Title: Postdoctoral Program Gives Scientists Access to Rare Research Opportunities Abstract: Evan Smith, whose expertise is in diamond geology, is systematically characterizing the inclusions he sees in rare types of diamonds to fill in some of the missing pieces in our understanding of how diamonds form and what they mean for the evolution of the planet. Photo by Siu Bo Wong Huang /GIA

Evan M.Smith was “blown away” by the first big diamonds he was able to work with at GIA.

“I was used to working with much smaller, lower-quality diamonds,” says Smith, who began working in the research department in New York in 2015. “I was very excited to be able to peek behind the curtain to see the variety of diamonds − and the very expensive ones − that are impossible to access for research anywhere else.”

Smith, whose expertise is in diamond geology, is working at GIA as part of the Richard T. Liddicoat Postdoctoral Research Fellowship program, which was created in 2014 in honor of GIA’s former president, who was widely considered the “Father of Modern Gemology.” It gives researchers who study mineralogy, geology, physics, materials science and other fields related to gemology access to GIA’s gemological data, equipment and the rare, unusual and large gems that come into the laboratories. Each position is tailored to focus on the research fellow’s expertise and interest with the opportunity to examine fundamental issues related to diamonds, colored stones, pearls and instrument development.

“We have had the opportunity to bring in some exceptional and highly motivated academic researchers through this program,” says Dr. Wuyi Wang, GIA’s director of research and development. The postdoctoral researchers work side-by-side with the Institute’s experienced researchers and gemologists, and together, they explore and learn from the gems that come into GIA’s lab.

The Liddicoat Postdoctoral Research Fellowship program is part of GIA’s extensive and ongoing research into the characteristics of diamonds and other gems. To that end, Liddicoat Postdoctoral Research Fellows are expected to conduct creative, independent, publishable research and are strongly encouraged to collaborate with GIA scientists as well as outside research institutions and universities.

Smith says the opportunities he has had to see some very rare diamonds and to learn from “the wealth of experience of people who have spent years inspecting and observing diamonds” will hopefully help him “shed some light on some aspects of diamond geology that perhaps have gone unnoticed by the geological community.”
Evan Smith: Diamond Inclusions and the Clues to the Earth’s Formation
Evan M. Smith, originally from Canada, near Toronto, specializes in diamond geology, which he says covers everything from the processes that make diamonds deep in the earth, to the ones that bring them to surface. As a geologist, he uses diamonds to help him understand how the Earth formed.

“Diamonds are a physical sample of carbon from the deep earth, and carbon is intimately involved in the evolution of the earth as we know it, from 4.6 billion years ago to today,” he says. “This means that diamonds give us a record of a broad range of processes, such as the formation of continents and the beginnings of plate tectonics.”

He worked in the mineral exploration industry looking for deposits of gold, or copper or other commodities after college and then at the Ekati diamond mine in northern Canada characterizing the various details of the rocks that contain diamonds. He became interested in the postdoctoral research program at GIA because of the potential to study diamonds that would otherwise be difficult – or impossible – for him to access.

“Diamonds are one of the most scientifically valuable minerals on the planet, but getting access to them for research purposes is often challenging because of their great value as gemstones,” he says. “The large numbers of diamonds that come through GIA for grading means that rare and unusual diamonds are almost a routine occurrence here.”

Smith is focused on inclusions in diamonds, materials the diamond has brought to the surface.

“When diamonds grow, sometimes they trap pieces of the surrounding minerals or fluid deep in the earth. When I say deep, I mean about 100 miles into the earth, and in some cases perhaps even all the way down to the core-mantle boundary at about 1,798 miles,” he says. “When diamonds are carried to the surface in a volcanic eruption, the diamond acts to protect and shield any inclusions trapped inside. No other mineral can provide such pristine samples of the deep earth.”

Smith is systematically characterizing the inclusions he sees in rare types of diamonds to fill in some of the missing pieces in our understanding of how diamonds form and what they mean for the evolution of the planet. He says that before he came to GIA, he was limited to working on smaller, less valuable diamonds, which is a problem because some particularly large, high quality diamonds might form in a different and unique way. Being able to access a wide variety of diamonds at GIA gives him the opportunity to see diamonds that have formed in a broader range of geological settings.

Smith is also searching for fluid in diamonds, such as nitrogen, water, carbon dioxide and methane, which also provide clues as to what happens deep in the Earth.

“A few years ago, I identified very small inclusions of liquid nitrogen trapped in diamonds from at least three different continents. The nitrogen is held under tremendous pressure, which allows it to be in liquid form at room temperature,” he says. “These fluids give clues about how different kinds of diamonds form and even how the atmosphere formed and changed over time.”

Smith says the diamond research he does – and the clues to the Earth’s formation he is seeking – would not be possible if people didn’t want diamonds for their jewelry.

“The desirability of diamond as a gemstone is the very reason it is mined. Otherwise, diamonds would remain buried in rocks and hidden in river gravels,” he says. “Nobody would ever get to study them or discover their fascinating secrets about the Earth.”
Elena Sorokina: The Genesis and Evolution of Corundum
Elena Sorokina, from Russia, graduated from the Russian State Geological prospecting University (MGRI - RSGPU) in Moscow in 2007 and started her Ph.D. program in gemology. She continued her Ph.D. education when she transferred to the Fedorovsky All-Russian Research Institute of Mineral Resources (FGUP VIMS) in 2009 as a junior researcher. In FGUP VIMS, she worked as a classical mineralogist conducting research on ore deposits from the geological prospecting stage to studying ore processing products.

Sorokina joined the Fersman Mineralogical Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow as a research fellow in 2012. After a scholarship award by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), she became a visiting researcher (2013-2014) at the Center of Gem-Materials Research in Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz in Germany, which is an active part of Institute of Gemstone Research Idar-Oberstein. In University Mainz, her research experience extended to non- and micro-destructive technique, such as a laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and different spectroscopic equipment.

Sorokina became a postdoctoral research fellow at GIA in Carlsbad in September 2015 and is focusing on the theories and ideas about the genesis and evolution of gem corundum, as well as mineral development within crystalline materials in natural environments. She is studying the questions related to the mineral crystallization and/or recrystallization, growth and purification during geological events.

“GIA provides excellent opportunities for young scientists at their early-career stage, allowing them to demonstrate the level of independence required to develop competitive and innovation research,” she says. “All the facilities and equipment are available from the GIA laboratories in New York and Carlsbad, including non- and micro-destructive techniques, which are a great advantage in studying gemstones.”

The major focus of Sorokina’s research lies across different science disciplines – gemology, mineralogy, geology, materials science and engineering.

“GIA provides the perfect environment for inter-disciplinary collaborative work in this area, getting more facilities for excellent research and internationalization,” says Sorokina, who left GIA in the fall of 2016 to pursue gemological research in Russia.
Aaron Palke: Applied Mineralogy and Gemstone Formation
Aaron Palke, like many scientists who decide to study Earth sciences, vividly remembers spending his summers collecting rocks.

“I became fascinated by Montana’s majestic mountain ranges and I was always raring to go collecting minerals with my father,” he says. “So naturally I decided to become a geologist.”

Palke studied mineralogy for his Ph.D. and focused on spectroscopic techniques (especially Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) to investigate the atomic-range structure of minerals during this time.

He was intrigued when he learned about GIA’s Liddicoat Postdoctoral Research Fellowship program when he was deciding on what he was going to do next.

“The program seemed like a natural choice for someone with my interests as gemology belongs essentially to the field of applied mineralogy,” he says. “My research at GIA has predominantly focused on using trace element chemistry and gemstone inclusion suites to pursue research into gemstone formation. I have been using GIA’s LA-ICP-MS facilities to analyze unusual trace elements in gem corundum, as well as analyzing inclusions in sapphires to understand the geological conditions of formation for these deposits.”

His work on melt inclusions in Yogo and other Montana sapphires, in particular, has provided some evidence for their formation through partial melting of Al-rich lower crystal rocks.

Palke credits GIA with giving him invaluable experience and access to gemological information to help advance his career. He said his time at GIA will serve him well in his new position at the University of Queensland and the Queensland Museum, where he will start later this year.

“There is probably no other place where a young scientist can have access to the resources GIA offers in terms of lab equipment, samples to work on and people with unique talents and knowledge to work with,” he says.

Learn about the requirements and application process for the Liddicoat Postdoctoral Research Fellowship or email researchcareers@gia.edu for more information. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Brilliance Exhibit at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Abstract: Figure 1. Inside the vault room of the Brilliance: The Art and Science of Rare Jewels exhibit. Photo courtesy of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.
A special exhibit of rare gems and minerals, entitled Brilliance: The Art and Science of Rare Jewels, was recently displayed at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. The exhibit was available for viewing from December 8, 2021, through February 21, 2022, in the Gem Vault in the museum’s Gem and Mineral Hall (figure 1). Over one hundred spectacular objects—necklaces, bracelets, rings, earrings, and unmounted gems (many the creations of master jewelry designer Robert Procop)—were on display along with mineral specimens from the museum’s collection. Colorless and fancy-color diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, as well as color-change and asteriated gems and other spectacular specimens, were represented (figures 2 and 3). By allowing the public to view and appreciate these unique treasures, this museum event provided an understanding of how gems and minerals are used today in a variety of fields, from jewelry design to scientific research. Crystals of gem minerals represent products of some optimum conditions for natural mineral formation, and the study of rough and faceted gems is increasingly used by scientists today to better understand Earth’s history.

Figure 2. Left: The 46.39 ct Fancy blue Celeste diamond and a 100.92 ct colorless diamond were but two of the exquisite gems on display at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. Right: This 108.03 ct blue sapphire from Sri Lanka is exceptional in terms of its clarity, color, and size. Photos courtesy of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County; courtesy of Robert Procop.

