Title: Update on Rock Creek Sapphire Deposit Abstract: Figure 1. Excavators and a washing plant on Gem Mountain process gravel for sapphire recovery. Photo by Warren Boyd.

                      Recently, Montana-based Potentate Mining LLC secured approximately 3,000 acres of sapphire-bearing ground covering the famous Rock Creek sapphire district, including the Gem Mountain sapphire mine, near Philipsburg, Montana. Since the discovery of these sapphire deposits in the 1890s, this is the first time that one company has consolidated such a large land position, encompassing the old alluvial sites as well as the area on the hills in between these old workings (figure 1). Potentate has assembled a team of highly experienced placer miners, geologists, mining engineers, and heavy equipment operators to recover and process the sapphires from this mine.

The Rock Creek district sapphire deposits occur in debris flow, colluvium, and secondary alluvial deposits (figure 2). Although the bedrock for these deposits has not yet been defined, Potentate plans further geological mapping and geophysical surveys in the near future to uncover these sources.

Figure 2. A trench on Gem Mountain showing the sapphire-rich colluvium on the hilltops between the previously worked gulches. Photo by Keith Barron.
To date, the rough sapphires recovered from the bulk sampling pits range in size from 0.25 ct to over 20 ct. Approximately 15% of this rough occurs naturally in marketable colors, including pink, orange, orange-pink, lavender, golden yellow, blue-green and green, and fine blue (figure 3). A substantial percentage of the remaining rough responds very well to heat treatment technologies that improve clarity and turn greenish and grayish rough to desirable colors such as blue, orange, yellow, pink, and parti-color.

	Figure 3. A selected assortment of unheated rough sapphires from the Rock Creek deposit
	weighing from 0.50 to 17 ct. Photo by Warren Boyd.
The high-grade concentration of the sapphires recovered from the various test pits, and the substantial inferred rough sapphire resource on Gem Mountain, indicate that Potentate would be able to provide a long-term, consistent supply of sapphire rough to the global market (figure 4). Potentate would be the only large-volume source for the Rock Creek sapphires. The company is developing a marketing strategy that would provide sustainable supply chain guarantees to their clients. These clients including wholesale gemstone cutters, polishers, and fine jewelry retailers would in turn be able to provide guarantees of origin and the presence (or absence) of any heat treatment to their consumers.

	Figure 4. A selection of natural and heat-treated Rock Creek sapphire ranging from 0.50
	to 4.70 ct. Photo by Jeff Scovil. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Emeralds of Colombia Abstract: There has been more activity in emerald mining in Colombia in the last few years than at any other time in the four centuries since the Spanish first discovered the deposits. This article combines a comprehensive review of the literature on the history and geology of Colombian emeralds with the author's own insights into the current marketing and mining of these stones. Of particular concern are the harsh methods now being used to extract the emeralds and the impact these methods will have on future production in Colombia. The past, however, has yielded many fabulous gems, the most famous of which are also described here and placed in historical perspective. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: An Inside Look at the 2014 Tucson Shows Abstract: Buyers of every stripe walk the aisles for choice finds at the 2014 gem show in Tucson. Photo by Eric Welch.

                      Every year in February, Tucson, Arizona, becomes the center of the colored stone industry, hosting several major gem and mineral shows. Dealers, cutters, and miners come from all over the globe, bringing with them a spectacular array of gems to sell. In 2014, GIA once again interviewed industry professionals at the shows to see the very latest and gather insight on the global market. Links to these interviews are listed below.

Exceptional Gem Artistry in Sunstone, Rutilated Quartz, and Beryl – Tucson 2014
Gem cutter Alexander Kreis of Idar-Oberstein relates his approach to unlocking the beauty of rough gemstones such as Oregon sunstone, beryl, and rutilated quartz. He describes the influences that play into his unique designs, whether it’s the pure, crystalline beauty of a flawless piece of rough or the presence of striking inclusions.
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Natural-Color Tanzanite and Yellow Sapphire – Tucson 2014
Israeli dealer Kobe Sevdermish introduces us to the subtle beauty of unheated tanzanite, bright yellow African sapphire sought after by his clientele as a fancy-color diamond substitute, and the rich, earthy colors of heated zircon from Tanzania.
Learn More

Gem Crystals – Tucson 2014
Industry veteran Steve Ulatowski notes how recent market changes have driven prices for rough colored stones of all types to unprecedented heights. He explains the impact on his business and reveals some of the key factors behind these shifting market dynamics.
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Innovative Optical Effects, Unique Rings with Raw Crystals – Tucson 2014
Husband-and-wife team Brian and Kendra Cook reveal the design philosophy behind their unique gemstone products, which use “raw” gem crystals, clever optical effects, or aromatic oils to tantalize the senses in a combination of texture, color, and scent.
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Mexican Fire Opal – Tucson 2014
Tucson is a showcase for fascinating and diverse gem materials. Included in this segment are emerald, quartz, and liddicoatite tourmaline crystals, Taiwanese “seven-color jade,” synthetic quartz from Russia, treated Brazilian quartz, and turquoise and benitoite from the United States.
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More of the Interesting and Unusual – Tucson 2014
The Tucson Gem Show provides a venue for a myriad of fascinating and diverse materials. Included in this segment are fascinating emerald, quartz, and liddicoatite tourmaline crystals, decorative objects made from Taiwanese ‘7-color jade,’ synthetic quartz from Russia, advice for choosing star rose quartz rough, treated Brazilian quartz, and finally turquoise and benitoite from the United States.
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Red Beryl – Tucson 2014
Ray Zajicek of Equatorian Imports Inc. displays some exceptional examples of red beryl from Utah, in both loose form and in suites of jewelry. As mining there has ceased, this material is likely to become an increasingly scarce commodity.
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Varieties of Rutilated Quartz – Tucson 2014
Bill Heher of Connecticut-based Rare Earth Mining Co. shows exceptional rutilated quartz from Bahia in northern Brazil. Thanks to its seemingly infinite variety and one-of-a-kind appeal, this material is popular among contemporary jewelry designers.
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Fossilized Drusy Shells – Tucson 2014
Tarun Adlakha of Indus Valley Commerce in New Delhi exhibits fascinating fossilized gastropod shells replaced by chalcedony and encrusted with drusy quartz.
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Cultured Pearl Market Update – Tucson 2014
Fran Mastoloni of Mastoloni Pearls in New York offers a cultured pearl market update. He discusses current design trends in pearl necklaces and urges retailers to embrace the rich variety of cultured pearl types available today.
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Fine Australian Chrysoprase Rough and Carvings –Tucson 2014
Mary Lou Osmond of Candala Chrysoprase talks about the company’s chrysoprase chalcedony mine in Marlborough, Australia. She explains that growing demand has customers purchasing her top-quality material to produce calibrated cabochons in addition to the carvings that were once the mainstay.
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Fine Corundum, Paraíba Tourmaline, and Alexandrite – Tucson 2014
Dave Bindra of B&B Fine Gems in Los Angeles comments on the corundum, Paraíba tourmaline, and alexandrite markets. He displays exceptional specimens from his booth at the AGTA show, including a 112.82 ct alexandrite, a 33.16 ct blue sapphire, and an electric blue 14.59 ct Paraíba tourmaline.
Learn More

Stone and Fossil Photography – Tucson 2014
Mike Woodward of San Clemente, California, showcases striking photos of stones, fossils, and gem materials that resemble abstract paintings or landscapes.
Learn More Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Pink Topaz from Pakistan Abstract: In addition to the relatively recent discovery of significant amounts of emerald, aquamarine, and ruby, Pakistan has also begun to produce fine gem-quality pink topaz. In a small hillock of recrystallized limestone north of Katlang, narrow calcite veins encase pink topaz crystals up to 3 cm long accompanied by larger amounts of reddish brown, tan, and colorless topaz crystals. More than 70,000 ct of gem-quality pink topaz has been reported to date. The refractive indices, optic axial angle, unit-cell dimensions, and density of the topaz are influenced by a partial replacement of fluorine by hydroxyl ions. The color is due to trace elements—principally chromium (Cr3+). Treatment experiments revealed that the color of the brown, tan, and colorless topaz from this source may be improved by irradiation and heat. Source: GIA @topic:2


Title: Extraordinary Gemstone Sculptures Make Debut at GIA Abstract: View Gallery

The display of Perry Brent Davis’s carvings of agate and gem quartz at GIA’s Carlsbad campus looks like a colorful seascape of otherworldly designs. Many float above sensuously curved bronze arms; others are grounded on sleek blocks of black granite. Each is carved and highly polished to showcase its internal features and patterns.

	“I choose stones that exemplify the power of nature,” Davis says. He finds “some of the most beautiful, naturally colored minerals the earth produces” and turns them into works of art.

	“This incredible medium forms my raw material – often there are natural crystal pockets and features that accentuate the simple form of my contemporary pieces,” Davis says. Several of the designs, for instance, reveal drusy-lined interior pockets that sparkle against the high polish of the exterior surface.

	Davis, a graduate gemologist with three decades of experience in the gem and lapidary fields, moved to China from the U.S. in 2006 to pursue his interest in large gemstone carvings. He opened a studio and hired a team of traditional carvers. He and his team incorporate modern and ancient Chinese carving techniques into each piece.

	The results are larger-than-normal gemstone sculptures that emphasize the rich colors, ornamental patterns and internal features in agate, rock crystal and jasper. Most of the design process takes place on the stone itself, Perry says, and is refined as the carving evolves. It can take 200 to 1,400 hours to complete a piece, but many fall in the 200-500 hour range.

	“To get such amazing carvings in such large sizes is a feat,” says Terri Ottaway, curator of collections for the GIA Museum. “But then to carve and polish them so beautifully to bring out the intricate patterns is quite an accomplishment and rarely seen.”

	Davis gets his rough pieces from mines in the U.S., Mexico, Brazil and Austrailia. He says that going to the mines is "like going to Las Vegas" unless he knows an owner is going to be there with rough. He says he has better luck at gem and mineral shows where there are large quantities at good prices.

	Davis selects gemstones that are technically complex and require a vast array of diamond tools and other equipment to carve. Working on them requires a high level of technical ability and articulate workmanship, according to Nathan Renfro, a gemologist in GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory who is also a gem carver.

	“From the captivating design to the quality of his workmanship,” Renfro says, “each piece Davis creates makes it clear he is a world-class artist and gem carver.” Source: GIA @topic:10


Title: Citrine from Zambia Abstract: Figure 1. These citrines (3.38–43.86 ct) showing the range of color from the new Zambian deposit are reportedly untreated. Photo by Robert Weldon.

