling, drawing on Aboriginal, Asian, and European stories from its beginnings until today.

Figure 2. Strickland Bay, Western Australia, roughly 150 km north of Broome, was a traditional area for collecting pearl shell. Photo courtesy of Aubrey Tigan, Mayala elder.

	Long before contact with Europeans, Aboriginal people harvested and carved pearl shell and traded it inland from the coast (figure 2). Indigenous coastal people still use pearl shell as a “canvas,” engraving the lustrous shells with designs sometimes highlighted with ochre. Worn exclusively by men, these artworks are thought of as a manifestation of water and life and were traded over vast distances across Australia. A 22,000-year-old piece of shell found in a West Kimberley rock shelter, 200 km from the shoreline, is the oldest known. Contemporary pearl shell carving tells the story of the country, and the works of Kimberley coastal artists can be found in collections around the world (figure 3).

Figure 3. Carved shell depicting the shell beds on the Lacepede Islands off Australia’s northwest coast, 120 km from Broome. Photo courtesy of Aubrey Tigan Galiwa, Mayala elder.

	The 1850s saw the birth of the Australian pearling industry in Western Australia, where Pinctada albina mussels were first collected by entrepreneurs at Shark Bay. After Shark Bay was stripped of its mussel populations, the 1861 discovery of the much larger P. maxima shells farther north at Nickol Bay attracted greater numbers of prospective pearlers. By 1870 an industry had been established in the Torres Strait in Australia’s far northeast. Eventually the pearling industry moved to Broome in the West Kimberley, which by 1910 was the largest pearling center in the world (figure 4). Hosting a large fraction of Japanese and Chinese pearlers, it was fueled by a booming international pearl button market.

	The breakthrough of culturing round pearls in Japan in 1916, when the first cultured pearls were marketed by Kokichi Mikimoto, resulted in an attempt to establish an Australian cultured pearl farm in 1921. However, lobbying against it by other pearlers resulted in the prohibition of pearl culturing in West Australia. The ban was not lifted until 1949.

	Divers were almost exclusively of Asian and Aboriginal descent, and Japanese divers were reputedly the best. The colonial history was harsh and marked by the exploitation and segregation of the laborers. They made up most of the tight-knit crews on “pearling luggers”—ketch-rigged wooden vessels 13 to 19 meters in length—and set out for seabeds as “saltwater cowboys” in search of pearl shells.

Figure 4. The crew of a pearl lugger in Broome, ca. 1900–20. Photo courtesy of the National Archives of Australia.

	Pearling ceased in 1941 when local Japanese were interned during World War II. After the war, beginning in 1956, Australian pearl farming was reinvented in the form of cultured South Sea pearl farms, with new technologies, safer practices, and a better understanding of mussel sustainability. The modern manufacture and sale of South Sea pearls has little to do with the saltwater cowboys who stripped the seabeds in historical times. New standards in hygiene and maintenance of mussels have been introduced, as well as new vessels designed as “floating laboratories” that allow operating on the mussels in their natural habitat. A shift from collecting large pearl shells to cultivating pearls using small shells has eased the pressure on populations in the wild.

	Along with the history of Australia’s pearling heritage, the exhibition also touches on more generic topics, such as the nature of the material “pearl,” pearling techniques, and the zoology of P. maxima, the pearl mollusk.

	For those who cannot visit the exhibition, the museum offers online resources, such as images and text panels from the exhibition, accessible at http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/lustre-online-text-panels.

Lustre: Pearling and Australia, curated in a partnership between the Western Australian Museum and Nyamba Buru Yawuru, is showing at the Immigration Museum, Melbourne, Australia, until January 15, 2017. Admission is 14 AUD for adults; children are free. The museum is open daily from 10 am to 5 pm (closed Good Friday and Christmas Day). @topic:5


Publish Year: 2013 Title: Strands of Tiny Akoya Keshi Pearls Abstract: Figure 1. This strand contains more than 300,000 akoya keshi pearls, each one only 0.7–0.9 mm in diameter. Photo by Eric Welch.