Figure 3. The 79.39 ct Royal Pink sapphire is, according to the designer, the largest vivid natural pink sapphire in the world. Courtesy of Robert Procop. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Summer 2022 G&G Available Now Abstract: The Summer issue of G&G is bursting with new content! Three feature articles characterize gemstones—diamonds, amber, and nephrite, respectively—from known sources and offer the means to distinguish their geographic origin. Two additional full-length articles analyze gems from the coronation crown of Napoleon III and the unusual surface features of ekanite from Sri Lanka. Meanwhile, the journal’s regular sections continue to delight with interesting finds from around the world.
A LOOK AT DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND MINING IN GUYANA
The lead article by Roy Bassoo and Kenneth Befus combines direct observations, government reports, and historical accounts to provide a detailed gemological description of diamonds from Guyana. Their overview of diamond production describes the morphology, chemical content, and luminescence features of these alluvial diamonds prized for their clarity and color.
THE SHAPE OF EKANITE
Lutz Nasdala and coauthors characterize the physical properties, chemical composition, and general appearance of ekanite found in Ampegama, Sri Lanka, comparing them against samples from other deposits in the country. The remarkably uneven shapes and bumpy surface features of these ekanite fragments lead them to identify the processes responsible for the distinctive appearance.
A GEMOLOGICAL AND SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY WITH MOBILE INSTRUMENTS OF “EMERALDS” FROM THE CORONATION CROWN OF NAPOLEON III
In an effort to examine gemstones of historical significance, Stefanos Karampelas and fellow researchers use nondestructive mobile gemological and spectroscopic instruments to analyze 45 “emeralds” formerly set in the coronation crown of Napoleon III. Their efforts uncover the true identity of these gems, verifying that 41 are indeed natural emerald, probably of Colombian origin, while the remaining four are artificial glass.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWLY DISCOVERED AMBER FROM PHU QUOC, VIETNAM
A team led by Le Ngoc Nang discovers an amber deposit amid sandstone boulders on the island of Phu Quoc, Vietnam’s only known amber locality to date. Their article presents the gemological properties of this newly sourced amber and shows that FTIR spectroscopy can differentiate Phu Quoc from other global sources.
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY IN SELECT SERPENTINITE-RELATED NEPHRITE SAMPLES: A COMPARISON WITH DOLOMITE-RELATED NEPHRITE
Dariusz Malzcewski and coauthors use low-background gamma-ray spectrometry to measure potassium, thorium, and uranium activity concentrations in nephrite from Poland, Russia, Canada, and New Zealand. Their studies prove that Th/U ratios appear unique according to geographic region. In addition, they conclude that nephrite does not pose a radiological risk to artisans or collectors who handle this ornamental material.
LAB NOTES
GIA’s global laboratory staff present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including an exceptionally rare 2.29 ct bright orange benitoite, the internally flawless 15.10 ct De Beers Cullinan Blue diamond, and a color-change sapphire exhibiting both asterism and chatoyancy.
MICRO-WORLD
The Micro-World section, dedicated to the inner world of gemstones, features a blue apatite crystal beautifully framed by rutile needles in garnet, an extensive network of eye-visible etch channels in diamond, and a labyrinth pattern in the fracture filling of an emerald.
COLORED STONES UNEARTHED
Colored Stones Unearthed returns to explore the fascinating realm of inclusions in gemstones. The microscopic inclusions within a gemstone can reveal a great deal about the host material. In this installment, learn how inclusions form, how they are studied, and what information gemologists and geoscientists can uncover.
GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL
Finally, GNI contributors report on various topics ranging from gem identification to responsible practices to auction and museum highlights. Two entries feature gems that can change color—a photochromic zircon that reacted after exposure to long-wave UV and two sapphires that shifted between orange and yellow hues, providing an interesting case study on color stability. Gain insight on creating a sustainable and responsible emerald industry with Myne London, an ethical emerald supplier with a goal of supporting women’s economic empowerment in the gem trade. Finally, the spring 2022 auction season was buzzing with plenty of top-notch gems on the block, including two diamonds weighing more than 200 ct each and several gems fetching record prices. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Tucson 2022 Overview Abstract: Figure 1. Customers select goods at the AGTA GemFair. Photo by Tao Hsu.
Sellers and buyers alike were delighted to be back at Tucson for the show season after a two-year absence. As the world enters a new phase of the pandemic, the gem and jewelry industry is also preparing for the post-pandemic era. Attendees embraced precautions such as social distancing and face coverings (figure 1). Although social gatherings were much less crowded than usual, the atmosphere and business at the shows were as strong as before, if not better.
Due to travel restrictions, the international presence was down, but that did not affect vendor attendance at the main AGTA GemFair at the Tucson Convention Center, where the majority of exhibitors had strong U.S. representation. The Gem & Jewelry Exchange (GJX) show was slightly affected, with some booths left empty by foreign dealers who could not make it to Tucson this year. Vendor attendance in the satellite shows outside of the convention center area remained strong, as observed by the authors at the Pueblo Gem & Mineral Show, the Kino Gem & Mineral Show (figure 2), and the 22nd Street Mineral, Fossil, Gem & Jewelry Show.

Figure 2. A stone decor dealer’s booth at the Kino Gem & Mineral Show. Open to the public, the show saw steady foot traffic. Photo by Tao Hsu.
Many exhibitors felt that while foot traffic was lighter than usual, buyers were focused on purchasing targeted goods to restock inventory. Meanwhile, the pandemic’s influence on the supply side of the value chain was just starting to show. Therefore, this Tucson show season provided a very good opportunity to prepare for a potential shortage in the coming months (figure 3).

Figure 3. Left: The Pueblo Gem & Mineral Show was an ideal place to source rough gems of all kinds. Right: Cutting services were provided at multiple shows open to the public. Photos by Tao Hsu.
The variety of gems and jewelry traded at the shows remained consistent with previous years. The “big three”—ruby, sapphire, and emerald—still dominate the market (figure 4), with the intake at the GIA Show Service Lab reflecting this. Collector minerals and gems such as meteorite, gahnospinel, fluorite of various colors, opalized fossils, cerussite, and colemanite continued to attract a niche market clientele (figure 5). Also in high demand were fantasy cuts, rose cuts, briolettes, and mineral or rock slices. Jewelry designers on a mission to fulfill special orders sourced gems such as Montana sapphire, Oregon sunstone, Arizona turquoise, Washington nephrite jade, and other American gems.

Figure 4. An 8.23 ct star ruby cut by David Nassi. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of 100% Natural Ltd.

Figure 5. A 45 ct green fluorite from New Mexico. Dealers carried fluorite of all colors and cutting styles at both the AGTA and GJX shows. Photo by Emily Lane; courtesy of Barker & Co.
Vendors have never been more creative in terms of their products and business savvy. To fulfill the ever-growing demand for one-of-a-kind creations, gem cutters, carvers, and jewelry manufacturers have put more thought and individuality into their pieces (figure 6). Products manufactured with a high level of sophistication such as inlaid jewelry or gems were prominent at the show (figure 7). Many vendors have shifted more business online over the past two years to combat limited foot traffic in stores. Newly formed companies, meanwhile, have often started completely online or done most of their business online.

Figure 6. Left: Rock and metal wall decor in combination with metal art at the Kino show. Right: A 22.93 ct carved citrine crafted in Jaipur, India; courtesy of Artisav Jaipur. Photos by Tao Hsu.

Figure 7. Gemstone-inlaid bangles from David R. Freeland Jr. Designs at the Pueblo Gem & Mineral Show. Photo by Lisa Kennedy.
GIA relished in the much-anticipated return to Tucson this year, enthusiastically gathering the latest from the shows to share in this report. Our coverage includes market updates, interesting and noteworthy finds, and uplifting accounts from dealers, cutters, designers, and more.
The following contributed to this report: Erin Hogarth, Erica Zaidman, Robert Weldon, Albert Salvato, Wim Vertriest, Lisa Neely, and Nathan Renfro.