              In September 2011, GIA was informed by gem and mineral dealer Dudley Blauwet about a new find of citrine, which was represented to him as natural-color material from the Kitwe area of Zambia. He obtained ~1 kg of the rough at the 2011 Tucson gem shows from a regular supplier of African rough. Faceting of 208.5 grams of rough yielded 29 stones totaling 268.08 carats. Four of the stones were concave cut, and the largest one weighed 48.69 ct.

	Figure 2. Hazy clouds and bands are common features in the Zambian citrine. Photomicrograph by D. Beaton; image width 2.7 mm.
Mr. Blauwet loaned seven of the cut citrines to GIA for examination, ranging from 3.38 to 43.86 ct (figure 1). Concave facets on the three largest pieces accentuated their brilliance. The color of the citrine ranged from pale slightly brownish yellow to brownish orangy yellow, and the seven stones showed the following gemological properties: RI— no = 1.542, ne = 1.552; birefringence—0.010; hydrostatic SG—2.65–2.66; UV fluorescence—inert to both long- and short-wave UV radiation, except for one pale yellow sample that fluoresced very weak white to long-wave UV; and no features seen with the desk-model spectroscope. Microscopic examination revealed straight and angular color zones, as well as a general haziness and bands of hazy particles (figure 2), which proved natural origin and were similar to those described in citrine from Sri Lanka (E. J. Gübelin and J. I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 2, Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, 2005, p. 573). The 3.38 ct stone also contained a plane of parallel tubules and two-phase inclusions (figure 3). Viewed with cross-polarized light, minor areas of Brazil-law twinning were seen in only the two smallest samples.

	Figure 3. The 3.38 ct triangular modified brilliant in figure 7 contains a plane of elongated
	tubules and two-phase inclusions. Photomicrograph by D. Beaton; image width 1.5 mm.
FTIR spectroscopy revealed the absence of a 3595 cm–1 band. This feature is sometimes used as confirmation of natural quartz, especially amethyst, when it is well resolved and there are no diagnostic natural inclusions (S. Karampelas et al., “Infrared spectroscopy of natural vs. synthetic amethyst: An update,” Fall 2011 G&G, pp. 196–201). In citrine this feature is often absent, so proper identification must rely on inclusion observation, or the analysis of trace elements (C. M. Breeding, “Using LA-ICP-MS analysis for the separation of natural and synthetic amethyst and citrine,” www.gia.edu/gia-news-research-nr73109a).

Natural-color citrine is less common than other quartz varieties such as amethyst and smoky quartz. Assuming that the coloration of this citrine is natural—as represented by the supplier—this large, clean material makes a nice addition to the gem market. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: From the Andes to the Pantanál: In Search of Ametrine Abstract: Before preforming, ametrine is often examined under a bright light to reveal the best purple/yellow orientation of the rough for subsequent cutting.

Introduction
The highest peaks of the Andes Mountains tower majestically over Bolivia. At over a million square kilometers, an area twice the size of Texas, this country occupies a fairly large share of central South America. The Andean mountain chain, known as the Cordilleras, lie in the eastern third of the country, and the majority of Bolivia’s ten million people live here, as they have since pre-Columbian times. Even after the Spanish conquistadores laid claim to this rich and beautiful land in the early 1500s, the Andes remained the country’s lifeblood.

	Most of Bolivia’s ten million people live in the Andes Mountains. The Huayna Potosi mountain is located just north of La Paz.
We bring you to the source of one of the world’s most unique gems: ametrine. In this gem, nature has combined two quartz varieties, purple amethyst and golden citrine. Ametrine is found only in this exotic Andean nation, a land as unique as the gem it produces.

	This 44.00 ct ametrine features concave facets that combine to mix the color of the purple and gold, producing a beautiful effect. Courtesy of Minerales y Metales del Oriente.
The goal is to better understand ametrine and its origin, as well as the people who mine it and treasure it.  We’ll take you to the Anahí mine itself, getting our hands dirty as we clamber through the very tunnels and shafts that pierce the earth’s crust to produce this unique gem material. There you will see how the ametrine gets transported and processed, and then the final act of making the gem ready for jewelry. Finally, we’ll take you to a glamorous showroom in Bolivia that specializes in selling these treasures. In all, you will have a true mine-to-market experience.

But our journey through Bolivia begins high in the Andes—far from the tropical environment that produces ametrine.

	Huayna Potosi mountain and Lake Titicaca.
Bolivia’s Highlands
Bolivia’s highest peak, El Nevado de Sajama, rises 21,400 feet above sea level and remains cloaked in a permanent snow bank, as do many of the other impressive peaks in the Andean Cordilleras. It is the snows from the Western and Central Cordilleras that nourish Bolivia. The melt-off rushes down the mountains toward the Altiplano, a high plain that is home to the world’s highest navigable body of water, Lake Titicaca. It is also the largest freshwater lake in South America, and visible from outer space, and home to fascinating, high-altitude flora and fauna such as the James flamingo, once thought to be extinct before it was rediscovered in the mid-1900s.

The roots of Bolivia’s history—and the bulk of its population and cultural and mineral riches—lie in these high, austere elevations of the Altiplano. In this arid, seemingly inhospitable location, the mighty Tiwanaku civilization once thrived. Tiwanaku is thought by historians to be a precursor to the mighty Inca empire, and its people inhabited the region around Lake Titicaca as early as 1500 BC. Evidence suggests a civilization dedicated to agriculture. At the height of the civilization, around 300 BC, this region was likely the source of many of the world’s potato varieties, as well as unique forms of barley and quinoa and domesticated camelid species such as the llama, vicuña and alpaca. The people were also exceptional stonemasons. A visit to Tiwanaku, Bolivia’s most important archaeological discovery and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, exemplifies their extraordinary architecture and stone carving for decorative or ceremonial purposes. One of the most important icons there is the Puerta del Sol (Gate of the Sun), a giant monolith carved with a stunning design of the sun god Inti wearing an elaborate headdress and surrounded by humanlike birds.

	At Tiwanaku, Bolivia’s most important archaeological site, lies Puerta del Sol ("gate of the sun"). This ancient pre-Colombian rock monolith depicts the sun-god "Inti" which is  Bolivia's principal icon.
While Bolivia’s rivers and high-altitude lakes are nourished by the Andes, so are its people. In fact, the bulk of Bolivia’s population is concentrated in the Andean region. In the 1500s, the Spanish began to inhabit and colonize these areas, often returning to Europe with raw materials found in the New World. From mineral-rich Bolivia (known at the time as the Great Colombia), silver, gold and other treasures were taken in huge quantities. These contributed greatly to the growth of the Spanish Empire in the 1500s and 1600s.

	A Bolivian llama herder in the Antiplano region.
Potosí
If we see ametrine as a colorful reminder of Bolivia’s gem and mineral riches, it was precious metals, particularly gold and silver, that were most sought in the 1500s and 1600s. The city of Potosí epitomizes the treasures that pour out of the Andean region. An interesting story relates the discovery of silver in the year 1544. Huallpa, an Incan llama herder, had lost one of his animals, and rather than return home without it he spent the night on the mountainside. With the perpetual cold at this altitude, even more so once the sun sets, Huallpa built a fire to stay warm. As the legend goes, tiny threads of molten silver began to flow in small rivulets from under the coals, a mother lode of silver.

	The city of Potosi produces much of the world’s silver. Cerro Rico lies in the background.
For nearly 500 years since this discovery, Cerro Rico has been the world’s largest silver deposit. It is also one of the highest working mines in the world, located a punishing 14,000 feet above sea level. Of this discovery it was once remarked that a bridge of solid silver could be built, stretching from Potosi to Spain. This was figuratively true, as much of Cerro Rico’s wealth went directly to Spain in the following centuries. In attempting to create a Bolivian silver industry in the 1500s, the Spanish viceroy built the national Bolivian mint, La Casa de la Moneda. This truly imposing structure struck most of South America’s silver currency, as well as some of Spain’s own currency, for well over two centuries.

	Courtyard of La Casa de la Moneda, Bolivia’s national mint since the 1500s.
A rare view from the roof of La Casa de la Moneda today portrays a city whose architecture has remained virtually unchanged for the past 500 years. A series of colonial churches, brick and stucco buildings with red tile roofs, huddle together as if seeking warmth against the cold, barren landscape.

Overlooking Potosí is the now heavily pockmarked mountain of Cerro Rico, often depicted in Bolivian paintings as a sacred figure protecting the city and its people.

The Legend of Anahí
Bolivia’s colonial era is a good time to introduce the legend of Anahí, which touches upon the gem ametrine. The Spanish conquistadores were likely sending teams of explorers throughout the Andes starting in the 1500s, and their journeys led them down the high valleys into the lowlands and eventually the Amazon basin. Their charge was to discover as much gold and silver as possible for the homeland. One such explorer is said to have encountered a native Ayoreo tribe along the Pantanál region and, in a Pocahontas-like story, fallen in love with Anahí, an Ayoreo princess. As a token of her admiration for the conquistador, she presented him with a bicolored gem, one the Spaniards had never seen before. The rare stone was found near the village, in a mine that bears her name today.

As laced with romance as the story might be, the ametrine as know it today likely came much later, in the 1970s.

Sucre and La Paz
Bolivia’s constitutional capital is Sucre, located in the high mountain valleys. And while the city is one of the country’s largest, bustling with activity, it is no longer the seat of government. All the major government offices, the president’s home, and the international embassies are now located in La Paz. Nonetheless, Sucre is a magnificent colonial city to visit because of the wonderful mix of modern conveniences and ancient history blended together there. Sucre is centrally located, linked by railroad to Bolivia’s principal silver and tin mines, and from there to other main cities and export centers.

	In the Andean village of Tarabuco, many still wear leather replicas of old conquistador helmets.
Not far from Sucre is the village of Tarabuco, today a quaint community known for the amazing color and quality of its textile designs. But Tarabuco’s reputation was not always so peaceful. The Tarabuqueños were fierce warriors, ancestrally linked to the Incas and vigorously opposed to Spanish rule. A visit to the small town reveals a society lost in time, and one still gets an uneasy sense that outsiders are unwanted. The main square has as its centerpiece a ferocious Tarabuqueño statue, a wild-eyed man who has just ripped the heart out of a Spanish soldier’s chest. Despite their opposition to the Spaniards, the conquistadores clearly left their mark. Remarkably, vestiges of ancient Spanish influence are still seen centuries later. To this day, men and women often wear leather replicas of the old conquistador helmets, sometimes adorned with flowers.