              How small can a pearl be? At the American Gem Trade Association show in Tucson, the Japanese Pearl Exporting Co. presented some akoya keshi pearls only 0.7–0.9 mm in diameter (figure 1). At this size, it is difficult to distinguish individual pearls when looking at a strand. According to the seller, the single strand shown in figure 5 contains more than 300,000 keshi pearls, which would take one person four years to drill and assemble.

Traditional tools are used to drill these tiny pearls. A thick wooden board is soaked overnight to soften it, and each pearl is embedded in the board to keep it stable. A very sharp, thin drill is used to bore a hole in each pearl. By pulling a thread attached to the drill, the worker can keep rotating the drill until it reaches the desired depth.

	Figure 2. These tiny akoya keshi pearl strands are paired with ruby and sapphire. Photo by Eric Welch.
“Keshi,” the Japanese word for poppy seeds, form as by-products of the akoya culturing process. They account for less than 0.5% of all annual akoya production, which has diminished in recent years. Akoya keshi pearls come in various sizes, shapes, colors, and lusters. Strands are often paired with colored stones such as ruby and sapphire (figure 2). @topic:5


Publish Year: 2004 Title: Cultured Pearls from the Gulf of California, Mexico Abstract: Black pearls have been found in Mexico’s Gulf of California since the area was settled more than 2,000 years ago. Attempts at culturing pearls in this area have met with varying success over the past century. Today, a pearl farm in Guaymas is producing commercial quantities of mabe as well as bead-nucleated full-round cultured pearls from the indigenous pearl oyster Pteria sterna. This article provides an overview of the history of natural and cultured pearls from Mexico, describes pearl culturing at the Guaymas farm, and focuses on the properties of bead-nucleated cultured pearls from P. sterna. These cultured pearls have a brown or gray to dark gray body color with various interference colors caused by the stacking of platy aragonite crystals and organic matter. One indication of their natural color (and their Mexican provenance) is a red fluorescence to long-wave UV radiation. @topic:5


Publish Year: 1987 Title: The History and Gemology of Queen Conch "Pearls" Abstract: Conch "pearls" are calcareous concretions produced by the Queen conch mollusk, Strombus gigas, which is found in various areas of the Caribbean. Although conch"pearls" occur in a range of colors, the pink are usually the most desirable. "Pearls" over 10 ct are rare, but they have been observed as large as 45 ct. They sometimes exhibit a porcelain-like luster and an unusual characteristic called flame structure, which made pink conch "pearls" quite popular in jewelry at the turn of the last century. This article reviews the history of the conch "pearl," discusses S. gigas and its fisheries, and examines the gemological properties and other characteristics of this attractive material. @topic:5


Publish Year: 1982 Title: Cultured 3/4 Blister Pearls Abstract: More information is now available on the cultured 3/4 blister pearls that were recently introduced into the marketplace. Cultivated with both salt water and fresh-water nuclei, the material is attractive and durable. This article describes the method of culturing these "pearls" as well as the differences between this material and 3/4 South Sea cultured pearls or assembled cultured blister pearls (Mabe pearls). @topic:5


Publish Year: 2021 Title: Gem Shopping Network: An Online Jewelry Business During the Pandemic Abstract: Figure 1. GSN show host Marvin Pierschbacher presents finished jewelry. Live shows are entertaining and educational, and therefore very well accepted by the audience. Courtesy of GSN.

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced many sectors to adopt new work routines and move their commerce online. This is also true for the gem and jewelry industry. However, some businesses have been on-air and online for quite a long time. One of the veterans is the Gem Shopping Network (GSN), headquartered near Atlanta.
Since 1997, GSN has grown from a weekend show to a network that reaches over 60 million U.S. households. From television to the web and more recently the mobile app, the network can livestream its gem and jewelry shows through all available channels. At the beginning of the pandemic early in 2020, GSN immediately adopted proper social distancing and regulations to keep its employees safe, which allowed the crew to operate without a pause. Show hosts continued livestreaming from the studios, entertaining and educating their audience (figure 1).
Because GSN carries a vast array of goods—from mineral specimens, faceted gemstones, and finished jewelry all the way to collectibles and estate jewelry—supply has been a critical component since its earliest days (figure 2).