View Gallery

Photo Highlights from the 2022 Tucson Shows Source: GIA @topic:9


Title: Spring 2022 G&G Available Now Abstract: A variety of topics are in store for you in the Spring issue of G&G. The first article provides a comprehensive summary of mineral, chemical, and spectroscopic investigations of Schneckenstein topaz. The second article concludes the investigation into the early mining history of the Habachtal emerald deposit in Austria with a look at the era between World Wars I and II. This issue also marks G&G’s return to the Tucson gem shows in early 2022 and the debut of an exciting new section: Diamond Reflections.
GEM TOPAZ FROM THE SCHNECKENSTEIN CRAIG, SAXONY, GERMANY: MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND LUMINESCENCE
The lead article by Manuela Zeug and coauthors provides a mineral-chemical and spectroscopic characterization of yellow topaz from the Schneckenstein crag in Saxony, Germany. This study utilizes excitation-emission spectroscopy to explain the photoluminescence behavior of the material, which appears virtually inert under common UV sources.
HISTORY OF EMERALD MINING IN THE HABACHTAL DEPOSIT OF AUSTRIA, PART II
Karl Schmetzer details the mining history of Austria’s Habachtal region to conclude this two-part series. This article presents research using largely unpublished materials from Austrian and German archives to illustrate the mining problems and the success or failure of those involved with emerald recovery in the era between World War I and World War II.
LAB NOTES
GIA laboratory staff members present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including a natural type Ia diamond that changed from Fancy Dark yellowish brown to Fancy Deep yellow-orange with HPHT processing, three green and yellow diamonds over 5 carats colored by nickel impurities, a record size for a CVD laboratory-grown diamond, and unusual laser drill holes in an HPHT-grown synthetic diamond.
MICRO-WORLD
The Micro-World section, dedicated to the inner world of gemstones, features an apatite before and after oiling, a large red garnet crystal within an aquamarine, magnificent cube-shaped cavities and purple fluorite in hyalite, and a complex fluid inclusion in topaz.
DIAMOND REFLECTIONS
The debut of Evan Smith’s new G&G column explores the connection between deep-focus earthquakes, those originating below the rigid tectonic plates, and diamond growth. If these two processes are related, then modern-day earthquakes have the potential to produce valuable diamonds of large sizes. Future installments of this section will appear on a periodic basis.
GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL
Finally, GNI correspondents from around the world report on market updates, interesting and noteworthy finds, and interviews with dealers, cutters, and designers, in more than 30 pages of coverage from the 2022 Tucson gem shows. Other highlights from the section include an unusual repair of a natural emerald, inclusions and spectroscopic features of yellowish green enstatite, and the discovery of davemaoite in a diamond from the earth’s lower mantle.
The Spring issue also contains the 2022 Gems & Gemology Challenge. Score 75% or better, and you’ll receive a certificate of completion; earn a perfect score, and your name will be listed in the Fall 2022 issue. Online entries for the Challenge must be submitted by Monday, August 1, 2022. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Yellow Topaz from Germany, Emerald Mining in Austria’s Habachtal Region, a Return to Tucson, and More… Abstract: Welcome to the Spring 2022 issue of Gems & Gemology! For our industry, February is marked by the Tucson gem shows, and we’re delighted to share content from our highly anticipated return to Tucson. With our two feature articles, our regular columns, the debut of a new regular feature, and the annual G&G Challenge, there’s something for everyone in this issue.
In our lead article, Manuela Zeug and coauthors explore yellow topaz from the Schneckenstein crag in Saxony, Germany. The article provides a comprehensive summary of mineral, chemical, and spectroscopic investigations of Schneckenstein topaz, with an emphasis on luminescence studied by excitation-emission spectroscopy. This study offers a new perspective on previous mineralogical studies, which focused mainly on crystal forms and trace element geochemistry.
Our second feature article revisits the history of emerald mining in Austria’s Habachtal region. In the second installment of his two-part series, Karl Schmetzer traces the history of the Habachtal mine during the era between World Wars I and II, using a variety of largely unpublished sources from Austrian and German archives.
“We’re delighted to share content from our highly anticipated return to Tucson.”
Our regular features have much to offer, too. Among the variety of snapshots in Lab Notes, we report on two notable laboratory-grown diamonds recently examined by GIA: a new record-size CVD diamond and one with unusual laser drill holes. Micro-World offers a glimpse into the inner landscapes of gemstones, including a before-and-after comparison of an oiled apatite cabochon, a complex fluid inclusion in topaz, and a garnet crystal inclusion in aquamarine. Our Gem News International section features more than 30 pages of coverage from the 2022 Tucson shows, with market updates, interesting and noteworthy finds, and interviews with dealers, cutters, and designers. Other highlights from Gem News International include a study of irradiation treatment in amber and the discovery of davemaoite in a diamond from the earth’s lower mantle.
This issue also includes the debut of an exciting new section: Diamond Reflections. In his first installment, Evan M. Smith explores the potential role of modern-day deep-focus earthquakes on diamond growth.
Also in this issue: Be sure to take the annual G&G Challenge quiz, which offers the chance to test your gemological knowledge of our feature articles from 2021. And we congratulate the winners of this year’s Dr. Edward J. Gübelin Most Valuable Article Award.
We hope you enjoy the Spring edition of Gems & Gemology! Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: GIA’s First Research Intern: Genesis of a Gemologist Abstract: Rachelle Turnier used Raman spectroscopy and photoluminescence mapping to better understand the formation of basalt-related sapphires, the focus of her Ph.D. work. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA.

Rachelle Turnier, GIA’s first research intern, began her undergraduate studies in geology, but a fellowship at the American Museum of Natural History turned her interests to gemology. Her work there with curator George Harlow on determining the geological origins of syenite-hosted sapphires made her realize that a geology degree could apply to the world of gems.

“Gemstones are beautiful minerals,” Turnier says. “Not too many geologists are gem-focused. There was obviously a hole that needed to be filled.”

GIA’s Research Internship Program is the first for undergraduate and graduate students. The Institute also offers the Richard T. Liddicoat Postdoctoral Research Associate Fellowship, founded in 2014, for postdoctoral researchers.

Turnier, who was a first-year Ph.D. student in geochemistry and petrology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison when she interned at GIA in late 2017, researched the geological conditions of basalt-related sapphire formation. Many sapphires are found in alluvial deposits after they weather away from the host rock, leaving only the geochemistry of the sapphires and their inclusions to give clues about their formation.

During her two-and-a-half-month internship, Turnier used GIA’s extensive gem reference collection to document zircon inclusions in sapphire samples, analyzing them with Raman spectroscopy to determine at what depths the stones formed. She also used photoluminescence (PL) mapping to determine whether spectroscopic and growth features unique to sapphires from different deposits exist, finding vastly different PL intensities between Thai and Cambodian sapphires. This shows promise as a factor that could aid in country-of-origin determination, but further studies are needed.

“We have field gemologists choosing samples from the source at all these deposits,” says Aaron Palke, a senior research scientist at GIA who worked closely with Turnier. “One of the things we want to do is to bring in outside researchers to help us find the most value in the gem reference collection.”

Turnier returned to the University of Wisconsin and is researching oxygen isotopes in the zircon inclusions and the host sapphire. Using a secondary ion mass spectrometer, she is working to determine when and through what geologic processes the sapphires and inclusions formed.
“I just love instrumentation,” Turnier says. “And what better thing to do than study pretty rocks and minerals on cool instruments?”

The one- to two-month Research Internship Program is offered at GIA’s Carlsbad and New York locations. Candidates should be pursuing a bachelor’s or graduate degree in physics, materials science, geology, chemistry, or a related field and must be in their junior year or higher. Selected interns will work on a defined project and be mentored in spectroscopy and gemology by GIA research scientists and gemologists. A project conclusion will be reached by the end of the internship. An extension of the internship is possible.

Three interns are at work in the Carlsbad laboratory in 2018, studying color in ruby and sapphire, color in copper-bearing feldspar, and the spectroscopic signatures of yellow diamonds from Canada. The New York lab recently hosted an intern focusing on point defects in mineral-included superdeep type IIa diamonds from Juina, Brazil, and, early next year, a second will investigate color-forming defects in unusual yellow- and brown-grained type IaAB diamonds from Botswana.

Find out more about the GIA research internship program, qualifications, and application process. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Burmese Blue Sapphire and Peridot from Mogok and a History of Emerald Mining in Habachtal, Austria Abstract: Welcome to the Winter 2021 issue of Gems & Gemology! This exciting conclusion to the volume year features new content examining blue Burmese sapphires, the source of rich olive color peridot in Pyaung-Gaung, and the history of emerald mining in Austria’s Habachtal region.
“…an extensive gemological analysis of 248 blue sapphires from Mogok…”
Our lead article by Wasura Soonthorntantikul and coauthors features an extensive gemological analysis of 248 blue sapphires from Mogok, a source long known for producing high-grade material. This study uses samples collected on a series of expeditions by GIA’s field gemologists over the last decade, filling a gap in modern analytical data. Findings indicate that the sapphires show a wide range of blue color intensities but maintain a very consistent inclusion scene.
Next, Montira Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya and fellow researchers investigate the internal, spectroscopic, and chemical features of peridot from the Pyaung-Gaung area in the Mogok township of Myanmar. This location is an essential source of high-quality peridot, producing rough both large in size and rich in olive green color. A combination of various gemological tests and advanced analytical methods presented in this study prove effective in differentiating Pyauang-Gaung peridot from other sources.
The final article delves into the mining history of Austria’s Habachtal region, which is considered one of the early emerald deposits, with references dating back to 1797. In part one of this two-part series, Karl Schmetzer traces the history of the Habachtal emerald mine through several centuries up to World War I, using largely unpublished works sourced from Austrian and German archives.
As always, our regular columns offer an assortment of gemological findings from around the globe. Highlights of the Lab Notes section include an impressive diamond faceted as the iconic Apple Inc. logo, exquisite antique spectacles crafted with diamond and emerald lenses in mid-seventeenth-century India, and an exceptionally large and well-saturated orange sapphire from Sri Lanka. The Micro-World section presents a demantoid faceted to showcase spectacular “horsetail” inclusions, a remarkable example of rainbow graining in a yellow diamond, and an unusual occurrence of a hematite crystal hosting a network of rutile crystals. In Gem News International, stay up to date with recent studies on biogenic carbon in pink corundum from southern West Greenland, the latest on mining the Yogo sapphire deposit in Montana, and a new blue zircon deposit discovered in Malawi.
Finally, this issue includes the debut of an exciting addition to our regular columns, Colored Stones Unearthed, exploring the formation of colored stones from the crust-mantle and below. This first installment covers some of the gemstones that provide important information on the mineralogy, composition, and evolution of the earth, including peridot, sapphire, and ruby.
We hope you enjoy the Winter issue of Gems & Gemology! Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Winter 2021 G&G Available Now Abstract: The Winter issue presents two characterization studies on gems from Mogok. These feature articles use Burmese blue sapphire and peridot of known provenance to enhance the current gemological knowledge base for origin separation. The third article combs through the early mining history of the Habachtal emerald deposit in Austria up to the beginning of World War I.
Blue Sapphires from Mogok, Myanmar: A Gemological Review
The lead article by Wasura Soonthorntantikul and co-authors investigates 248 blue sapphires collected from different areas in the Mogok Stone Tract by GIA field gemologists over five years. The gemological and chemical characterization indicates a wide range of blue color intensities, very consistent inclusion scenes, and no significant trace element differences between various sapphire-producing zones in Mogok. Such studies on reliable samples support the increasing demand for origin determination services by gemological laboratories.
Gemological Characterization of Peridot from Pyaung-Gaung in Mogok, Myanmar
Myanmar produces high-quality peridot of considerable size that possesses an attractive deep olive green color. A research team led by Montira Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya examines peridot from the Pyaung-Gaung area and provides diagnostic inclusions and trace element chemistry that can separate this material from deposits in China and Pakistan.
History of Emerald Mining in the Habachtal Deposit of Austria, Part I
Karl Schmetzer details the mining history of Austria’s Habachtal region in part one of this two-part series. This article presents research using largely unpublished materials from Austrian and German archives to trace the various ownership transitions of this early emerald deposit.
Lab Notes
GIA laboratory staff members present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including a diamond faceted as the iconic Apple logo, two pairs of antique Mughal spectacles with diamond and emerald lenses, and tourmaline featuring a unique surface pattern resembling a circuit board.
Micro-World
The Micro-World section, dedicated to the inner world of gemstones, features a chondrodite crystal in Burmese red spinel, an excellent example of a polyp structure in natural black coral, spectacular wispy “horsetail” inclusions in demantoid, and a tourmaline with abundant colorless zoning with windmill structures.
Colored Stones Unearthed
Colored gemstone deposits are geologically diverse and provide important information on the composition and evolution of the earth. The debut of this new G&G column explores geological concepts related to the formation of colored stones from the crust-mantle transition and below. Future installments will appear on a periodic basis.
Gem News International
Finally, GNI correspondents from around the world report on renewed interest in mining activity at the Yogo sapphire deposit in Montana, the identification of blue zircon supposedly from a new deposit in Malawi, Rio Tinto’s final sale of pink and blue diamonds from Argyle, and “floating flower” inclusions in a bangle fashioned from aventurine quartz. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Epoxy-Filled Chalcedony as an Imitation for “Candy Agate” Abstract: Figure 1. Rough stones of candy agate from the Alxa Plateau of Inner Mongolia are usually found in irregular shapes and granular gravels, as shown in this picture. Photo by Shu-Hong Lin.
A special kind of agate known as “candy agate” is produced in the Alxa Plateau of Inner Mongolia. This type of agate usually comes in irregular shapes and granular gravels, with a diameter ranging from several millimeters to several centimeters (figure 1). In addition to a variety of bodycolors, these agates occasionally present color zoning between the inner core and the outer layer. These candy agates have been very popular during the past few years, especially in the Taiwan market.