La Paz, meanwhile, is truly international, the highest major city in the world. Here too the Bolivian partiality for hats is seen everywhere you go. In the La Paz region, the hats take on a more European flair. Women enjoy wearing black and brown felt hats, similar in style to an English “bowler” hat. The city a Bolivian woman comes from can often be determined from the type of hat she wears.

Overlooking La Paz is one of Bolivia's most dramatic mountains, Mount Illimani, which is permanently blanketed in snow and towers over the capital. Nestled in a deep bowl on the Altiplano, La Paz lies within easy reach of Lake Titicaca and Bolivia’s other main cities. A short but hair-raising drive to the cumbre, the highest mountain pass, some 20 miles outside the city, provides a bird’s-eye view of the city’s skyscrapers. Peering down the other side of the mountain, however, brings into view a precipitous plunge into the beginnings of Bolivia’s jungle lowlands. We will now proceed past the high valleys, following the melting snows and rivers into the jungle below, in search of ametrine.

Getting There
A half-hour flight from La Paz deposits visitors in the fast-growing city of Santa Cruz, in Bolivia’s tropical heartland. We are one step closer to the birthplace of ametrine. Our first stop in Santa Cruz is a visit with Ramiro Rivero, owner of Minerales y Metales del Oriente. This parent company encompasses a group of companies dedicated to mining, transporting, sorting, preforming, faceting and marketing all of Anahí’s gems. While ametrine is the most coveted gemstone, the mine also produces a variety of other quartzes, including amethyst, citrine, and colorless and lavender quartz.

The best way to get to Anahí is by invitation. Given the utter remoteness of the locality, those arriving unannounced are not welcomed with open arms. Assuming that an invitation stands, the travel choices are limited. In practical terms, there are really only two ways to get there: the drive and boat ride, or the flight from Santa Cruz. One could take the route of the conquistador and traverse miles of scrub brush and deep jungle by horse—which is not recommended. Another option would be to wait until the dry season (Bolivia’s winter months, such as June or July) and take the daylong drive along a rural road from Santa Cruz. The road meanders southeast to the village of Roboré, and from there to the town of Puerto Suarez, on the border with Brazil. This completes the land portion of the journey, approximately two-thirds of the way to the mine. An extraordinary network of swamplands and inland waterways, which make up the world-famous Pantanál ecological reserve, are the next leg of the trip. Another 8 to 10 hours are spent on a barge or motorboat, heading due north until reaching Laguna Mandioré, a large freshwater lagoon. Along its shores, a small port serves as a disembarkation point… and then for the last bumpy hour of the trip, a winding slog through the jungle, over a small series of hills to Anahí.

	This aerial photo shows the area near the Anahí mine in southeastern Bolivia. The mine is near the center of the shot, barely visible amid the foliage between the two mountains.
The most expeditious way to the mine is by single-propeller aircraft, a three-and-a-half hour flight from Santa Cruz. Not far from the mine, a grass airstrip awaits, and heavily armed guards are there to greet you.

	A single-propeller aircraft lands on the airstrip at Santa Cruz, near the Anahí mine.
Anahí
Upon reaching the mine, it becomes immediately clear that the place is all about quartz. Chunks of different sizes, including outright hexagonal crystals, are embedded along the road leading to the mine and throughout the mine itself. The hills surrounding the mine property consist of dolomitic limestone, containing veins of quartz. Several different shafts have been drilled into the property along these veins, and Rivero estimates that in a good year 3,000–3,500 kg of gem-quality quartz are mined. Ametrine is the most lucrative of the products, though on average amethyst makes up 44% of production by weight, ametrine 33%, and citrine 23%. A portion of the production is very light, lavender-colored, which Rivero has called “anahíta.” Some colorless or very milky quartz, previously discarded, is now retained for ornamental purposes.

	Fernando Arrien of Minerales y Metales del Oriente examines some large amethyst specimens at the Anahí mine.
In a good year, some 70 to 100 individuals work at the mine. Rivero takes great pride in describing how the mine is run. He says the miners play soccer every day, eat good food, watch satellite television, and use the company’s phones to call home. Alcohol is prohibited at the mine, and the company provides basic medical care.

	This 80.30 ct ametrine fantasy cut is courtesy of Minerales y Metales del Oriente.
The Mining Process
Most of the mining at Anahí takes place underground, accessed through a series of reinforced shafts and horizontal tunnels that extend to the mineralized areas. But there is also a small open-pit mining area. In the tunnels that are being enlarged, or when mineralized areas in the open pit need to be loosened for hand digging, dynamite blasting occurs once or twice per day. An alarm is sounded, and everybody seeks cover.

The air must be cleared after blasting, and then the miners remove loosened rock or chisel into areas containing amethyst. In the principal tunnels, overburden is piled into mining carts that roll down a slight grade when full. A single person pushes the carts. The overburden is transported up an elevator shaft and slid down a chute to another waiting mining cart in open air. Fully loaded carts are pushed to a washing area where the material is dumped. A water cannon further loosens agglomerations of rock and mud, and a series of sieves are used to separate out particulate matter. The Anahí mine is conscious of environmental damage from particulates, particularly if these were to flow downstream into the Pantanál. Particulates are therefore meticulously collected in a series of holding ponds.

	Mining operations at the Anahí mine.
After washing, material is bagged and taken to a protected presorting facility. Here some 20 employees begin evaluating the material. Some items are hammered—or cobbed—to reveal only facetable material, and to reduce weight. While no items are actually faceted at Anahí, the presorting is aimed at streamlining the cutting process later.

The mine prides itself on compliance with government regulations on the use of dynamite. Miners also wear protective gear such as hardhats, gloves (quartz can cut as easily as broken glass), eye protection, and masks to protect the wearer from airborne quartz particles.

The return trip is also arduous. Mine run is trucked to Laguna Mandioré and loaded onto a barge. From there it makes the long journey down to Puerto Suarez, where it is transported to a holding facility. Rough material is then shipped to the processing plant in Santa Cruz— as needed.

	This worker is prewashing the rough that comes out of the mine. Sediments of varying weight are collected in holding ponds to prevent water contamination downstream of the mine.
The Manufacturing Process
The main facility for processing the mine run and transforming the material into sparkling gems is located at the Parque Industrial in Santa Cruz. Here the material is categorized and sorted further, dutifully routed to the proper preformers and cutters at the factory. Preforming reveals the ametrine’s color zoning, which allows a skilled cutter to determine the final outcome of the gem. He or she must also work to fashion the gems to perfectly fit the factory’s jewelry design, or according to the specifications of overseas manufacturers. Because the designers, preformers, cutters, and jewelers are all located under one roof, clear communication is needed. An informal open-door policy encourages this type of communication.

	This woman at the Anahí mine is combing and sorting the quartz prior to sending it to Santa Cruz for faceting or preparation for export.

	At Minerales y Metales del Oriente, the parent company of the mining group, cutters work in an organized environment and wear masks to avoid inhaling the silica dust created as they cut and polish stones.

	This young woman at Minerales y Metales del Oriente is sorting amethyst, ametrine, and citrine.

	At the Minerales y Metales del Oriente processing plant, ametrine is cut and polished and prepared for jewelry. These models produced by CAD/CAM are for mounting ametrine in jewelry.
End of the Line
Now the finished jewelry is finally ready for its ultimate destination, the market. While a portion of the rough and preformed amethyst, ametrine, and citrine production is slated for export to markets around the world, M&M’s own retail division stands as a profitable test market for selling finished products in a retail environment. M&M’s spotless showrooms in Santa Cruz serves as a forum for aspiring, as well as accomplished writers, artists and musicians, who are often invited to exhibit their work or perform at the store. In turn these guests respectively carry the message of Anahí throughout the country. This strategy has not gone unnoticed. Ametrine, also known as “Bolivianita,” is the country’s national gemstone.

	Minerales y Metales del Oriente’s retail division sells finished ametrine jewelry sourced from the company’s Anahí mine. This photo was taken inside an M&M showroom boutique.
Ametrine serves as a spectacular mine-to-market model for anyone seeking to elevate the status, market appeal, and value of a given gemstone. And in examining the source of this unique gemstone, we have gone further—to understand the culture, beauty, and historical background of Bolivia.

	 This 17.80 ct ametrine is a stylized briolette. Courtesy of Minerales y Metales del Oriente.

	This 48.90 ct ametrine with concave faceting was cut by Dalan Hargrave. Courtesy of Minerales y Metales del Oriente. Source: GIA @topic:2


Title: The Ultimate Gemologist:A Tribute to Richard T. Liddicoat Abstract: Figure 1. Since 1940, Richard T. Liddicoat’s contributions to gemological education, diamond quality grading, gem identification, and gemological research and instrument development have advanced the study of gemology throughout the world. As a former president of GIA, now Chairman of its Board of Governors, and chief editor of Gems & Gemology for five decades, he has had a profound influence on the gem and jewelry industry.

              On this occasion—the celebration of Richard T. Liddicoat’s 50 years guiding Gems & Gemology— it is fitting to review his enormous impact on the field of gemology. This includes the development of GIA’s education program, the creation of the quality-grading system for polished diamonds that is now accepted worldwide, numerous contributions to the gemological literature, involvement in new gem-testing techniques and instruments, and the establishment of a formal research program. His greatest achievement, however, has been his personal influence on the professionalism and ethical standards of the international gem and jewelry industry.

With this special issue of Gems & Gemology, we celebrate the 50th anniversary of Richard T. Liddicoat (figure 1) as editor and now editor-in-chief of GIA’s quarterly professional journal. This festschrift, or special celebratory issue, provides a welcome opportunity to review his contributions to gemology, especially in five main areas: education, diamond quality grading, gem identification, instrument development, and global information outreach. Following the lead of GIA’s founder, Robert M. Shipley, Liddicoat positioned GIA as a leading international educational institution, grading laboratory, manufacturer of gem instruments, and research center. Those who have had the privilege to know and work with him have been able to expand the frontiers of gemology “by standing on the shoulders” of this giant.

	THE EARLY YEARS
Robert M. Shipley founded the Gemological Institute of America in Los Angeles, California, in 1931. His vision was to create an institution that would promote professional education in gemology for jewelers in the United States, allowing them to buy and sell with increased knowledge and confidence. At the time, no such organization existed in the U.S. In the early 1930s, Shipley—working in partnership with his wife Beatrice—stimulated interest among jewelers by traveling across the U.S. to retail stores, where he would preach the benefits of gemological education. In the evenings in his hotel room, Shipley would write courses for jewelers to take through correspondence. He established the beginnings of an educational institute in Los Angeles with a small staff that grew slowly over the next decade as resources allowed. Together, he and his staff created lessons, gave instruction on gemstones and their properties, and began the process of helping jewelers correctly identify the gem materials they handled (Gilbert, 1977).