Figure 2. Finished jewelry featuring a broad range of colored gemstones, including some exotic varieties, is one pillar product carried by GSN. Courtesy of GSN.
While some in-person sourcing was prohibited by the situation, the supply side of the business was not negatively impacted overall. Some suppliers who would normally provide goods through outlets such as the cruise ship industry were able to transfer them to online jewelry traders such as GSN.
The majority of GSN’s customers are women ages 50 to 65, a demographic that has been quite stable over the past two decades. This customer base proved advantageous when “staying at home” became the new normal as more time was available to watch the shows and purchase goods. Although international transportation was impacted by COVID-19, U.S. domestic shipping and delivery remained quite efficient. Steady supply, a stable customer base, and on-time delivery combined to make 2020 one of GSN’s strongest years financially.
As both a seller and an educator, GSN has its own gemology content production team. The pandemic unexpectedly allowed more time for the team to produce content, which is shared over the multiple streaming channels. High-quality content is one of the key pillars for any online seller as it is the tool to attract and maintain customers. As the world gradually recovers from the pandemic, online jewelry trading is expected to see strong growth in the future. @topic:12


Publish Year: - Title: Rare Books Project Puts Gem and Jewelry History Within Reach Abstract: Digital Transitions’ BC100 is highly specialized equipment enabling GIA technicians to safely digitize rare works such as this text from 1648 by Ulisse Aldrovandi. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

The feeling of responsibility washing over Sarah Ostrye as she carefully turned the book’s pages was “nerve-wracking,” she admits.

Then again, the manuscript in her hands was no ordinary book, but a 516-year-old copy of Pliny’s “Natural History” – the oldest in GIA’s 64,000-volume collection.

Ostrye, a research librarian and digital archivist for GIA’s Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center, is helping lead the Institute’s multi-year effort to bring thousands of the rarest, most venerated books in gemology, mineralogy and jewelry from the shelves of the library’s Cartier Rare Book Repository and Archives into easy reach of the global community.

To date, more than 200 historically significant books housed in the library have been digitized and made available for free through the nonprofit digital library Internet Archive. The public is responding: since the project was unveiled in July 2015, there has been a steady increase in monthly book views – from 378 views in July 2015 to 1,922 in September 2016.

That’s encouraging news for Dona Dirlam, director of the GIA library and architect of the digitization project.

“We can better serve the public trust by providing these resources,” she says. “The current and future state of gemology and the jewelry industry relies on having in-depth knowledge of our history – it’s the foundation for understanding the science and business of our industry.”

Dona Dirlam, director of GIA’s Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center, says that an early group of supporters, including Richard T. Liddicoat, Glenn Nord, Kurt Nassau and Bill Boyajian, believed the Library could become “a world-class center for information” for the gem and jewelry industry. “Now, because we can digitize books from this collection, we’re able to bring these precious resources to the global community,” she says. Photo by Emily Lane/GIA
Access for All
What the project aims to do, in essence, is to make it as easy to enjoy an 1817 copy of Sowerby’s “British Mineralogy” with your morning coffee as it is to pick up a newspaper. What once required an appointment and a trip to the Institute’s Carlsbad, California world headquarters now takes a few clicks of the mouse.

Dirlam has spent nearly three decades planning how to expand the reach of the library’s collection, which represents 85 years’ worth of curation on the part of GIA librarians. (The collection’s size increased exponentially when the Institute acquired the John and Marjorie Sinkankas Gemological Library in 1988.)

“Once we had the Sinkankas collection, we began to think about how to provide greater access to it, and to GIA’s existing rare book collection, beyond the physical walls of the library. And one of John Sinkankas’ key desires was to enable as many people as possible access to his life’s work,” Dirlam says. “Because of advances in technology, this project is opening up the reach of this library and providing access to a global audience.”

Dirlam and her team, including library manager Paula Rucinski, consulted with multiple digitization experts through the years, from geoscience librarians to staff at Los Angeles’ Getty Conservation Center. Plans finally crystallized in late 2014 and GIA’s executive team gave its stamp of approval for resources – including the purchase of specialized equipment, and the hiring of Ostrye – in December 2014.