Figure 2. A string of beads submitted to TULAB as “candy agate.” Photo by Kai-Yun Huang.
Recently, several strings of beads were submitted to the Taiwan Union Lab of Gem Research (TULAB) as candy agate (figure 2). The outer layer of the beads was colorless and semitransparent, and the inner core presented various colors of green, purple, orange, yellow, or greenish blue. These agate beads did not have any fissures extending from the surface to the inner core but only a drill hole penetrating each bead so they could be threaded together to make a bracelet. Gemological testing identified the beads as chalcedony, but the unusually bright color of their inner cores looked unnatural and thus aroused suspicion.

Figure 3. The Raman spectra of the outer layer and the inner core of the beads matched those expected for chalcedony (K.J. Kingma and R.J. Hemley, “Raman spectroscopic study of microcrystalline silica,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 79, 1994, pp. 269–273) and epoxy resin (K.E. Chike et al., “Raman and near-infrared studies of an epoxy resin,” Applied Spectroscopy, Vol. 47, No. 10, 1993, pp. 1631–1635). The stacked spectra are baseline-corrected and normalized.

Figure 4. One bead showed a few bubble inclusions in its orange core. Photomicrograph by Shu-Hong Lin; field of view 3.06 mm.

Figure 5. A greenish blue bead cut in half revealed its drill hole (A), greenish blue epoxy filling (B), and colorless chalcedony (C). Photomicrograph by Yu-Shan Chou; field of view 2.83 mm.
To verify whether the center color of these beads was natural, the beads were further analyzed by Raman spectroscopy with 785 nm laser excitation at the surface and about 1–2 mm deep into the colored inner core. Comparisons of the resulting spectra with those reported in previously published studies identified the materials as chalcedony and epoxy resin (figure 3), which means that these “candy agates” were likely chalcedony beads hollowed out and filled with colored epoxy resin. Under microscopic observation (figure 4), some of the beads even had bubble inclusions in their inner cores, further supporting the possibility of epoxy filling. To understand how these beads were made, we asked the owner to provide samples cut in half for further testing. Microscopic observation of the cross-sections revealed that the beads were somehow hollowed out through the drill hole and then filled with colored epoxy resin (figure 5). Finally, a second drilling was performed along the original drill hole after the epoxy resin had hardened.
The colored inner core, which makes the agate special and valuable, is common in natural candy agate from the Alxa Plateau. The imitation candy agate in this study could be defined as a new type of epoxy-filled chalcedony which showed similar colored cores to natural candy agate. The most effective non-destructive methods for identifying this product are Raman spectroscopy and microscopic observation, but the results may be affected by the location of the inner core and the transparency of the chalcedony. Source: GIA @topic:11


Title: Update on Mining Activity at Yogo Gulch, Montana Abstract: Figure 1. Underground operations in the Vortex mine at Yogo Gulch, Montana. Photo by Don Baide.
The Yogo sapphire deposit, discovered more than 100 years ago, has seen renewed mining interest over the last few years. The fame of Yogo sapphires was established in the first few decades the deposit was worked by the London-based New Mine Sapphire Syndicate. Then, a catastrophic flood in 1923 destroyed the mine infrastructure and operations ground to a halt. Production was sparse and unpredictable for the next several decades. Notable events in the modern history of Yogo Gulch include the arrival of Chikara Kunisaki and the Roncor Corporation in 1973, which drilled the 3,000-foot Kunisaki tunnel at the old American mine, and the discovery of a new extension of the sapphire-bearing dike to the west of the deposit, which became the Vortex mine. Since 2017, there has been renewed interest in bringing back large-scale mining operations, and the authors had the chance to observe these activities firsthand in the summer of 2021.
In 2017, Don Baide, a jeweler out of Bozeman, acquired the Vortex mine and started revamping the underground operations to bring the mine back online. In the 1990s, a modern 3,000-foot spiral ramp descending 475 feet was installed at Vortex. Due to years of inactivity, Baide and his miners have had to spend considerable time pumping water out of the underground shafts and rehabilitating the mine, but they are now working through the winter down to the 400-foot level (figure 1). They have uncovered new exposures of the sapphire-bearing dike rock and expect to process ore from this level by the end of 2021.

Figure 2. A large portion of the Roncor property is home to the Gadsden house (lower left) and the eastern portion of the Yogo dike, which stretches for miles as a long trench (white arrow). Photo by Nathan Renfro.

Figure 3. A view up the valley known as Kelly Coulee to the west of Yogo Creek. Photo by Aaron Palke.
While Vortex is the most recently worked mine at Yogo Gulch, the bulk of the deposit lies to the east of Yogo Creek in what has become known as the Roncor property. This includes the old English mine at the far east of the deposit (figure 2), as well as the Kelly Coulee and the American mine (figure 3). In 2021, a new venture, Yogold U.S.A. Corporation, was created and acquired a lease to resume mining operations on the Roncor property. Yogold spent the summer mining open cuts of the Yogo dike as well as installing a washing plant to recover sapphires. Yogold is also actively rehabilitating the Kunisaki tunnel, which has been dormant for nearly 35 years. They plan to resume underground mining through the Kunisaki tunnel and significantly increase sapphire recovery underground.
The jewelry company Parle’ of Pocatello, Idaho, has a strategic partnership with Yogold to market loose stones and manufacture jewelry featuring Yogo sapphires. Also of interest, documentary filmmaker Orin Mazzoni is producing a short film featuring the Yogo deposit that should be of interest to anyone fascinated by these brilliant blue gems. The film is expected to be released in early 2022.

Figure 4. A miner shows off his collection of Yogo sapphires. Photo by Aaron Palke.
There are certainly many more treasures to be unearthed at this rich deposit. While Yogo sapphires often carry a premium in the gem market for their rich cornflower blue color (figure 4) and lack of treatment, the higher overhead costs of mining in the United States pose the main challenge. But with sustained and serious mining activity in progress, the gem trade may be seeing more of the famous Yogo sapphire in the coming years. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Fall 2021 G&G Available Now Abstract: The Fall issue presents the second article in a three-part series on Pinctada maxima with a detailed documentation of the internal structures of cultured pearls. The next two articles present unique findings: the first identification of sudoite in as a lapidary material and the first reported example of specific chromophores causing a purple color in spinel. Lastly, a field report highlights the current state of mining and production at Neyshabur, Iran’s largest turquoise mine.
Internal Structures of Known Pinctada maxima Pearls: Cultured Pearls from Operated Marine Mollusks
The lead article, by Artitaya Homkrajae and co-authors, studies the internal structures of 74 non-bead cultured (NBC) and 12 bead cultured (BC) pearls harvested directly from farmed mollusks off the coast of Western Australia. Characteristic internal features of most NBC samples allowed separation from their natural counterparts, with a few exceptions that proved challenging and could result in an inconclusive call in a laboratory.
First Identification of Sudoite in Caribbean Ceramic-Age Lapidary Craftsmanship
A research team led by Alain Queffelec examines nine sudoite artifacts from several archaeological sites in the French West Indies. This material was previously unknown in sizes large enough for carving and has never before been identified in lapidary craft.
Purple Gem Spinel from Vietnam and Afghanistan: Comparison of Trace Element Chemistry, Cause of Color, and Inclusions
Philippe Belley and Aaron Palke investigate the chromophore combinations responsible for the purple coloration in two spinel samples from Vietnam and Afghanistan. This article presents the first reported example of chromium and cobalt causing the saturated purple color in a gem spinel.
Persian Turquoise: The Ancient Treasure of Neyshabur
This field report by Bahareh Shirdam and co-authors describes the current state of the Neyshabur turquoise mine, located in northeastern Iran. The authors highlight the local geology, mining techniques, and turquoise production from mine to market.
Lab Notes
GIA laboratory staff members present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including multiple fossilized shells composed primarily of emerald, a parcel of manufactured glass masquerading as blue star sapphire, and a batch of large CVD-grown diamonds with high clarity and color for as-grown material, which offers insight into potential new growth conditions.
Micro-World
The Micro-World section, dedicated to the inner world of gemstones, features an apatite crystal suspended over a cloud of rutile silk in a blue star sapphire, a diamond cut to showcase an octahedral-shaped cloud inclusion, a fractal-like hematite inclusion resembling a rose in aquamarine, and Chinese ruby with fluid inclusions in the shape of a snake and fish.
Gem News International
Finally, GNI correspondents from around the world report on the first rough Mozambican ruby auction held by Fura Gems, the identification of pink aventurine quartz with alurgite inclusions, spectroscopic characteristics of blue to violet spinel heated at low temperature, and the announcement of the GIA Library and Museum Facebook group. Source: GIA @topic:5