By 1940, Shipley realized the need for additional leadership at GIA. His son, Robert Shipley Jr., who had worked closely with him in recent years, had signed up for military service. Shipley contacted Chester B. Slawson, a mineralogy professor at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor who was co-author of one of the leading gemology texts at that time, Gems and Gem Materials (Kraus and Slawson, 1939), as well as one of GIA’s educational advisors. In his letter, Shipley asked Slawson to recommend a mineralogist to join the GIA faculty. Dr. Slawson suggested one of his graduate students, Richard T. Liddicoat. As Liddicoat recalled, “Slawson thought that I was wedded to graduate school and headed for a Ph.D. in mineralogy, so he didn’t think I’d be interested. But he showed the letter to me anyway. After years of school, I was ready to do something else. The idea of gems and Los Angeles really had appeal” (Youngs, 1980, p. 40).

Liddicoat drove with his wife Mary Imogene (“Gene”) Liddicoat to Cincinnati, Ohio, for an interview with Robert Shipley and then-chairman of GIA’s Board of Governors, Edward Herschede. He found both men impressive, with Shipley especially charismatic in his passion for education and gemstones.

Richard Thomas Liddicoat Jr. was born on March 2, 1918, in Kearsarge, Michigan, the son of a professor of engineering at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and Carmen Beryl Williams Liddicoat. Both his grandfathers were miners from Cornwall, England, who had immigrated to the upper Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan in the latter half of the 19th century. These two men inspired their grandson to explore the geology of his surroundings. Liddicoat attended the University of Michigan, from which he received a bachelor’s degree in geology in 1939 and a master’s degree in mineralogy in 1940.

On June 28, 1940, Liddicoat joined the GIA staff as assistant director of education, beginning a 60+ year career of service to GIA and the jewelry industry (see highlights in the timeline). In those days, the Institute was a family affair: Beatrice Shipley managed the office, while Shipley Jr. focused on developing gemological instruments and techniques, as Shipley Sr. continued with education and attracting jewelers to the GIA programs. (Also involved was Beatrice’s nephew Al Woodill, who briefly worked at GIA in 1940 –1941. In 1947, Woodill became the executive head of GIA’s sister organization, the American Gem Society [AGS], which Shipley Sr. had established in 1934 as a professional guild of jewelers.)

Liddicoat’s first priority was to take the GIA courses, which he completed in less than three months. As an instructor, he was responsible for grading GIA correspondence exams—on average, 225 tests per week. “When I first came out here, I used to grade all the papers. They were all essay questions in those days. I would take all the papers home with me, one day a week, and just keep going until I finished them. Sometimes, it was pretty late when I got through with them all,” Liddicoat later recalled (Youngs, 1980, p. 40).

Within a year of his hiring, Liddicoat was named director of education, the first person outside the Shipley family to hold a major position within GIA.

Figure 2. Standing in the back of a February 1949 gemology class at GIA's New York office are G. Robert Crowningshield (in front of chalkboard) and Richard T. Liddicoat (back row, far right).

	CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEMOLOGICAL EDUCATION
One of Liddicoat’s first innovations in gemological education was an intensive one-week class that was launched at the AGS Conclaves in Philadelphia and Chicago in 1942 (Federman, 1985a). He developed this class to enable students to complete the prerequisite Diamond and Colored Stone training of Shipley’s original fundamental course in a one-week resident education format. This class also gave jewelers the opportunity to work with equipment in a classroom setting under the guidance of GIA instructors (figure 2). Liddicoat would become a mainstay as a speaker and instructor at these Conclaves, and in 1997 the AGS honored him for having attended 50 of them (“A special tribute…,” 1997).

During World War II, from August 1942 until January 1946, Liddicoat left GIA to serve in the U.S. Navy. After working for a few months in a shipyard, he eventually was assigned to the Pacific fleet as a weather officer on aircraft carriers and at Pearl Harbor (“Liddicoat resumes work at headquarters… ,” 1946).

Upon his return from military service in February 1946, Liddicoat was named director of research and, later, director of education and research. The March 1946 issue of the AGS magazine Guilds described him as “an extremely popular leader and instructor who proved his ability to project his personality into instruction in the mail courses” (“Liddicoat resumes work at headquarters…,” 1946, p. 5). In June 1946, he helped launch the first evening gemology class in Los Angeles, which allowed local GIA correspondence students to gain hands-on experience while continuing to work in their jewelry stores during the day.

Recognizing the need for an inexpensive handbook for GIA students, Shipley assigned Liddicoat the task of creating it. This new gem identification reference book was the first directed to the needs of the practicing gemologist. Closely tied to the GIA course work, it also was unique in organizing the gemstones by color. Liddicoat spent almost a year on the book, dictating sections to his wife Gene in the evening (R. T. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2002). In August 1947, the first edition of his Handbook of Gem Identification was published (figure 3). This book, one of the first to include photomicrographs of inclusions as identifying characteristics, supported GIA education classes that increasingly focused on gem identification and gem-testing instrumentation. It continues to be one of the most widely used textbooks in gemology, now in the fourth printing of its 12th edition.

Beginning in 1948, GIA granted the title gemologist to those students who had completed all of the home study courses, and awarded the title graduate gemologist (G.G.) when students completed the additional class training and passed the 20-stone exam. Since the inception of the graduate gemologist diploma, approximately 25,000 students have gained this important industry recognition. Later in 1948, Shipley turned over much of the day-to-day operation to Liddicoat (“Executive staff changes…,” 1948). GIA student enrollment grew substantially during the postwar years, influenced in large part by the G.I. Education Bill, by which the U.S. government gave financial support to its military veterans. To meet the needs of a growing student population, more instructors were added to the GIA staff to teach the students both in “extension” classes at the Los Angeles headquarters and through home study education. During the latter half of the 1940s, the GIA staff doubled from 20 to 40. When the G.I. Bill’s benefits ended in the early 1950s, however, enrollment fell off sharply, and GIA faced a financial challenge just as Shipley was planning to retire.

Figure 3. The first edition of Richard Liddicoat’s Handbook of Gem Identification, published in 1947, presented “simple and often conclusive” tests to identify gems. Now in its 12th edition (4th printing), it is one of the most widely read textbooks in gemology.

Liddicoat, Shipley’s handpicked successor, became executive director of GIA on April 1, 1952. He moved quickly to address the Institute’s financial problem by focusing GIA’s education on a key concern of jewelers: diamond grading.

In the early 1950s, jewelers were calling for a standardized diamond grading system to counter the fanciful and often inconsistent terminology then being used to describe polished diamonds. Such descriptions only made effective communication between dealers and customers more difficult. Liddicoat tackled the problem with Los Angeles colleagues Lester Benson and Joe Phillips, with input from the New York laboratory’s Bob Crowningshield (then director of GIA’s Eastern Headquarters and Gem Trade Laboratory and later vice president of GTL Gem Identification) and Bert Krashes (who retired in 1987 as managing director of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory). Together, they developed a diamond grading and evaluation appraisal program based on the color, clarity, cutting, and carat weight of diamonds. To unveil the class, they decided to go to the heart of the diamond district in New York.

Liddicoat and Crowningshield taught the first one-week classes on the new diamond grading system in April 1953 at the Roosevelt Hotel in New York City (figure 4 shows a one-week class from 1954). This diamond grading class became part of GIA’s regular gemology program in 1955. Liddicoat also established a new traveling one-week class, Diamond Evaluation, to bring an understanding of the benefits of this new diamond grading terminology to jewelers throughout the United States (Shuster, in press). Glenn Nord, who was then taking the new diamond course, recalls: “GIA was introducing an entirely new culture to the jewelry industry with its education, and it was Dick Liddicoat’s leadership that helped people accept these changes” (pers. comm., 2002).

Figure 4. GIA instructors Bert Krashes, Eunice Miles, and G. Robert Crowningshield stand in the center of a group of students taking a one-week class at GIA New York in June 1954, a year after the introduction of the GIA diamond grading system.

In 1955, 14 of the 45 lessons—or nearly a third of GIA’s home study diamond courses—were rewritten. Liddicoat personally revised 10 of them. During the same time period, he expanded the education program by adding a jewelry retailing home study course. The first jewelry design course, long presented in Brooklyn by Christian Jakkob, was turned over to GIA and reorganized by Lester Benson, a GIA educator and inventor. Liddicoat reflected, “I always had the feeling that once the gemology program was in place, we should offer a complete curriculum for the retail jeweler” (pers. comm., 2001).

To further meet the need for a standardized terminology for its students and members of the trade, GIA began working on a glossary of diamond terms. Out of these efforts came the first Diamond Dictionary (1960), by Lawrence Copeland with Richard Liddicoat and other staff members (see Copeland et al., 1960; figure 5). Later that same decade came Liddicoat and Copeland’s The Jewelers’ Manual (again, see figure 5). Published in 1964, it was an expansion of Shipley’s earlier Jewelers Pocket Reference Book (1947).

Liddicoat worked closely with Lester Benson to produce a revised course structure for the gemology program (“GIA courses to have new look,” 1958). In 1962, after providing a variety of supplemental classes for students to obtain additional training time, GIA began to offer a full-time resident G.G. program in Los Angeles. Before then, students could obtain this diploma only through home study, supplemented by short-term classes.

During this same period, Liddicoat (1962) wrote an article for Gems & Gemology on the “rapid sight” system for judging diamond cut quality. According to Nord (pers. comm., 2002), “After Dick developed the system, he and I would sit and trade diamonds back and forth for hours. We could judge so many factors, including proportions and angles, very accurately. It was an important teaching tool that is still a key part of the diamond program today.”

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Liddicoat oversaw Nord’s development of corporate training classes for Zales, one of the largest retail jewelry store chains in the U.S., a program that continues today with a number of major businesses.

Also in the late ‘60s, Liddicoat made several trips to Japan in an effort to glean the information necessary to develop a cultured pearl course and, ultimately, GIA’s first pearl grading system.

Richard Liddicoat took Shipley’s concept of home study (or “distance”) education beyond North America when, in 1970, he sent Nord to Israel to teach the first diamond course outside the U.S. A year later, with Liddicoat’s endorsement, GIA courses were being taught in Japan (figure 6). Yoshiko Doi, a former GIA staff member who had returned to Japan, and Kenzo Yamamoto established the Association of Japan Gem Trust (AGT), a non-profit organization with exclusive rights to administer GIA courses in Japanese (“Focus on: Kenzo Yamamoto,” 1984). Doi translated all course materials into Japanese, thus beginning GIA’s ability to offer courses internationally and in other languages. Currently, GIA programs are offered in 11 countries outside the U.S.