GIA librarians began to reach out to scientists and jewelry industry leaders for recommendations on which books in the library’s collection should be the highest priority for digitization. They added the rarest titles, and only those that were out of copyright.

In addition to Pliny’s encyclopedia – a work that was the foundation of all science until the Renaissance, and one of the largest single works from the Roman Empire to have survived – other early digitized titles include an 1801 copy of Renée Just Haüy’s “Treatise of Mineralogy” and Bishop Marbode’s 1511 treatise, “Book of Precious Stones.” Marbode’s work is the earliest lapidary (book on gemstones) from the Middle Ages, and the first of his works printed on a Gutenberg movable metal type press.

An especially rare, 1925-26 catalog of Russia’s Romanov dynasty’s regalia and crown jewels was the 200th book to be digitized, and gave the public its first look at the 406-piece collection.

The digitization project also ensures that these rare, delicate books are safeguarded for all time.

“We take every precaution to carefully preserve and secure this collection,” Dirlam says. “The Sinkankas Library and other rare books are housed in a temperature- and humidity-controlled room. If a natural disaster, such as a flood or fire, occurred and the books were damaged, however, we have the digital files that capture every word, photo and illustration. These books tell the story of gems and jewels and will be accessible for generations to come.”

GIA research librarians Augustus Pritchett, left, and Sarah Ostrye have digitized more than 200 rare books from the Institute’s collection in the last two years. Photo by Emily Lane/GIA
A Painstaking Process
The digitizing process is a delicate one, full of potential complications for the technicians – including Ostrye and research librarian Augustus Pritchett – who are charged with creating digital files from often-challenging sources.

“Sometimes the text is very close to the gutter of the book, or there is fragile binding, delicate tissue paper overlays, or foldouts that may not fit under the glass platen,” says Ostrye. “Those require extra time and attention.”

The pair takes turns working in a secure room near the Cartier Rare Book Repository and Archives. The room houses a high-tech digitizing machine (Digital Transitions’ BC100 Book Capture system), that makes it possible to gently cradle the books instead of forcing them into a flat, spine-damaging position. Technicians turn each page manually to avoid skipping or tearing them, and capture high-resolution images that they edit and convert to TIFF files. Post-processing software even enables them to create searchable PDFs and e-books regardless of alphabet – including Roman, Cyrillic, Chinese, Japanese and Korean.

Visitors to the site are downloading more and more of the books every month, and Ostrye says it’s helping the library track trends in research.

“Based on which books are viewed the most, we can get an idea of which topics are most popular,” says Ostrye. “Many of our most-viewed books deal with the history of gemstones and jewelry design.”

Dirlam, who says the library will also begin to increase the availability of e-books and e-catalogs, notes that the public is welcome to submit recommendations for books to digitize. It’s one more way the library can engage the trade and public in the project, which she sees as imperative to ensuring the public trust in gems and jewelry.

“It is mission-critical that we preserve the important books, documents and other materials of the global gem and jewelry industry by digitizing them,” she says. “As Marjorie Sinkankas said, ‘We are only caretakers for a short time.’ It is our mandate to see that these materials are cherished and available for generations in the future.” @topic:6


Publish Year: - Title: A Look Back — and Forward — After 40 Years in the Gem and Jewelry Industry Abstract: Russell Shor, left, meeting with De Beers’ sales manager Michael Grantham, center, and De Beers CEO Nicky Oppenheimer, right. London, 1988. Photo provided by Russell Shor/GIA.
On a rainy spring morning exactly 40 years ago, I made my first visit to 47th Street to meet a venerable diamond dealer named Seymour Rosenthal. I was very early, being anxious, so I waited at Berger’s Deli with a coffee, and watched an unending parade of humanity of every race, creed and color pass by, many stopping to show a stone to a prospective client or (as I learned later) put in some “asks."
At my appointment, I mentioned this scene to Mr. Rosenthal who was then head of the Diamond Trade Association, and he told me “… all that matters is to be honest and have the right stone at the right price.” I told myself right away that I was going to love this industry.
And I have. And the people in it.
He also told me that this industry was like a big family — it has it spats and we compete fiercely, but when it counts, we all pull together. I experienced this not long afterward when I was visiting a diamond office in Singapore and when the conversation finished, the dealer rose from his chair, waved his hand toward himself and said, “Come.”
I asked where to.
“Come take Shabbat with us.”
“You want me to come to your home?”
“When you’re here, you’re family,” he said.