Title: GIA Library and Museum Facebook Group Abstract: The GIA Library & Museum Facebook page stimulates spirited discussion among gemologists, bibliophiles, and gem enthusiasts. Photo composite by Robert Weldon/GIA.
Dedicated to the beauty and fascination of gemological books and mineral exhibits, the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library & Information Center and the GIA Museum launched a Facebook group on August 2, 2021.
The group has attracted over 600 bibliophiles, museum curators, gemological enthusiasts, students, researchers, and experts worldwide. It aims to provide greater digital access to our library and museum and stimulate enthusiastic discussion of the many themes covered in our collection of books, periodicals, and exhibits (see above). These subjects include gemology, geology, mineralogy, jewelry manufacturing, design, jewelry history, localities, and the gem industry.
Features include library-curated video segments and book reviews, commentary on rare bookplates or covers, and short interviews with notable library patrons. The Facebook group also highlights specific rare books from the library’s digital collection on the Internet Archive (https://archive.org/details/gialibrary). A growing proportion of the library’s notable rare books and manuscripts are digitized and offered to the public—free of charge. Over 700 books have been digitized, and the project is ongoing. The museum provides unique glimpses and the stories behind some of the amazing gems and minerals from GIA’s collection.
To become a member of this group, please visit https://www.facebook.com/groups/gialibraryandmuseum Source: GIA @topic:10


Title: Summer 2021 G&G Available Now Abstract: The Summer issue bursts with exciting topics. We open with an important question in the diamond industry—how fluorescence intensity impacts diamond appearance and how to quantify those effects scientifically. Pearls are the focus of the next two articles, which identify the color origin of Chinese “Edison” freshwater pearls and present a classification system based on size, shape, color, luster, surface, matching, and nacre quality, respectively. Lastly, a field report highlights the bustling gemstone trading hub in Peshwar, Pakistan, known as the “intersection of anxiety.”
Measurement and Characterization of the Effects of Blue Fluorescence on Diamond Appearance
The lead article by Yun Luo and co-authors studies the effects of blue fluorescence on diamond appearance, particularly when it comes to perceived transparency and color. Results show that fluorescence intensity only occasionally impacts visible color and does not cause haziness by itself. The authors present methods to quantify these effects instrumentally.
Detection of Color Treatment and Optical Brightening in Chinese Freshwater “Edison” Pearls
A research team led by Chunhui Zhou provides an in-depth study on a group of 23 freshwater “Edison” pearls to distinguish their color origin. Various gemological and advanced instrumental techniques identified the use of color treatment and optical brightening agents in these popular cultured pearls.
Pearl Classification: The GIA 7 Pearl Value Factors
Affectionately known as “The Queen of Gems,” pearls have been cherished throughout history, and their popularity continues to grow in the market. Joyce Wing Yan Ho and Sally Chan Shih discuss the GIA 7 Pearl Value Factors for classifying various appearances and qualities. A beautiful wall chart accompanies this article.
Namak Mandi: A Pioneering Gemstone Market in Pakistan
This field report by Habib Ur Rehman and co-authors describes Namak Mandi’s transformation a salt market in Peshawar to Pakistan’s largest rough gemstone trading hub. The authors highlight pricing and trading techniques, the local gemstone supply chain, and traditional cutting practices to save weight.
Lab Notes
GIA laboratory staff members present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including a social media–worthy Melo pearl with an intense natural color, a beaded opal strand displaying striking play-of-color, and a flux-grown ruby containing chrysoberyl inclusions.
Micro-World
The Micro-World section, dedicated to the inner world of gemstones, features an iridescent abalone shell reminiscent of a topographic map, a polished quartz crystal displaying unusual bent rutile needles, and blue beryl crystals with heavily etched surfaces that are reportedly from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.
Gem News International
Finally, GNI correspondents from around the world report on natural freshwater pearls from three European countries, mobile inclusions in quartz, multi-color Kenyan sapphires, and the reopening of the Mignone Halls of Gems and Minerals at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Sapphires from Anakie, Australia: A Closer Look at Blue, Yellow, Green and Bicolor Sapphires Abstract: Some of the studied samples from Australia. Colors ranged from blue to dark blue, yellowish green, yellow, and greenish yellow to brownish yellow. Photo by Lhapsin Nillapat. Courtesy of Fura Gems.

Though long underappreciated, Australian sapphires could see a resurgence with the arrival of Fura Gems, a major mining and marketing company. A team of GIA researchers recently took a deeper look at the colors and causes of color of these sapphires, as well as the internal inclusion scenes observed.
The results are available in a study titled “Sapphires from Anakie, Australia: A Closer Look at Blue, Yellow, Green and Bicolor Sapphires.” The authors concluded that these sapphires are relatively high in Fe, resulting in their blue-green-yellow colors. Advanced statistical techniques can often help separate Australian sapphires from those in other deposits worldwide. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: Peter Ngumbi (Vter Young) Abstract: Gemstone trader Peter Ngumbi examines rough at the sapphire mining area near Garba Tula in northern Kenya. Photo courtesy of Vter Young.

The pandemic has been felt throughout the entire jewelry industry, from the miners who are the first to see gems come out of the ground to the local traders and the end consumers. To get a better understanding of the situation in East Africa, we spoke to Peter Ngumbi, a third-generation Kenyan gemstone trader who sources rough from local markets and directly from the miners (see above). Mr. Ngumbi sells stones from his offices in Nairobi and Voi to visiting international merchants, as well as directly to consumers and hobby cutters via social media. The main focus of his business is garnet, primarily tsavorite. His broad perspective allows us to gain some insights into the East African gemstone scene during 2020.
The Kenyan government was quick to impose actions to contain the virus, such as a ban on interprovincial travel, which allowed for strong control of local outbreaks, and closed its borders to avoid importing cases while implementing a strict curfew. Mask wearing and contact tracing quickly became routine. While these measures affected daily life, they kept COVID-19 rates relatively low. Similar measures were enforced in Rwanda and Uganda with positive results.
The situation is vastly different in the neighboring country of Tanzania, where the existence of COVID-19 is officially denied and many people are losing friends and relatives. This has significantly impacted local production, which fluctuates heavily. Areas like Mahenge produce almost no material, while material is abundant in other areas because foreign buyers are no longer present.
Even though the local Kenyan restrictions were strong, Mr. Ngumbi notes some positive aspects. Most foreign buyers were forced to leave the country, and many of the local buyers were hesitant to invest large sums in the gem trade during these economically uncertain times. Suddenly he had access to larger volumes of stones with only a fraction of the usual buying public. On top of that, he returned from the 2020 Tucson shows and saw some exceptional tsavorite production, which allowed him to replenish depleted stock.
Normally, Mr. Ngumbi travels regularly to other countries in the region such as Rwanda, Malawi, Mozambique, and Tanzania to source rough. Since he has done this for many years, he has a strong network in these countries, which he relied on heavily during times of limited travel.
He feels that many traders have dramatically expanded their network into source countries over the last decade and are now relying on these established, trusted connections to supply them with rough remotely.
While this was an excellent opportunity for African traders to buy rough, selling was not so rose-colored. No foreign traders came to the continent to source rough. Luckily, many of the African rough traders had established an online presence, which compensated for the decreased in-person sales. Mr. Ngumbi estimates that he sold more than three times the value he usually sells through social media, adding that the public has fully accepted this method of buying. In fact, customers in the United States were so hungry for rough that he could not keep up with orders. This includes some regular customers he sees at trade shows or in his Nairobi office, but a significant portion are unknown buyers he has never met in person. A growing number of online customers are independent jewelers who source their rough as close to the mine as possible and have it cut by contracted cutters.
Artisanal mining was also impacted by COVID-19. Kenyan authorities suspended mining operations where more than 20 people were working to avoid large gatherings. This only lasted for a few months, although it was strictly enforced by officials. These temporary suspensions affected the amount of material available in the market, but keep in mind that the number of buyers was also significantly reduced due to the absence of foreigners. Once the mining restrictions were lifted, there was an influx of artisanal miners trying their luck. This resulted in increased availability of rough in the local markets compared to other years. Availability was balanced out toward the end of the year by the reopening of international borders and the return of foreign buyers with a strong desire for rough.
In summary, the pandemic has had varying effects on the trading situation in East Africa, with local regulations having a major impact on the local supply and access to that material. The absence of foreign buyers has augmented the supply of available rough in the markets, while COVID-19 has locally disrupted production by artisanal and small-scale miners. The combined effect of this could turn out positive in some regions, while other areas are adversely affected. Source: GIA @topic:9


Title: Jeff Hapeman (Earth’s Treasury) Abstract: Figure 1. A 2.04 ct blue brilliant-cut unheated Rock Creek sapphire. Photo by Jeff Hapeman.

How does one prepare for a global pandemic on a scale unlike anything seen in recent history? While it would have taken an extraordinary act of foresight to predict how significantly the world has changed since March 2020, one trend was set in motion several years ago. Increased online presence, especially with social media, proved enormously beneficial to many in the gem and jewelry industry. Jeff Hapeman of Earth’s Treasury in Westtown, Pennsylvania, was at the forefront of this social media trend and shared his views on its impact on the trade since the pandemic and beyond. Mr. Hapeman got his start faceting gemstones (figure 1). However, he has grown his business over the last few years by hiring several designers and bench jewelers and developing what he calls his “mine to finger” approach. By building close relationships with the people producing rough material at gem mines around the world and moving the jewelry-making process in-house, he is able to capture more of the value-added chain in getting rough stones to the end consumer (figure 2).