Figure 5. The Diamond Dictionary, first published in 1960 and now in its 3rd edition (1993), provides a standard reference for diamond terminology. The Jewelers’ Manual, a handy reference guide to gemology and jewelry for the working jeweler, was first published in 1964 and is now in its 3rd edition (1989).

Early GIA efforts to establish a system to describe the quality of polished diamonds can be traced back to the 1930s, when Robert M. Shipley Sr. and De Beers collaborated to develop the concept of the “Four Cs”: color, clarity, cut, and carat weight. In 1939, the AGS adopted this terminology for describing diamonds. A 1941 article in Guilds describes a nine-year process by GIA to develop a unit for color grading diamonds and efforts to standardize color grading (“Standardization of color grading…,” 1941). That same year, Shipley Sr. and Liddicoat published an article on diamond grading that described the use of a standardized light source (the Diamolite) and a prototype colorimeter for grading diamond color against a graduated color scale (Shipley and Liddicoat, 1941). This same research by Shipley, Dorothy Jasper Smith, and Liddicoat led to the creation of the first master set of color comparison diamonds for diamond grading in 1941 (R. T. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2002).

Nevertheless, as indicated above, ongoing confusion and inconsistency in diamond grading terminology brought about the demand for a new vocabulary to more clearly express the color, clarity, and cut of individual diamonds. As Bert Krashes (pers. comm., 2001) notes, “There was a lot of ambiguity and confusion when it came to trade grading of diamond color and clarity, so there was a significant need for GIA to create this system.”

Liddicoat became the architect of the GIA diamond grading system, developing a practical approach to quality grading colorless to light yellow polished diamonds on the basis of color, clarity, and cut. A central feature was the D-to-Z color grading system for faceted, colorless to light yellow diamonds, which comprise the vast majority of diamonds seen in the trade. The letter D was chosen as the starting point (colorless) to avoid confusion with other, more loosely defined classification systems being used, which typically began with the letter A (King et al., 1994). Liddicoat remembers that at the time the diamond companies had their own descriptions, which included A and AA, so it was felt that D would be less confusing (R. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2001).

Having discussed quality grading of diamonds at earlier AGS Conclaves, Liddicoat introduced the GIA diamond grading system at the 1953 Conclave in Philadelphia. “Richard Liddicoat deserves the credit for developing the diamond grading system. He had some assistance from Lester Benson, but it was mainly Liddicoat” (B. Krashes, pers. comm., 2002).

Beginning in 1953, GIA instructors taught this grading system to hundreds of students so they could evaluate their own diamonds. Subsequently, many of these students requested that GIA set up a procedure whereby they could submit their grading worksheets, and eventually the diamonds themselves, for an independent assessment.

Bert Krashes recalls the transition (pers. comm., 2002): “It began as a service we offered students. After they took the courses, whether correspondence or one-week classes, we agreed to double-check their grading of their own diamonds. We would make our comments on the diamond worksheets. Eventually, word reached the industry that we were capable of doing this work, and soon there was a demand for a more formal presentation.” Liddicoat teamed with Crowningshield, Krashes, and Eunice Miles to design and develop the Diamond Grading Report (Christie, 1988), the first of which was issued in 1955.

Figure 6. One of GIA’s early global outreaches was in Japan, where Kenzo Yamamoto (second from the left, next to his wife) and Yoshiko Doi (third from the left, next to former GIA president Glenn Nord) began teaching GIA courses in 1971. Since its inception, nearly 3,000 graduate gemologists have been trained at the Japanese affiliate. In the inset photograph, Richard Liddicoat is shown with a group of Japanese students.

	UNLOCKING THE MYSTERIES: GEM IDENTIFICATION AND GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Gem Identification. When Robert M. Shipley set up his Los Angeles laboratory in the early 1930s, the Institute’s resources were devoted to identifying gems and to documenting the properties and techniques that would aid in their separation (Jasper, 1948). Late in 1948, following the unexpected resignation of Dr. Mark Bandy as director of the fledgling New York laboratory, Shipley assigned Liddicoat to New York to lead the expansion of that new branch. Liddicoat and his wife Gene drove across the country and arrived there in early January 1949. While Liddicoat and Crowningshield took care of the gem identifications and taught classes at night, Gene was the office administrator (R. T. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2002). The resources of the New York operation were further enhanced when the Gem Trade Laboratory, which had been established by A. E. Alexander, was turned over to GIA in October of that same year. As director of GIA New York and the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Liddicoat was responsible for integrating the facilities of the two labs (“Richard T. Liddicoat Jr.appointed…,” 1952). The early identification work was typically a group effort among staff members who became known as the “Liddicoat brain trust” (Federman, 1985a).

By the 1970s, the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory staff was examining large numbers of gemstones, including the grading of diamonds and the identification of colored stones and pearls. Sensing the need for a group of scientists who would focus on the many emerging technical challenges in gemology, Liddicoat formally established the current GIA Research Department in 1976. Dr. D. Vincent Manson, formerly curator of gems and minerals at the American Museum of Natural History, was named its director.

Figure 7. Along with G. Robert Crowningshield and Lester Benson, Richard Liddicoat pioneered the Gem Trade Lab Notes section of Gems & Gemology. These reports of new findings from the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory first appeared as “Highlights at the Gem Trade Lab” from both New York and Los Angeles. Today, the Lab Notes section remains one of the journal’s most popular features.
Gems & Gemology. Robert Shipley’s early efforts in gem testing and characterization were incorporated not only into updates of the GIA courses, but also (starting in 1934) into the pages of Gems & Gemology, GIA’s quarterly journal. Richard Liddicoat continued this legacy through articles that he wrote and co-authored in G&G, reporting on his activities to improve the ability of jewelers to properly identify gems. (An extensive bibliography of his publications is provided at the end of this article.)

Liddicoat became editor of Gems & Gemology on Robert Shipley’s retirement in 1952, with Jeanne G. M. Martin as his associate editor. Liddicoat himself led a procession of notable mineralogists, gemologists, and other scientists who contributed groundbreaking articles to the journal. Subsequent associate editors included Dr. Robert Gaal (1973–1977) and John I. Koivula (1978–1980). In 1981, Alice Keller was brought on as the journal’s managing editor to oversee its redesign; she was subsequently promoted to her current position as editor and director.

Liddicoat encouraged Crowningshield and Benson to write their “Highlights at the Gem Trade Lab” columns—Crowningshield in New York and Benson in Los Angeles—which debuted in the Winter 1958–59 issue of Gems & Gemology (R.T. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2002). Liddicoat took over the Los Angeles column in 1962 (figure 7). “Highlights at the Gem Trade Lab” later became the Gem Trade Lab Notes section, which continues to describe interesting gem materials that have been seen in the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory.

Five times in the last decade, Gems & Gemology has won the American Society of Association Executives Gold Circle Award for best peer-review journal in America. Liddicoat continues to serve as editor-in-chief, writing editorials, reviewing books and articles, and setting editorial policy for the award-winning publication.

	CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTATION
Liddicoat presided over four decades of innovation in gem instrument development at GIA, and established gem instruments as one of the Institute’s highest priorities (Federman, 1985b). In addition to his early work with Shipley to develop the Diamolite (figure 8), Liddicoat worked with various GIA scientists on a number of other instruments. Liddicoat’s own scientific background enabled him to foster the development of instruments such as the prism spectroscope and the ProportionScope (GIA Diamond Grading course, 1994). His objective throughout instrument development at GIA was to provide jewelers with practical tools that could help them in the day-to-day operation of identifying gemstones.

Figure 8. Richard Liddicoat, shown teaching the use of the Diamolite in 1946, helped develop the instrument in 1941.

	GLOBAL INFORMATION OUTREACH
In the early 1980s, Liddicoat championed the use of computer networks to connect jewelers and gemologists to a vast array of knowledge. In a 1985 interview in Modern Jeweler, he predicted that one day jewelers across the country would be connected to GIA through such a network: “Imagine not having to leave your store or business to consult with GIA” (Federman, 1985c, p. 56). That idea became reality in 1986 with the creation of GIA-Net under the leadership of Dennis Foltz, then director of education and operations at GIA, and has evolved today into GIA Virtual Campus (for students) and the GIA Web site: http://www.gia.edu. Approximately 150,000 people access the GIA Web site monthly.

Liddicoat’s contributions to spreading gem and jewelry knowledge were immortalized with the creation of the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center in 1989. Although Robert Shipley had built the beginnings of a library from the very first days of GIA, Liddicoat was the one who envisioned a world-class, state-of-the-art library that would serve not only GIA staff and students, but also jewelers, gemologists, and consumers worldwide. This repository was greatly expanded under the direction of one of the authors (DMD) with the purchase of the 15,000-volume John and Marjorie Sinkankas Gemology and Mineralogy Library in 1988 (figure 9). Located at the Institute’s headquarters in Carlsbad, California, the Liddicoat Library is now the largest gemology and jewelry library in the world. At almost 836 square meters (9,000 square feet), it houses over 30,000 volumes and journals as well as extensive collections of photos, videotapes, and other media resources.

Figure 9. The world’s largest collection of gemological books and articles, the Sinkankas Collection, was acquired for the GIA library in 1988. Photo by Shane McClure and Robert Weldon, © GIA.

As director of education and later president, Richard Liddicoat was GIA’s ambassador to many gemology and jewelry associations. As indicated earlier, he was a mainstay at AGS Conclaves for more than 50 years, frequently accompanied by GIA’s finest gemologists (figure 10). He attended industry meetings and then incorporated the information he gathered into Gems & Gemology and the education program. He actively participated in the International Kimberlite Conferences and the International Gemmological Conferences (IGC), as well as a variety of trade association events. In 1983, Liddicoat retired as president of GIA, but was subsequently named chairman of GIA’s Board of Governors, a position that he still holds. Liddicoat is a founding member of the International Colored Gemstone Association (ICA) and the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA). In recent years, he has continued to attend trade shows and visit gem mines, in addition to his involvement with GIA and Gems & Gemology (figure 11).

Figure 10. Since the inaugural American Gem Society Conclave in 1937, GIA educators have taught gemological courses and seminars to AGS jewelers. In this photo, Glenn Nord, Chuck Fryer (then head of Gem Identification in Los Angeles), Richard Liddicoat, Bert Krashes, and G. Robert Crowningshield participate in a GIA panel at the 1972 AGS Conclave in Washington, DC.