Russell Shor examines a frieze made from photos and materials from the ancestral home of Ashok Virani during a visit to his home in Surat, India on Brothers’ Day, 1997. Photo taken by Mark Boston and provided by Russell Shor/GIA.
And a few years after that, I found myself in Surat, India on “Brothers’ Day,” when most diamond offices close for the holiday. The owner of a diamond manufacturing operation came to the hotel where my colleague, a De Beers’ broker, and I were staying and took us to his home where his four brothers were waiting.
“You are like brothers,” he told us and made us feel like it the rest of the day, even though we had not met very often before then.
Perhaps such incidents happen in other industries, but I like to think they are part of the special nature of our industry.
And, of course beyond the people, there are the gems themselves. I’ve been privileged to hold and examine the 910 carat (ct) diamond from Letseng; a 15 ct Kashmir sapphire with such a velvety blue glow, it made the rest of the world seem dull by comparison; a large drop pearl worn by Queen Marie Antoinette; a 70 ct emerald that had been part of Catherine the Great’s jewels; the Fancy Deep blue Heart of Eternity diamond; a jade necklace whose intense green stopped me in my tracks at a crowded trade show — and so many others.
The amazing thing is that they are all beautiful accidents of nature — a convergence of random forces and materials that crystalized into magical forms. These are privileges no other livelihood can offer.
Of course, the gem and diamond industry has seen transformational changes in the years since I entered it. Mr. Rosenthal still had an old diamond scale that balanced little brass weights on his desk when I met with him. The digital revolution had just begun.

To review the changes that have enveloped the diamond and gem industry in the past 40 years would be too space-consuming and superfluous — we hear every day how the internet has changed everything and is still changing things; how women have taken their rightful place in business life, but there’s still a way to go; how corporate responsibility and ethical sourcing are gaining ground, though perhaps too slowly for some; and the end of De Beers’ rule of the diamond trade.

Russell Shor with Barbara Masekela, chief of staff to Nelson Mandela. Johannesburg, 1999. Photo provided by Russell Shor/GIA.
No matter what you might thing about the “old” De Beers, it maintained order in the market that kept diamond businesses from going too far off the path. Unfortunately in the past decade, a number of diamond firms abandoned the best practice principals that made the trade work for many years. Now the entire trade is suffering from their transgressions, especially inflating their creditworthiness, after huge defaults prompted the major banks to pick up and leave.
Looking forward, there are some serious headwinds facing the diamond industry. China has seen a lot of growth, but it is not the omnivorous panacea predicted by Bain & Co. early in the previous decade. And the financial challenges facing millennials — rising housing costs, medical care and debt — will consume their discretionary incomes in ever-increasing amounts.
In such a stressed economic environment, laboratory-grown diamonds may look ever more attractive to some buyers who are still fascinated by the beauty of their fire and brilliance. Diamond mining companies, in cooperation with their clients, are addressing this by developing the fascinating stories that appeal to millennial consumers. They hope this will put natural diamonds higher on their priority list.
There have been attempts by some diamond dealers to tweak the growth process to make them more “natural” looking, then “testing” to see if gemological laboratories can catch them. Fortunately, because of the considerable resources GIA devotes to research and the expertise of the its staff, the Institute keeps ahead of such attempts and continues to be able to definitively recognize all laboratory-grown diamonds and known treatments.

Russell Shor holds the 910 Lesotho Legend in 2018. Photo provided by Russell Shor/GIA.
I’ve been proud and privileged to have been able to tell our industry’s story for 40 years and I believe it still has many good ones to tell. I hope to stay around for a bit to tell a few more and to play with a few more treasures.
One thing I hope never changes: the warm welcome for anyone who is ethical and has the right stones at the right price. @topic:11