Figure 2. A ring sourced, designed, and manufactured by Earth’s Treasury displaying a 2.14 ct heated Rock Creek sapphire alongside melee-sized unheated sapphires from Rock Creek. Photo by Jeff Hapeman.
In March, when Pennsylvania went into strict lockdown, all employees of Earth’s Treasury were sent home and asked to continue working on any projects they could. His bench jeweler sorted and graded melee stones, while his designer created new stock pieces. Fortunately, given Mr. Hapeman’s heavy online involvement, Earth’s Treasury was classified as an e-commerce retailer and allowed to open again after only about a month. Of course, there was an immediate plunge in sales in March and into April, but by May sales were picking up. In June, everything took off and business was much stronger than usual. This uptick in gem and jewelry sales is likely related to delayed purchases. As the uncertainty of the early days of the pandemic began to recede and the economy started coming out of the hard lockdown seen in much of the country, consumers had discretionary funds for jewelry purchases that would have ordinarily been set aside for travel or other luxuries. E-commerce jewelers did especially well last summer as the country slowly reopened with new safety restrictions that made in-person shopping at traditional brick-and-mortar shops more difficult.
Of course, this move to online jewelry sales did not happen in a vacuum. As social media continues to take an expanding role in our lives, modern consumers have become increasingly comfortable buying gemstones online at higher price points. Since the pandemic, Mr. Hapeman has noticed that customers are becoming more comfortable with the online purchasing process. Because Earth’s Treasury offers free returns for gems and jewelry by FedEx or UPS, customers are willing to purchase and try something before settling on exactly what they want. In fact, he has stopped private showings at his offices for now and is moving more toward video consultations with potential clients.
The pandemic has dramatically affected not only the way we buy and sell gems but also the supply chains for the colored stone industry. While Mr. Hapeman deals a lot in domestically sourced Montana sapphire, it has become increasingly difficult to source gem rough internationally. In particular, rough exports from Africa have apparently dried up recently, given difficulties in exporting this material to locations such as Bangkok where it could be further distributed around the world. Some major gem cutting centers have also seen a decline in business as their international buyers can no longer visit. As a result, it has become much easier to purchase Sri Lankan stones for recutting. Interestingly, he has seen an enormous amount of tanzanite become available recently, which he speculates may be related to the material being rerouted from the badly stricken cruise industry.
The biggest potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the industry concerns trade shows. While the rise of online sales had been felt by global gem and jewelry shows such as Tucson for several years, the ability of the industry to survive, and perhaps even thrive, for more than a year without a major gem show may cause many to question whether the events are crucial for their business. As we pull out of this pandemic world, it remains to be seen how major international gem shows will react and adapt. Source: GIA @topic:9


Title: Constantin Wild (Constantin Wild GmbH & Co. KG) Abstract: Figure 1. A lively 24.07 ct yellowish green cushion-cut tourmaline from new fields in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Photo © Constantin Wild.

Constantin Wild and his team started 2020 with a strong Tucson show and orders to fulfill from 2019. Upon returning to Germany, the severity of the COVID situation became apparent, and on March 14 they were forced to temporarily shut down the business. Mr. Wild was fortunate to keep his staff, though they did have to cut back work initially to only one day a week. Since August, they have been able to work at 80% of full-time. The second half of 2020 saw business levels basically return to normal, and overall the year was pretty good. Tucson was the company’s only trade show in 2020, and they do not expect to attend any shows in 2021. The biggest disadvantage of not going to trade shows has been missing out on new opportunities.
To keep in touch with clients and partners, Zoom and WhatsApp became essential for video calls. Mr. Wild has also been inviting clients to their facility in Idar-Oberstein for relaxed face-to-face visits. The business has been sharpening its brand image and plans to relaunch its website and blog as well as provide regular Facebook and Instagram feeds.
Without being able to travel, the team has taken the time to sort and recut stock in their inventory. They have also been cutting rough from their vaults, as the new rough supply has been restricted during the pandemic.
When asked about pandemic sales, Mr. Wild noted that gemstones suitable for high jewelry have been in demand, in addition to a new trend for high-value gems as standalone pieces. During the past year, sales have been particularly good for Paraíba tourmaline, green tourmaline (figure 1), aquamarine, and Imperial topaz (figure 2).

Figure 2. This 4.06 ct red pear-shaped Imperial topaz is from Ouro Preto, Brazil. Photo © Constantin Wild.
Mr. Wild also noticed strong demand for gray spinel, whether atonal or modified by blue or purple. He has done well selling color suites of stones, such as his “Rhapsody in Blue,” which features a diverse array of blues provided by tanzanite and both greenish blue and intense blue aquamarine from Brazil and Mozambique (figure 3).

Figure 3. The “Rhapsody in Blue” suite (145.2 carats total) is composed of 17 gems: nine greenish blue cushion-cut aquamarines from Brazil, four oval-cut tanzanites, and four intense blue oval-cut Mozambique aquamarines. Photo © Constantin Wild.
During this time, Mr. Wild has been able to work on a book commemorating the firm’s 175th anniversary next year. Titled Gems, Colours, and Wild Stories… 175 Years of Constantin Wild, the book will explore the history of the company and provide many entertaining stories and high-quality images to capture the unique emotions associated with colored gems.
Mr. Wild looks forward to returning to Tucson in 2022 and predicts that demand will focus on vibrant colors to celebrate the end of the pandemic. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Spring 2021 G&G Available Now Abstract: A variety of topics are in store for you in the Spring issue of G&G. First up is a study of the internal structures of natural pearls collected from wild marine mollusks. The second article explores the effectiveness of resin as a pore-filling treatment to improve the appearance of rough turquoise specimens. Next, visible spectroscopy and a mathematical function are used to predict the color of a uniaxial gem material when viewed in any direction. And spinel, which has become increasingly popular among jewelry artisans and aficionados, inspires a colorful chart displaying the many types of inclusions found in this fascinating gem.
Internal Structures of Known Pinctada maxima Pearls: Natural Pearls from Wild Mollusks
This issue’s lead article, by Artitaya Homkrajae and fellow pearl researchers from GIA, spotlights the importance of reliably sourced natural pearl samples. With the help of the Paspaley Pearling Company, the GIA team collected wild P. maxima mollusks off the coast of Australia to compare their internal structures with those of pearls from other sources. This study adds to gemologists’ understanding of natural pearl identification.
Technical Evolution and Identification of Resin-Filled Turquoise
China’s Hubei Province has long been a source of commercial turquoise production. Using a variety of detection techniques, Ling Liu and a team from the Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences in Wuhan researched the widespread treatment of filling porous turquoise with resin. Their conclusion was that this is an effective method of improving rough turquoise quality and, like any treatment, should be disclosed to consumers.
How to Calculate Color from Spectra of Uniaxial Gemstones
Understanding the color characteristics of a gemstone can provide a scientific basis to guide its cutting. This study uses visible spectroscopy and a mathematical method to determine the unpolarized spectra of a uniaxial material from the polarized spectra (o-ray and e-ray) in order to predict the color of a uniaxial gem material when viewed in any direction.
Micro-Features of Spinel
Nathan Renfro and co-authors add to the G&G series of micro-feature charts with this lovely display of inclusions found in spinel, a previously under-appreciated gem that is now gaining in popularity due in part to its wide range of colors. The chart is included in every printed copy of this issue, and a laminated version is available for sale in the GIA Store.
Lab Notes
GIA laboratory staff present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including two diamond cabochons displaying rare asterism, a precious cat’s-eye opal with patches of color producing distinct chatoyancy, and a lead glass-filled laboratory-grown ruby.
Micro-World
The Micro-World section, which highlights the inner world of gemstones, includes a remarkable cloudlike inclusion resembling a faceted brilliant diamond situated inside a polished diamond, a Mexican opal featuring a rare fluid inclusion with a mobile gas bubble, and a blue sapphire whose strikingly iridescent “play-of-color” along large partially healed fissures demonstrate thin-film interference typical of heat-treated corundum.
Gem News International
GNI correspondents from around the world offer a virtual report on the state of the gem and jewelry trade more than a year into the COVID-19 global pandemic. Other highlights include a geode with a striking resemblance to the Cookie Monster character, a historical hand-drilled briolette diamond, and a stunning photo gallery from the collection of the Alfie Norville Gem and Mineral Museum in Tucson, which reopens in 2021.
The Spring issue also contains the 2021 Gems & Gemology Challenge. Score 75% or better and you’ll receive a certificate of completion (PDF file); earn a perfect score and your name will be listed in the Fall 2021 issue. Online entries for the Challenge must be submitted by Monday, August 2, 2021. Source: GIA @topic:12


Title: Opal with Agate-Like Banding Abstract: Figure 1. This opal from the Shewa region of Ethiopia, weighing just over 10 ct, shows areas of agate-like banding. Photo by Diego Sanchez and Robison McMurtry.

Recently, author SC purchased an interesting Ethiopian opal (figure 1) that displayed a most unusual growth structure. A portion of the orangy brown opal displayed a small patch of wavy “varve” banding much like one would expect to see in an agate (figure 2). The banded area was composed of layers of translucent dark brown material alternating with lighter opaque material. It was also evident that the dark layers were much harder than the lighter layers, which had significant undercutting on the polished surface. These lighter areas also showed play-of-color, which made it obvious that they were precious opal layers. The dark areas did not show play-of–color, leaving it unknown if they were also opal or perhaps chalcedony, consistent with their banded pattern. It was also interesting to note that the lighter areas readily absorbed water and became transparent, an indication of hydrophane opal.

Figure 2. Prominent agate-like banding was seen in the opal. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 8.22 mm.To test the composition of the various layers, we polished a flat surface on the back of the stone in order to accurately measure the refractive index (RI). Two measurements were resolvable with the refractometer, at 1.43 and 1.47. Further testing revealed an extremely low specific gravity measurement of 1.42 (compared to a typical SG of about 2.00 for opal), implying that the hydrophane areas were very porous. Further testing by Raman spectrometry was unable to detect the presence of quartz in either the light or dark brown bands, a finding consistent with the RI measurements.

Figure 3. Left: A crack running diagonally across the banding exhibits an offset shifting indicative of a strike-slip type of “micro-fault.“ Right: A second area in this stone also shows “micro-faulting“ with movement along the banding and no movement across the photonic crystal, indicating that opalization of the chalcedony was a secondary process. Photomicrographs by Diego Sanchez and Robison McMurtry; fields of view 2.50 mm (left) and 2.62 mm (right).
Careful microscopic observation yielded some interesting conclusions. A few small healed cracks in this stone were naturally repaired with opal infilling. Some of these cracks showed a lateral offset as they cut across the banding (figure 3, left). We also observed that the fractures that showed an offset in the banding showed no offset in the “photonic crystal” (B. Rondeau et al., “On the origin of digit patterns in gem opal” Fall 2013 G&G, pp. 138–146), or in the single play-of-color patches (figure 3, right). These observations are important in revealing the order of events that took place to produce such a specimen. First, the deposition of chalcedony had to occur in order to produce the crenulated (wavy) banded pattern. Second, stress cracks were introduced into the agate and then laterally shifted, creating several “micro-faults.” These micro-faults were subsequently “healed” with a secondary deposit of opal. This secondary opal deposition also replaced the chalcedony while preserving the original agate-like banding, which was apparent since there was no offset along the micro-faults in the patches of play-of-color.