Figure 11. Richard Liddicoat has remained an active figure in the gemological community. In this 2001 photo, Liddicoat is seen touring the historic Tourmaline Queen pegmatite mine in the Pala district of San Diego County, California, with mine owner Ed Swoboda. This mine has produced large amounts of gem tourmaline, for cut stones and mineral specimens. Photo by Brendan Laurs, © GIA.

	THE “FATHER OF MODERN GEMOLOGY”
In recognition of his more than 60 years of service to the gem and jewelry industry, Liddicoat has received many awards and commendations. Among the most prestigious are:

		American Gem Society Honorary Certified Gemologist (1947)

		American Gem Society Robert M. Shipley Award (1976)

		Honorary Fellow of the Gemmological Association of Great Britain (1981)

		American Gem Trade Association Honorary Member (1983)

		Consolidated Jewelers Association of New York’s Man of the Year (1984)

Modern Jeweler’s Lifetime Achievement Award (1985)

		The Morris B. Zale Lifetime Achievement Award (1987)

		Honorary Lifetime Membership of the Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain (1987)

		National Home Study Council’s Hall of Fame (1991)

		GIA Board of Governors’ Chairman for Life (1992)

		GIA League of Honor Lifetime Achievement Award (1995)

		American Gem Society Lifetime Achievement Award (2001)

Liddicoat received special recognition in 1977 with the naming in his honor of a new gem species of tourmaline (figure 12). Dr. Pete J. Dunn and his colleagues from the U.S. National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution; Dunn, 1977) named “the mineral liddicoatite [the calcic lithiumtourmaline end member], in recognition of his contributions to gemological knowledge and education.” Liddicoat is one of only a few gemologists ever to be so recognized (Federman, 1985a).

When Liddicoat was honored as Man of the Year by the Consolidated Jewelers Association of New York in 1984, National Jeweler publisher Milton Gralla said of him, “There is not a community of any size anywhere in the United States where one or many jewelers have not been touched, influenced, educated, upgraded or professionalized by the thinking of this particular industry leader—Richard T. Liddicoat” (“Liddicoat honored . . . ,” 1985).

In 1994, GIA established the Richard T. Liddicoat Award for Distinguished Achievement to acknowledge those GIA staff members who have provided unique talent and demonstrated unparalleled commitment to the Institute.

During his 60-plus years with the Gemological Institute of America, Richard Liddicoat has brought practical gemology to hundreds of thousands of students and industry colleagues. Just as GIA has touched the lives of thousands in the industry, so has Liddicoat with the wisdom he graciously shares. When Liddicoat received the AGS Lifetime Achievement Award on July 31, 2001 (figure 13), more than 300 jewelry industry professionals stood in ovation. GIA president Bill Boyajian said, “Richard Liddicoat’s achievements and contributions to the world of gemology and jewelry have been monumental. The living title ‘Father of Modern Gemology’ pays tribute to his success, yet only begins to describe the extent to which his efforts on behalf of an entire industry and the consuming public have changed the course of history.”

Figure 13. Richard T. Liddicoat, the “Father of Modern Gemology,” was honored with the American Gem Society’s Lifetime Achievement Award on July 31, 2001. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Gemstone Enhancement and its Detection in the 1980s Abstract: The impact that enhancements had on the gem market in the 1980s may be unparalleled in the history of the industry. Heat treatment brought hundreds of thousands of carats of blue and fancy-color sapphires and rubies to the trade, irradiation turned literally millions of carats of white topaz into attractive blue stones, and the filling of surface-reaching separations introduced an entirely new variable to the evaluation of color and clarity in diamonds. One of the key challenges to the gemologist during this decade was the identification of these and other enhancements. This article reviews the enhancements that were introduced or played a major role during the 1980s, focusing on their detection by standard gemological techniques. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Jadeite Market Update Abstract: Jeff MasonPresident, Mason-Kay, Inc.

Interview with Jeff Mason, President, Mason-Kay, Inc.
Jeff Mason’s company, Mason-Kay, has been in business for 36 years, selling only natural jadeite jade jewelry. The jade they use in their designs comes in a wide range of qualities, from a few dollars a carat up into the six figures for some finer pieces.

More than 95 percent of Mason-Kay’s market is in the US. Asian jade-quality preferences are somewhat different from those of American consumers. In general, Asians value translucency over color, while Americans value color over translucency. There’s also a difference in carving-design preferences. Mason-Kay accommodates this difference by “Americanizing” Asian designs.

Mr. Mason has seen an increase in demand for and prices of jade jewelry, especially in the past year or two. He declares that a key to encouraging this increase is education. People’s lack of knowledge leads to fear about prices, qualities, and treatment issues. Mason-Kay reduces those anxieties by educating their clients and ensuring the integrity of their product.

In a discussion about treatments, Mr. Mason states that treated jade is nothing new—jade has been dyed to enhance its color for many decades. A newer treatment, polymer impregnation, has been in use for about three decades, but requires expensive laboratory equipment for detection that the average gemologist can’t justify owning.

In one segment, Mr. Mason discusses the effects of the US embargo against Burmese jade, which started in 2008 and continues to this day. They’ve been forced to buy domestically ever since. Fortunately, the company had stockpiled jadeite supplies before that in anticipation of the ban. Also, in the same year the ban took effect, the world economy experienced a downturn. Despite its overall negative effect, this had two positive effects on Mason-Kay: They didn’t sell out their stockpiled inventories as quickly and they were often able to buy out other companies’ goods at distressed prices.

In these interviews, Jeff Mason provides us with a fascinating look into a sometimes-misunderstood gem and its often-unpredictable market. Source: GIA @topic:12


Title: Dealing in Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan Abstract: Sam NaseriGlobal Gems

Interview with Sam Naseri, Global Gems
Mr. Naseri grew up in the lapis trade, working in his father’s business as a young boy. Born in Afghanistan, he rightfully claims a deep knowledge of this gem of his native land.

He starts by showing off his company’s best-quality lapis lazuli samples and describing their various component minerals and grades. His company sells rough, but also makes spheres, carvings, beads, and other items from this lovely blue material.

The best royal blues come from only two mines in the world—in Chile and Afghanistan, with Afghanistan the preferred source. Mr. Naseri explains that older material—from a mine that’s no longer in operation—is of much higher quality than newer material. It’s now extremely rare, and in great demand among gem buyers and consumers.

Surrounded by his company’s product, he demonstrates the entire range of lapis quality. He sprays one of his high-quality samples with water, which brings out its desirable features, then holds two spheres of different grades side by side. He explains that lapis has good hardness, making it easy to polish with the right equipment. Buyers look for as much usable area as possible when buying rough.

When asked how lapis lazuli gets from mine to market, he says it’s carried by cars, horses, humans, mules—any transportation available at the moment. Global Gems sells in the US and internationally. Customers include designers, inlayers, and makers of jewelry and beads. Larger specimens are used for high-end patio and tiling projects.

This series of interview segments reveals a man with a true love for, and deep knowledge about, the beautiful and exotic gem he trades in. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Bridges Family and Tsavorite Update Abstract: Bruce BridgesBridges Tsavorite

Interview with Bruce Bridges, Bridges Tsavorite
There are moments in GIA’s compelling interview with Bruce Bridges that the son of legendary gem pioneer Campbell Bridges speaks optimistically about finally getting some justice in the brutal killing of his father in August 2009.  Eight suspects, who were named, photographed and eye-witnessed at the time of the crime, were arrested almost immediately. Yet the case has dragged on for more than three years, not only leaving the Bridges family in torment, but the Kenyan mining economy in a state of suspended animation.

Bridges reflects on his father’s life and work, which led him from his native Scotland to Africa, where he made his mark in the gem world with the discovery of tsavorite. For all the fame the discovery brought him, it seemed cursed from the start. His first discovery in Tanzania in 1969 went nowhere when the country refused to grant him a mining permit. His second discovery in Kenya in 1971 demanded eternal vigilance from poachers, thus giving his mine the name Scorpion after the poisonous creatures he would leave to guard it. Ultimately tsavorite led to his death at the hands of thuggish competitors.

In the interview Bridges also talks about the finer points of tsavorite—its shape and color—and describes the grading system used. He also discusses their use of master stones in grading and gives insight into tsavorite quality.

A truly special treat in the following video is the first-time unveiling of a brilliant umbalite specimen with tremendous sentimental value. When they were cleaning out his father’s belongings, Bruce tells us, they came upon a camera film canister labeled “2 pcs rgh.”  When they opened it, they found the umbalite rough. They had it cut and polished and here it’s on full display before our GIA camera. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Emerald Dealer Shares Risks and Rewards Abstract: Arthur GroomArthur Groom & Company

Interview with Arthur Groom, Arthur Groom & Company
International gem dealer Arthur Groom says that even when you’re learning about gemology, you’re thinking business. In this exclusive interview with GIA conducted at the 2013 Tucson Gem Show, Groom delivers a highly instructive tutorial on the critical nexus between gemology and business.

In the course of the interview, Groom holds up two different emeralds and talks with great detail and clarity about the aesthetic as well as economic decisions that must be made about cutting the rough. He demonstrates the ramifications of those decisions both in the ultimate beauty of the stone and its value. One side of a piece of rough he shows off, he says, will go for $300 a carat; the other side for $1000. The sawing is everything, Groom proclaims.

His focus in the interview is on emeralds, for which he expresses enormous affection. This affection is undiminished by the acknowledged difficulty emeralds present to dealers. Groom says that because they are the most complex of colored stones, bidding on them is equally complex. But he offers some of the expertise that has enabled him to show off beauties like two featured in this video, valued at $15,000 to $18,000 per carat.

Groom also discusses the Afghan market at length, having recently traveled there. He surmises that if peace and mechanization ever come to Afghanistan, it will finally realize its potential as the world’s richest color stone source. As it is, he reports, the material coming out under the crude current conditions is pretty outstanding. It has a higher than average yield of 33% crystal clear, deeply colored rough. For Groom, the risk for the colored stone dealer is in the rough, and all other factors being equal, Afghanistan is well worth the risk. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: New Treatments and Imitation Gems Abstract: Rajneesh BhandariRMC Gems Thai Co. Ltd.

	Interview with Rajneesh Bhandari, RMC Gems Thai Co. Ltd.
In an exclusive interview with GIA conducted at the 2013 Gem Show in Tucson, Rajneesh Bhandari pulls back the curtain on the too-often secretive world of gemstone treatments. Bhandari is with RMC Gems Thai Co. Ltd., which specializes in gem treatments, synthetic gemstone processes, and the creation of imitation gemstones.

In the interview Bhandari speaks professionally and proudly about this important aspect of the gem trade. He is a strong advocate for these products with the stipulation that they are fully disclosed to customers so they know exactly what they’re getting. Rather than view disclosure as a burden on his business, Bhandari sees it as a necessity that allows the gem trade to meet its necessity to treat in order to produce more pleasing products. He compares gem treatments to treatments that are done across a wide cross section of industries where new technologies increasingly make natural products better in numerous ways.

He explains in some detail what some of those technologies are that allow RMC to create imitation morganite beryl, bi-color tourmaline, unusual quartz triplets and thin film coatings for increased durability. People in the trade should find Bhandari’s disclosures both informative and reassuring as they struggle to deal with the always-tricky subject of treatments. As for customers--if you have no idea what electron vapor deposition has to do with the shimmering gold drusy you just purchased as a gift on the home shopping channel, this interview will prove to be a fascinating eye-opener. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Developing Tanzania's Gem and Jewelry Industry Abstract: Susie KennedyICA Director and Jewelry Designer

	Interview with Susie Kennedy, ICA Director and Jewelry Designer
A native of Kenya, Susie Kennedy teamed up with her husband in the 1990s to establish their place in the gem industry. With Mrs. Kennedy specializing in tanzanite and her husband in tsavorite garnet, they started out dealing in rough, then moved to gem cutting. Their business expanded into jewelry manufacturing when clients started demanding more than just unset gemstones. They opened their first jewelry store, The Kennedy’s International, in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1997.

The pair eventually opened another jewelry store and a gallery. Their enterprises became popular stopping places for organized tours from all over the world.

Mrs. Kennedy happily relates a highlight of her career so far: creating a beautiful pair of tanzanite earrings for Hillary Clinton, then the U. S. Secretary of State. Mrs. Kennedy and her team created the earrings under a tight deadline—just in time for Secretary Clinton’s meeting with Tanzania’s President Jakaya Kikwete. Mrs. Kennedy says she was proud and happy to see her earrings take a prominent place in press coverage of the day’s events.

In a discussion of the growth of the mining industry in Tanzania, she cites the arrival of foreign investment in gold and gem mining as well as gem sorting and cutting. She also says that both Kenya and Tanzania are reviewing their mining legislation to maximize the benefits to the local population. She expresses concern as well as optimism about the developing benefits to her people and the environment.

While it’s in short supply at the moment, she predicts tsavorite supplies will rise as investment increases and local laws make tsavorite mining more beneficial to miners and landowners. And although tanzanite supply is generally low, she is able to keep up her supply by taking advantage of her good, long-term relationships with local sources and by buying gems when demand is low.

Mrs. Kennedy’s advice to students was simple: “This business is based on trust:” If people know you to be trustworthy and that you keep your word, they will pass on your good name to others. “Let the customer be the king:” Find a source that you can trust rather than a chain of middlemen, which will raise your costs (and prices) while cutting down your profit. She winds up by saying, “Buy good, you sell good. That’s my philosophy.” Source: GIA @topic:9


Title: Dealing in Natural Spinel, Garnet, Tourmaline, and More Abstract: Menahem SevdermishCEO and President of GemeWizard, Ramat Gan, Israel

	Interview with Menahem Sevdermish, CEO and President of GemeWizard, Ramat Gan, Israel
The range of Tanzanian gems’ lovely colors — both natural and slightly treated — is Mr. Sevdermish’s particular passion. The intense bright orange of natural spessartite, the pink and pastel shades of spinel, and the falling-leaves colors of “autumn” tourmalines cause him to wax enthusiastic.  The latter shades coincide with the current fashion for earth tones in cosmetics and are hot sellers in today’s market.  These natural stones, plus some of the rarest natural-color tanzanite “on the planet,” have caused him to adopt the slogan, “You look your best when you’re natural.”

Mr. Sevdermish is excited about the recent discovery of a small number of tanzanites with unusual pleochroism from the Merelani Hills. These combine colors not normally seen together in one piece of rough, such as green, violet, and blue, or green, violet, and yellow. Green and violet, he points out, are not even near each other in the spectrum, making this rough tanzanite gemologically rare. When he cuts and polishes such a piece, it results in a beautiful finished product such as a heart shape with blue curves and a green interior.

Tanzania is producing fabulous gem colors in important quantities, including zircons that “open up their colors” with a little heating. He believes these gems will catch on because jewelers are looking for novelty without high expense. He also credits the Internet with encouraging buyers, sellers, and designers to seek out new styles.

Mr. Sevdermish talks about a phenomenon in the gem trade where having a small amount of a relatively new gem—say, spessartite—available for sale actually works against the usual theory that rarity equals high value. This is because a somewhat rare but inexpensive specimen might be overlooked by jewelers and not used in their designs.  When that stone begins to appear on the market in larger quantities, jewelers take note and incorporate it into designs and catalogues; the resulting interest translates into demand and pushes prices higher. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Colored Gem Supply and Market Update Abstract: Dudley BlauwetDudley Blauwet Gems

Interview with Dudley Blauwet, Dudley Blauwet Gems
Dudley Blauwet, a colored gemstone dealer from Colorado, has been traveling throughout Asia and parts of Africa for three decades, hunting down good, saleable gem material. He has witnessed firsthand the dramatic constriction in availability as global market forces have made their impact. If Blauwet’s lengthy, wide-ranging exclusive interview with GIA at the 2013 Tucson Gem Show had to be reduced to one word, that word would be: China.

As the interview moves over the map from Thailand to Pakistan to Afghanistan to Sri Lanka to Kenya, it always comes back to China. As the interview touches on an array of gems from tourmaline to topaz to sapphire to spinel to morganite and zoisite, availability always comes back to China.  According to Blauwet, everywhere you go looking for gemstones you find the Chinese have either gotten there first or with more hard cash to corner the various markets.

Other factors do come in to play in creating scarcity in the world gem market for what Blauwet describes as “bread and butter” dealers like him who make their living off the stones rather than amass fortunes. Among them are energy costs to run the drilling equipment, tribal battles over digging sites, and reduction of source material to prohibitive depths and locations. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Some Unusual Sillimanite Cat's-Eyes Abstract: Brown-black sillimanite cat's-eyes from Sri Lanka present an unusually sharp band, which would make them extraordinary gems were it not for the rather unattractive body color of the stones. A study of six of these stones found that they contain 0.5 wt. % iron oxide. The principal inclusion mineral is ilmenite, which occurs in elongated, submicroscopically thin lamellae. Complex thicker lamellae consist of hercynite spinel grown together with a member of the pyroxene group. These thicker inclusions were not found in all of the specimens investigated. Source: GIA @topic:2


Title: And Then Came the Fantasy Cut Abstract: View Gallery

	Once upon a time, gem cutting was a strict craft bound by centuries of tradition. The job of a lapidary was to cut a gemstone to ideal proportions while preserving as many carats as possible. Then Bernd Munsteiner (b. 1943) invented the fantasy cut (concave cuts made on the back of gemstones).

	Munsteiner freely sliced away carats on the backs of gemstones to create spectacular lightshows on their fronts. The only ideal proportion he acknowledged was the one that freed the natural beauty he saw hiding in the stone.

	Many in the gem and jewelry trade didn’t know what to make of the fantasy cut. But the critics eventually became admirers, and Munsteiner’s pieces ended up in galleries and museums.

	Munsteiner’s most famous work may be the Dom Pedro – Ondas Maritimas, an exquisite 10,363 ct aquamarine gemstone. It is so breathtaking that the Smithsonian said it is “one of the few objects in the world that can hold its own in a display case just 30 feet from the Hope Diamond.”

	Munsteiner’s Dom Pedro – Ondas Maritimas, 1993, was a watershed creation: it signaled that the fantasy cut had become an accepted art form. Photo by Donald E. Hurlbert, courtesy of the Natural History Museum, the Smithsonian Institute

	Munsteiner’s innovative work inspired generations of award-winning lapidaries like Richard Homer, Michael Dyber, John Dyer, and Sherris Cottier Shank. The American Gem Trade Association even hosts the prestigious Cutting Edge Awards competitions where lapidaries submit fantasy cut gemstones.

	Richard P. Homer, GIA GG, won a 2013 AGTA Spectrum Award for his 36.74 ct Antique Cushion Concave Focus™ cut Imperial Topaz. Photo by Robert Weldon, courtesy of Gems By Design, Inc., Kent, OH

	Sherris Cottier Shank created the swirls in this spectacular 8.97 ct pink tourmaline by making curved grooves on the pavilion. Photo by Sherris Cottier Shank

	One of the most significant differences between fantasy cuts and traditional cuts are the types of cuts made on gemstones. Traditional gemstones are fashioned by placing them on a faceting machine with a flap lap tool, which grinds away and polishes the stone. Fantasy cut gemstones have grooves, optic dishes, and concave facets – all made possible by the development of tools to cut these design elements into gem materials.

	John Dyer’s 27.47 ct multicolor Oregon sunstone is an objet d’ art. Photo by David Dyer, gem courtesy of
	John Dyer & Co.

	Size of the gemstone is an important consideration to lapidaries: the larger the gem, the larger the “canvas.” Some cutters use diamonds and the Big Three (rubies, sapphires, and emeralds), but these materials are often difficult to obtain in large sizes. So many cutters chose gemstones that provide larger canvases, like quartz and aquamarine.

	“I trusted my intuition when I made Wind. I just started creating without any planning,” says Michael Dyber. The finished piece evokes a fierce storm frozen in time. Photo by Sena Dyber

	The world of fine jewelry and the fantasy cut may be far apart, yet a profound understanding of gemology is required by the craftspeople in each field. It is this love of gemstones that ultimately unites them.

	Dalan Hargrave used a variety of techniques on these three pieces of fantasy cut ametrine. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA, courtesy of Minerales y Metales del Oriente, Bolivia, SA Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Conference Report: 21st General Meeting of the IMA Abstract: Dr. Gaston Giuliani presented on the oxygen isotope and trace-element chemistry of corundum at the General Meeting of the IMA in Johannesburg. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.

                      The 21st General Meeting of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) was held September 1–5 in Johannesburg, South Africa. Several oral and poster presentations were presented in a session on gem materials.