This is one of the most unusual opals the authors have encountered to date. The microscopic observations tell an interesting story about the formation of a unique gem. Source: GIA @topic:11


Title: Winter 2020 G&G Available Now Abstract: The Winter issue covers an array of insightful topics, including treatment detection, geographic origin separation, and more. We open with a characterization study of Madagascan pink sapphire before and after low-temperature heat treatment and the techniques used to detect such treatment. Two articles investigate various advanced analytical methods used for origin determination of blue amber and Vietnamese sapphire, respectively. And faceting patterns of from a bygone era see renewed interest with a historical examination of rose-cut colored stones.
Low-Temperature Heat Treatment of Pink Sapphires from Ilakaka, Madagascar
The lead article, by Sudarat Saeseaw and co-authors, studies the effects of low-temperature heat treatment on inclusions, particularly zircon and monazite crystals, in pink sapphire from this locality. Results show that Raman and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy are useful techniques to detect low-temperature heat treatment and may help laboratories set criteria for detecting treatment of this nature.
Baroque-Era Rose Cuts of Colored Stones: Highlights from the Second Half of the Seventeenth Century
Karl Schmetzer provides an in-depth profile on the faceting patterns of colored stones from the Baroque era. In this study, five gem-encrusted objects originally belonging to the archbishops and prince-electors of Trier and Cologne are systematically evaluated to shed light on the variety of rose-cut facet arrangements available during the latter half of the seventeenth century.
Fluorescence Characteristics of Blue Amber from the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and Myanmar
Amber showing very strong blue fluorescence under sunlight is highly sought after in the Chinese gem market. A research team led by Zhiqing Zhang shows that a combination of visual features, UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy, and excitation-emission mapping can aid in identifying “blue amber” from each of the three principal localities.
Mineral Inclusions in Sapphire from Basaltic Terranes in Southern Vietnam: Indicator of Formation Model
Southern Vietnam plays host to four main sapphire-producing areas, including Dak Nong, Di Linh, Binh Thuan, and Krong Nang. Utilizing advanced analytical techniques, Doan Thi Anh Vu and co-authors study the chemistry of mineral inclusions to reconstruct the formation model of sapphire in this volcanic area. The results of this work are useful for origin determination.
Lab Notes
GIA laboratory staff members present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including an “all-American” diamond from Crater of Diamonds State Park in Arkansas, a striking purplish pink unheated Montana sapphire, and the largest CVD laboratory-grown diamond submitted to GIA yet.
Micro-World
The Micro-World section, dedicated to the inner world of gemstones, features a pyrope-spessartine garnet proudly displaying an unusual inclusion of blue apatite, a Mogok ruby paired with a rare bright blue lazurite inclusion, and a Mong Hsu ruby containing a partially healed fissure with a snowflake-like pattern of flux residue.
Diamonds from the Deep
Karen Smit and Steven Shirey examine the large-scale tectonic processes that have produced a critical carbon reservoir where the majority of diamonds are stored. Age-dated diamonds from the lithospheric mantle help us better understand continent evolution and carbon cycling between Earth’s crust and mantle.
Gem News International
Finally, GNI correspondents from around the world report on a new emerald locality in Southern California, distinctive dendritic inclusions in Chinese nephrite from Dahua, laser-engraved rock crystal as a new imitation of phantom quartz, and chemical analysis of rhodium-plated etched iron meteorites. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Fall 2020 G&G Available Now Abstract: This issue features a unique glimpse into the overwhelming majority of diamonds submitted to GIA: those on the D-to-Z color scale. It also includes a detailed study of emeralds from Pakistan, a fascinating historical look at auctions of gems and jewels of Europe’s royal families, analysis of a rare raindrop pattern in Chinese turquoise, and a firsthand account of shell nuclei production and pearl farming in Vietnam.
Natural-Color D-to-Z Diamonds: A Crystal-Clear Perspective
The lead article, by Sally Eaton-Magaña and co-authors, examines a large dataset of colorless to near-colorless diamonds from GIA’s 2017 intake. The statistical evaluation of grading quality factors and diamond type properties has never been presented in such comprehensive detail for natural-color D-to-Z diamonds.
Inclusion and Trace Element Characteristics of Emeralds from Swat Valley, Pakistan
Hongshu Guo and coauthors provide a detailed study characterizing the various properties and chemistry of emeralds from Swat Valley, Pakistan. The researchers analyze regular and trapiche-type emeralds separately and posit that their distinct properties can be useful for geographic origin determination.
A History of European Royal Jewel Sales, Including Sotheby’s 2018 Auction of Marie Antoinette’s Jewels
Russell Shor delivers a fascinating retrospective on the accumulation of gems and jewels by the most prominent European royal houses, culminating with Sotheby’s historic Bourbon-Parma auction in 2018. This remarkable sale garnered worldwide attention as 10 lots featuring items that once belonged to Marie Antoinette faced the auction gavel.
Unique Raindrop Pattern of Turquoise from Hubei, China
Hubei Province in China produces about 70% of the turquoise available in the Chinese gem market. Hubei turquoise possessing blue and blue-green spots resembling raindrops is very popular in China and very rare. Ling Liu and coauthors use an array of spectroscopic techniques to analyze the differences in the raindrops, veins, and substrates while identifying the formation mechanism of this unique pattern in turquoise.
Vietnam: Shell Nuclei, Pearl Hatcheries, and Pearl Farming
A team from GIA’s Bangkok laboratory was granted behind-the-scenes access to two pearl farms and a shell nucleus manufacturing factory in Vietnam. In this field report, Nicholas Sturman and coauthors detail how high-quality bead nuclei are produced from raw shell and subsequently used to culture pearls on a commercial scale.
Lab Notes
GIA laboratory staff members present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including “fire and ice” fluorescence in a novelty cut diamond, color-change cat’s-eye diaspore, the discovery of a 15.53 ct pearl in an edible oyster, and magnetite inclusions in star peridot.
Micro-World
The Micro-World section, dedicated to the inner world of gemstones, features several creatively manufactured inclusions, epigenetic residue mimicking an “egg,” a beautiful tuft of blue needles, and metal sulfide “tree” patterns, all found within their quartz hosts.
Gem News International
Finally, GNI correspondents from around the world report on bead cultured pearls embedded with near-field-communication technology, Maxixe beryl with an unusual violet color, oiled spinel, and an overview of the research presentations at the annual Geological Society of America meeting.
The Fall issue also contains the list of winners from the 2020 Gems & Gemology Challenge. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Spinel on Sapphire Abstract: Figure 1. This 4.8 cm pale blue sapphire crystal contained numerous purple spinel crystals on the surface. Photo by Angelica Sanchez; courtesy of Steve Dubyk.
Recently the authors examined a 4.8 cm tall pale blue sapphire crystal (figure 1) that featured numerous purple spinel crystals up to 8 mm in size on the surface (figure 2), a rather uncommon association. Steve Dubyk of Albuquerque, New Mexico, had acquired this specimen and doubted the accuracy of the accompanying label, indicating aquamarine from Tres Pozos in Baja California, Mexico. Raman spectroscopy confirmed Mr. Dubyk’s suspicion that the specimen was in fact corundum and identified the associated purple crystals as spinel. LA-ICP-MS chemical analysis suggested that the specimen was from Sri Lanka based on the trace elements present, which indicated an average of 130 ppma iron (Fe), 38 ppma titanium (Ti), and 37 ppma magnesium (Mg). The trace element chemistry is also notable, as the magnesium will preferentially charge compensate the titanium, leaving very little excess titanium to pair with iron to produce a blue color. The chemistry measurements were consistent with the very pale blue color observed in this stone. The chemistry of the spinel was also interesting in that its reasonably saturated purple color would indicate it was at least partially caused by chromium. However, the spinel was inert to long-wave UV light, suggesting no chromium was present. LA-ICP-MS testing confirmed the absence of chromium but showed relatively high iron (10,566 ppma) and some cobalt (2.75 ppma average) which together are likely responsible for the purple color (A. Palke and Z. Sun, “What is cobalt spinel? Unraveling the causes of blue color in blue spinel,” Fall 2018 G&G, p. 262). While spinel is uncommon in sapphire, a spinel inclusion has been previously reported in a Sri Lankan yellow sapphire (Winter 2015 Micro-World, p. 444). This sapphire is one of the more unusual examples the authors have encountered.

Figure 2. Purple spinel crystals were intergrown on the outermost layer of the sapphire crystal, which appears to be from Sri Lanka based on trace element chemistry. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 13.42 mm. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: Unusual Violet Maxixe Beryl Abstract: Figure 1. This 26.72 ct Maxixe beryl has an unusual violet color. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

Recently examined in the Carlsbad laboratory was a 26.72 ct transparent violet modified cushion mixed-cut stone (figure 1). Standard gemological testing revealed a refractive index of 1.583–1.592 and a specific gravity of 2.78, both consistent with beryl. Using plane-polarized light, pale purple and saturated blue pleochroic colors were observed. A uniaxial optic figure was seen at the girdle, and the optical orientation of the stone showed the stronger blue pleochroic color down the optic axis direction. The stone was inert to long-wave UV light and fluoresced weak greenish yellow to short-wave UV. Viewed with fiber-optic light during microscopic examination, it displayed a few scattered blocky crystals, platelets, and needles, confirming natural growth origin. No coatings were seen on the surface under reflective light. Other than the unusual violet color, these properties were consistent with Maxixe beryl.