G. Agnosi (University of Bari, Italy) discussed preliminary results of an X-ray diffraction topography study of Colombian trapiche emeralds, which revealed a consistent crystallinity between the arms and the hexagonal core. She presented a model of trapiche formation in which the growth of the hexagonal core occurred first, followed by the six arm sections. Ulrika D’Haenens-Johansson (GIA, New York) outlined the status of synthetic diamond production. She reviewed the means of identification based on visual observations, structure-related ultraviolet fluorescence reactions, and distinctive spectroscopic features. In concluding, she noted that synthetic diamonds can be unequivocally recognized by major gem laboratories.

Andrew Fagan (University of British Columbia, Vancouver) presented the geologic setting and a model of formation of the Fiskenaesset corundum district in southwest Greenland. Estimates of ore reserves suggest that this could become a commercial ruby deposit. Gaston Giuliani (Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, Nancy, France) studied the oxygen isotope and trace-element chemistry of sapphire xenocrysts in basalts from Changle, China, and of corundum from the Mbuyi-Mayi kimberlite in the Democratic Republic of Congo, to trace their primary sources. In both cases, the host basalt and kimberlite transported the corundum crystals from the lower crust and upper mantle.

Daniel Ichang'i (University of Nairobi) described efforts by the Kenyan government to document and better understand the geologic setting of the country’s numerous gem deposits. He discussed two main occurrence lithologies: the metamorphic rocks of the Neoproterozoic Mozambique Orogenic belt, and the Paleogene-Neogene basaltic volcanics in the Northern and Central Kenya Rift regions.

Stefanos Karampelas (Gübelin Gem Lab, Lucerne, Switzerland) detailed the gemological characteristics of emeralds from Itatitia in Minas Gerais, Brazil. The emeralds formed along the contact between phlogopite schists and highly evolved granitic pegmatites. Based on minor and trace-element chemistry, they can be distinguished from emeralds from other Brazilian and world deposits. Vincent Pardieu (GIA, Bangkok) gave a talk about Montepuez in northern Mozambique, which is currently the world's largest source of high-quality rubies. He also presented a short movie about GIA expeditions he has led to gem deposits in eastern Africa. Wuyi Wang (GIA, New York) presented a study of carbon isotopes of synthetic and natural diamonds. The latter displayed δ13C values from 0 to -20‰, while the former ranged from -25 to -75‰.

Dr. Wuyi Wang provided a look at the carbon isotopes of natural and synthetic diamonds. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
Christopher M. Breeding (GIA, Carlsbad, California) described the interesting features of alluvial diamonds from the Marange deposit in eastern Zimbabwe. These type Ia diamonds display surface radiation staining, aggregated nitrogen impurities, and elevated hydrogen impurity contents, but these features do not provide a reliable indicator of geographic origin. Julien Feneyrol (Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, Nancy) presented a model of the metamorphic formation of tsavorite nodules in primary deposits. The tsavorite nodules are always contained within graphitic gneiss and calc-silicates with intercalations of marble. Elena Sorokina (Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Moscow) described a model of ruby and sapphire formation in marbles at Snezhnoe in Tajikistan. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Green Kyanite Abstract: Figure 1. These yellowish green kyanite rough crystals range from 1.4 to 5.1 grams, while the cushion cabochon weighs 4.84 ct. Photo by Don Mengason.

              At the Riverpark Inn show in Tucson, gem dealer Tom Schneider (San Diego, California) exhibited a parcel of kyanite displaying an unusual saturated yellowish green color (figure 1). Mr. Schneider said he purchased several kilograms of the material in Arusha, Tanzania, its stated country of origin. While greenish blue, blue, and orange kyanite from Tanzania have been previously documented (Winter 2004 GNI, pp. 341–342; Summer 2009 GNI, pp. 146–147), this would be the first vibrantly colored yellowish green material from there. Yellowish green kyanite from Brazil has been previously reported (Winter 2001 GNI, pp. 337–338), but it had a light color and lacked the strong saturation of the material from Tanzania.

A cushion cabochon fashioned from one of the rough crystals was examined in the Carlsbad laboratory and exhibited the following properties: an RI of 1.719–1.731, a hydrostatic SG of 3.70, and no reaction to short- or long-wave UV radiation. These physical properties were consistent with those published for kyanite. This identification was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy.

Microscopic examination revealed several transparent crystals, fine particles, numerous fractures, and cleavages. Trapped in several cracks was an epigenetic reddish brown mineral residue. It is also notable that a small percentage of the rough crystals examined showed narrow blue color zones.

	Figure 2. Visible spectroscopy revealed dominant absorption features at 432 and 445 nm, attributed to Fe3+ and consistent with the very high levels of iron measured in this yellowish green kyanite.
To determine the cause of the yellowish green color, we collected a visible spectrum using a UV-Vis-NIR scanning spectrophotometer (figure 2). This revealed prominent features located in the visible region at 432 and 445 nm. These features have been attributed to Fe3+ in kyanite (R.G. Burns, Mineralogical Applications of Crystal Field Theory, 2nd ed., 1993, Cambridge University Press). LA-ICP-MS measurements collected on the cushion cabochon confirmed a high concentration of iron—more than 20,400 ppmw, consistent with the saturated yellowish green color.

This new supply of vibrant yellowish green material from Tanzania presents an inexpensive option for unusual ornamental gem materials. Source: GIA @topic:2


Title: Gemstones and Minerals Abstract: Nestled within this huge textbook on analytical archaeometry—an interdisciplinary field representing the interface between the natural and physical sciences and professions such as archaeology, art history, and museum curatorship that uses state-of-the-art technologies to extract structural and compositional information from ancient materials—is a useful chapter for today’s gem professional.

The modern gem trade’s embrace of science, technology, and the information sciences is perhaps best reflected in laboratory testing. Advanced laboratory services are often necessary to detect increasingly sophisticated treatments, and new manmade materials such as CVD-grown synthetic diamonds. Lab testing is also used to detect nanotechnology films for hardness and color enhancement, some sophisticated diffusion processes, and geographic origin, to name a few.

Chapter 10, “Gemstones and Minerals,” is a broad overview of several advanced spectroscopic and imaging techniques used in gemological and university laboratories to meet these modern needs. This 26-page chapter provides the gemologist, jeweler, and appraiser with succinct practical information, using numerous field examples, about advanced testing that can easily be communicated with clients.

The authors recognize that the foundational gemological methods (such as trained observation using magnification/microscopy, refractive index, specific gravity, ultraviolet indications, and optic character) often need to be augmented with advanced lab techniques, especially for conclusive determinations.

UV-visible near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectroscopy helps identify diamond treatments and determine the geographic origin of certain stones such as tourmaline and emerald. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy  helps in the detect of heat treatment in corundum and organic substances used for clarity enhancement, as well as the determination of diamond type. Other applications of FTIR include the separation of natural from synthetic origin in inclusion-free stones and the determination of jade type and treatments. Raman spectroscopy is an important tool in the study of inclusions, the detection of diamond and emerald treatments, and the identification of organic pigments in gems. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) and laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) are used in trace-element analyses, determining geographic origin, detecting beryllium treatments, and identify unknown or synthetic materials. Photoluminescence (PL) is applied to the study of natural and treated diamonds as well as pearls, spinel, rubies, and coral. X-ray imaging and radiography are widely used to evaluate cultured and natural pearls, including their treatments.

Abstracted by Edward R. Blomgren Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Fall 2008 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: A Citrine with Eye-Visible Brazil-Law Twinning
Composite of Coral and Plastic
Black Diamonds Colored by Hydrogen Clouds
Irradiated Diamond: An Easy Call
Natural Type Ib Diamond with Unusual Reddish Orange Color
Observed Oddities in Diamond
“Party” Cloud Formation in Diamond
Pinkish Brown Diamond with Mantle-Mineral Inclusions
Large Emerald-in-Quartz Specimen
Calcite “Melt” in Grossular Garnet
A Rare Yellow Trapiche Sapphire

To view the full section, download the PDF above. Source: GIA @topic:4


Title: Summer 2008 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Diamond with Color Contributed by the 594 nm Center (?)
Subtle Flash-Effect Colors in a Filled Diamond
“Unidentified Clarity Characteristic” in Diamond
Gem-quality CVD Synthetic Diamond with Traces of Boron
Bleached Pinctada Margaritifera Cultured Pearls in Non-“Chocolate” Colors
Blue-Green Plagioclase Feldspar Possibly Colored by Copper
Unusual Green Fluid Inclusions in Quartz
Inclusions within Inclusions in Ruby
Blue Sapphire with Unusually High Concentration of Rare-Earth Elements

To view the full section, download the PDF above. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Spring 2008 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Aquamarine with Kelp-Like Inclusions
Diamond with Repeating Growth/Dissolution Features
First CVD Synthetic Diamond Submitted for Dossier Grading
Interesting Filled Voids in Emerald and Ruby
Glass with Devitrified Inclusions
White Clam Pearl with Original Shell
Large Baroque Multicolored Conch Pearl
Green Synthetic Sapphire with Vibrant Blue Inclusions
High-Temperature Heat-Treated Zircon

To view the full section, download the PDF above. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Winter 2007 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Apatite in Spessartine
Atypical Photoluminescence Feature in a Colorless Type IIa Diamond
Diamond Inclusions Fit for a Holiday Season
Diamond With Large Etch Channels Filled with Iron Sulfides
Natural Black Diamond with Oriented Etch Channel
The Pareidolia of Diamonds
A Notable Emerald Carving
Gold Coated Onyx
Sapphire with a Double Star
Impregnated Glass Imitation of Turquoise

To view the full section, download the PDF above. Source: GIA @topic:4


Title: Faceting Transparent Rhodonite from Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia Abstract: Transparent rhodonite is considered one of the most difficult of all gems to facet because of its perfect cleavage and brittle, uneven fracture. This article describes a technique for successfully faceting gem rhodonite that was developed through experiments on eight crystals from the North mine at Broken Hill, New South Wales. This was accomplished through a systematic structural, crystallographic, and optical analysis and the use of a nonconventional faceting approach—the “greasy lap” technique. This method uses a mixture of petroleum jelly and diamond grit to charge a non-embedded lap, allowing the diamond grit to “roll free” during the lapping process. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Summer 2007 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Diamond with Bimineralic Inclusions
HPHT-Treated Type Ia Diamond with a Green Component Caused by the H2 Defect
Diamond with Intense “Rainbow Graining”
Natural Color Hydrogen-Rich Blue-Gray Diamond
Type IIa Diamond with Intense Green Color Introduced by Ni-Related Defects
Diamond with Zigzag Cleavage
HPHT-Grown Synthetic Diamond Crystal with Unusual Morphology and Negative Trigons
Idocrase in Jadeite: A Heavenly Home
Opal with Unusual Structure

To view the full section, download the PDF above. Source: GIA @topic:4