Figure 2. The violet beryl showed a typical UV-Vis-NIR spectrum for Maxixe beryl. Pleochroic colors were calculated from the spectra and revealed a blue (o-ray, dark blue trace and color swatch) and light violet (e-ray, pale purple trace and color swatch) pleochroism.
Advanced testing by LA-ICP-MS revealed that the stone lacked iron. This result was consistent with Maxixe beryl, in which iron is too low to be measured (I. Adamo et al., “Aquamarine, Maxixe-type beryl, and hydrothermal synthetic blue beryl: Analysis and identification,” Fall 2008 G&G, pp. 214–226). Maxixe beryl normally has a blue to violet blue bodycolor, but this stone showed an unusual violet color. The UV-Vis-NIR spectrum (figure 2) showed absorption bands between 500 and 700 nm and a broad band near ~690 nm. This spectrum was consistent with Maxixe beryl (again, see Adamo et al., 2008). While Maxixe beryl has been found to be colored by natural irradiation, it can also be produced by artificial irradiation. Some of these “Maxixe-type” beryls produced by artificial irradiation are known to fade when exposed to “mild heat or strong light” (see Winter 1997 Lab Notes, p. 293). However, there is no conclusive test to determine whether Maxixe color results from natural or artificial irradiation, and as such, beryl in the blue to violet color range that shows the type of visible spectrum previously mentioned is designated simply as the Maxixe variety of beryl by the GIA laboratory.

Figure 3. From the violet beryl material provided for this study, a wafer was fabricated in order to directly measure the absorption spectra while conducting a fade test by placing the sample four inches away from an intense 150-watt halogen light source. The results, normalized to a 25 mm path length, confirmed that the color became less saturated over time with exposure to light. Most of the color loss came from the o-ray direction (left).

Figure 4. The polarized visible spectra were used to produce color swatches of the ordinary-ray (E ⊥ c) and extraordinary-ray (E || c) color normalized to a 25 mm path length to illustrate the change in color during fade testing over a period of 32 hours at four-hour intervals.
A small sample cut from the same rough as the 26.72 ct violet beryl was provided by lapidary Nolan Sponsler for destructive testing in order to evaluate the color stability of this material. An optically oriented wafer, 4.45 mm thick and normalized to a 25 mm path length in order to better observe the change in color, was fabricated from this sample with parallel polished windows that are parallel to the optic axis to allow measurement of the o- and e-rays. UV-Vis-NIR spectra were collected on the sample prior to fade testing and at four-hour intervals of exposure to a 150-watt halogen bulb at a distance of approximately four inches from the bulb to avoid any significant heating (figure 3). The results showed fading of the sample until its color was very pale (figure 4), confirming that this material may fade. One should avoid prolonged exposure to light and store it in a dark environment to preserve the color.
This violet Maxixe beryl was purported to be from Santa Maria de Itabira, Minas Gerais, Brazil. It is notable for its unusual color and its fantasy cut design. In addition to this violet Maxixe beryl, another violet beryl group mineral named “johnkoivulaite” was documented in 2019 (see Fall 2019 GNI, pp. 454–455); that new beryl is from the Mogok mining area in Myanmar. However, standard gemological properties clearly separate the two violet beryl minerals. Even though this beryl owes its appealing violet hue to what would be considered an unstable color center, the color should remain intact if prolonged exposure to intense light sources is minimized. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: The “Fragility of the Eternal” Kunzite: Origin, Cutting, and Identification Abstract: Figure 1. The pronounced pleochroism of the rough spodumene crystal weighing 2,950 grams, seen here in two orientations, was one of the properties that had to be considered during fashioning. Photos by Arjuna Irsutti.
Lapidary, the art of colored stone fashioning, is an art that requires a keen eye, talent, and great patience. Different gem materials have their particular quirks that must be considered when planning the various steps required to reach the ultimate goal of obtaining the most aesthetic stone while usually also optimizing weight yield.
Spodumene is known to challenge even the most experienced cutter owing to its high fragility, perfect cleavage planes, and unpredictability in different cutting directions. This is further magnified when the rough is exceptionally large and the cutter’s goal is to produce the largest faceted kunzite in the world.
This was author VT’s aim as he prepared to work on a piece of rough spodumene that weighed 2,950 g. The untreated crystal (figure 1) originated from Kunar Province in Afghanistan. Although a wide crack was visible at one end and about 30% of the opposite end contained numerous inclusions, the removal of both sections still left more than 1.5 kg of relatively clean rough after 20 hours of wire sawing (the safest method under the circumstances). Since the rough was oversized, some of the routine cutting accessories such as dops and transfer holders, as well as the cutting tactics, had to be adapted for the job.
Prior to the start of the process came the design element. No journey can be completed without knowing the destination, and so rather than playing it safe and opting for a simple design, the artist, VT, chose a truly challenging facet pattern of his own design that incorporated 914 facets. The “Fragility of the Eternal” design is based on the stained glass window of the iconic Notre Dame cathedral in Paris. The stone is the fifth in a series of six cut designs that fall under VT’s “World Heritage” project.
VT would also have to revise his usual strategy due to the size. So instead of cutting the pavilion first, followed by the girdle, crown, and finally the table facet, it was necessary to start with the table facet for this masterpiece. This presented its own challenges since the faceting required specialized equipment belonging to a friend in Moscow. The choice of equipment was also dictated by the material’s fragility and perfect cleavage, which prevented the use of coarse laps. This combined to make the work time-consuming, especially since large facets were the order of the day.

Figure 2. A working diagram showing the facet positions. These helped estimate the final weight of the finished stone before work began on the rough. Photo by Victor Tuzlukov.
The next step required the rough to be rounded in order to achieve the basic outline of the stone in its face-up position. This meant that sufficient pressure had to be applied to the 1.5 kg preform using both hands. Eventually the correct shape resulted. The diameter measured approximately 85 mm, while the table facet came in at 65 mm. This allowed the final weight to be approximated using formulas and the facet plan shown in figure 2. The result, between 2,500 and 3,000 ct, indicated that it would supersede the largest known faceted spodumene, an 1,800 ct green spodumene cut by John Sinkankas in 1959 that was destined for the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto.
Although the rest of the preforming could not be done traditionally by hand, VT managed to use his faceting unit with custom-made dops provided by his friend and former student Danial Hu. The pre-faceting step took considerable time to complete because the goal was to create an important piece of art and each facet needed to be cut in a pattern that matched the stained glass window in the Notre Dame cathedral with a precision of tenths of a millimeter. Perhaps the most complex part of the process was creating 16 mains and 16 additional lines extending from the center (culet) to the girdle, each containing eight (main) and five (additional) parallel-sided facets, continuous with one another. An equally challenging task was ensuring the proportions were correct while cutting 18 rows of facets of different sizes and shapes, where one often does not depend on another, and finally making the last row of facets correspond exactly with the girdle, which was already pre-shaped. It was impossible to change the width of the final facets without breaking the pattern, which meant that the pavilion had to finish precisely where the girdle started. In other words, the width of all 18 rows had to be exactly proportional to the diagram. Another look at figure 2 is enough to show that the girdle does not simply separate the crown from pavilion as in traditional faceted stones: It is an essential element of the design.
Many chances for something to go awry existed during the cutting process. Only a slight error in judgment or calculation would result in disaster. For example, if the rows of facets were just a bit too wide, there would not have been enough space for the design and the pavilion would have required a complete recut. If some were too narrow, the girdle would have needed recutting, resulting in a smaller stone, which would also have meant recutting the table facet. Fortunately, the final facet positions aligned perfectly around the girdle, and the stone’s final diameter (83.7 mm) was off by just over 1.0 mm from the initial calculations.

Figure 3. The polishing step on the stone’s pavilion begins to show the intricate optical effects of the completed piece. Photo by Victor Tuzlukov.
The next steps, pre-polishing and polishing of the pavilion facets (figure 3), were straightforward in comparison. Yet, as mentioned previously, the sheer size meant that the vertical pressure had to be applied equally over the whole stone during pre-polishing, requiring modification of the technique used for routine work on smaller stones. If too much force was applied to the left or right side, or back and forth, the facets would become too large and the pattern would be broken. To overcome this, the stone’s own weight provided sufficient force on the rotating lap so that the pressure was always equally distributed.
After more than two months of daily work, the pavilion was polished. The next step was transferring the stone to a new dop to polish the crown. Unlike traditional lapidary procedures, directly heating the stone as part of the transfer was not an option, as the process could crack the stone along the twin plane in the direction it needed to be dopped, and because the size was once again a factor when it came to how evenly the heat warmed the stone. This resulted in the application of a technique that the late Jeff Ford from Michigan shared with VT in 2006, using a combination of wax and superglue. The wax is placed on the hot dop, which is softened by the heat. The cold stone is then placed, pavilion first, in contact with the wax, and an impression of the surface is made in it. One drop of superglue is enough to secure the stone firmly in position, and it can be removed by reapplying a little heat to warm the wax again.

Figure 4. The 3,051 ct “Fragility of the Eternal,” containing 914 facets, is believed to be the world’s largest cut kunzite. Photo by Adisorn Wattanavanich.
After three months of work, the final polishing step was completed. The gem’s removal from the dop was an exciting moment, and it was wonderful to finally see the end product in all its glory (figure 4). The finished piece weighed 3,051 ct, very close to the maximum estimated weight of 3,000 ct.
The final step in the stone’s journey was its submission to GIA’s Bangkok laboratory for examination and a report. The gemologists were excited to study such a large kunzite, although the size, 83.75–83.79 × 65.00 mm, presented challenges that limited the testing equipment that could be used. Hence, basic gemological techniques came to the fore, with Raman spectroscopy the only advanced technique used as a final confirmation. The stone was found to be anisotropic with a loupe and microscopic observation up to 70× magnification, and this property was also apparent in terms of the strong pleochroism that could be easily seen as the stone was turned. The same purple and green colors are also clearly evident in figure 1.
The RI readings of 1.660–1.676 (birefringence of 0.016) together with the trichroic colors seen through a dichroscope showed it was optically biaxial. Inclusions such as growth tubes, transparent crystals, negative crystal fingerprints, and a “natural” retained on the girdle all proved the stone was natural. Combined with the weak and moderate orange zoned long-wave ultraviolet fluorescence reaction, the data were consistent with spodumene, kunzite variety.
Since the stone was cut and submitted by VT with a series of photographs documenting this fact, the GIA report (dated May 27, 2020) also mentioned that it was represented as cut by him. Since it was the largest known faceted kunzite examined by GIA at the time, and indeed the largest faceted example of its kind known to exist, a GIA Notable Letter was issued to accompany the report. Source: GIA @topic:1