Title: Gemologist Aims to Pique World’s Curiosity in Giant Crystals Abstract: Leela Hutchison, GIA GG, was with the first group to explore giant crystal caves in Naica, Mexico in 2001. Since then, she has been passionate about sharing her experience and knowledge of gems, minerals and crystals with audiences around the world. Photo courtesy of Leela Hutchison

Gemologist and rock hound Leela Hutchison never imagined her lifelong passion for adventure and “intense” love of gems and minerals would lead to exploring the world’s largest crystals and sharing her knowledge with audiences around the world. But Hutchison’s interests collided in 2001, when she found herself carefully climbing over massive 40-foot-tall crystals in 100 percent humidity and temperatures near 128 degrees Fahrenheit in Mexico.

Hutchison – who describes herself as an “adventure seeker” – has carved out a career researching the giant crystals and speaking at conferences, lectures and renowned museums. She also has written a book about them that is in its second edition.

“My favorite part of my work is to pique people’s curiosity,” Hutchison says. “It’s rewarding to educate others about the mineralogy and geology of crystal growth, how they are formed and where they are found around the world.”

Miners who were drilling for silver in Naica, Mexico in April 2000 found a “bubble in the bedrock” nearly a 1,000 feet below ground: a cave of giant selenite crystals, a transparent colorless variety of gypsum.

Hutchison grew up hiking, climbing and exploring in the desert heat of El Paso, Texas and was also familiar with crystals from her work in hands-on healing. That experience, as well as connections she made from doing charitable work in the Chihuahua, Mexico area, made her a good candidate to join one of the first group of explorers of those crystals in January 2001.

Hutchison, pictured above in 2001, used her skills as an avid rock climber to navigate sharp crystals inside the dark caves. Photo courtesy of Leela Hutchison
The conditions in the caves were “challenging and near fatal,” Hutchison says. “It was an extreme, hostile working environment … we were going into areas never discovered before and we didn’t know how far, deep and wide they were.”

Inside the caves, Hutchison examined and helped document the huge selenite crystals that are believed to be the largest in the world – approximately 40 feet tall and weighing as much as 60 tons.

“Seeing the crystals for the first time was like entering into Superman’s fortress of solitude, [with] colossal sized crystals on an exo-planet in the solar system, where the temperatures were exceedingly hot and I felt as if I were suffocating,” Hutchison says.

She was eager to share her experience with others after her journey into the caves, so Hutchison began to present information and photos on them. After “overwhelming” interest, she began speaking to more audiences – such as the Explorers Club and gem and mineral societies – and learning more about the crystals herself.

A few years later, in another desert, Hutchison embarked on a new adventure when she decided to attend the 2004 AGTA Gem Fair in Tucson, Arizona. Her uncle, a jeweler and watchmaker, had recently passed away and Hutchison was helping her cousin assess the loose gems he had collected. As she received her badge to enter the show, Hutchison says she saw the GIA booth, struck up a conversation and enrolled in the On Campus Graduate Gemologist program “right then and there.”

“That was the turning point in my career of a long-loved passion as an explorer and researcher of the largest crystals found on planet Earth,” Hutchison says.

Hutchison, who earned her GIA GG diploma in 2005, says her fascination with the geology of the American Southwest led to a near-obsession for hiking deep into the canyons, mountain ranges and caves of the region as a rock hunter. Photo courtesy of Leela Hutchison
Hutchison’s research focuses on unexplained mysteries in the Chihuahuan desert and the caves, including understanding how the giant crystals were formed and whether there are more yet to be discovered. She believes there are more massive pockets of crystals that lay even deeper than the Naica mine.

“Many of my findings are from my own experiences in the Chihuahuan desert and from interviews (with experts), such as with Dr. Penelope Boston, director of astrobiology for NASA. She determined that microbes inside the crystals were over 60,000 years old and still alive, and did not match up in any database held by NASA,” Hutchison says.

Although the caves have re-flooded and are no longer accessible – the mining operations that removed water from the caves has ceased – Hutchison continues to investigate the crystals by examining other deposits of selenite in the area. She shares her research findings at conferences and museums, including the Los Angeles Museum of Natural History in September 2017. She’s also been interviewed on several national radio programs.

Hutchison relies on strong communication skills to engage her audience, and credits her GIA education with giving her the knowledge to speak professionally about crystals, gems and minerals.

“Clear communication has helped to generate and build interest, excitement and enthusiasm in audiences worldwide,” she says. “(Before earning my GG) I did not have the ability to be knowledgeable or professional to share with people the extraordinary science of these newly discovered crystals.”

This photo of Hutchison inside the caves, where the largest crystals are nearly 40 feet tall, was featured in Smithsonian magazine in April 2002. It is also the cover image of Hutchison’s book, a first-hand experience with images from her exploration. Photo courtesy of Leela Hutchison
The second edition of her book, “Journey Into the Giant Selenite Crystal Caves of Mexico,” was published in 2016. She also works individually with clients, acquiring gems and crystals for jewelry, their home or use in personal healing. Hutchison says her gemology education gave her credibility with clients and the knowledge to really understand what she was attempting to acquire, from “alexandrite to tanzanite.”

“Every year, when I attend the Tucson gem show and walk by the busy pavilion with new students wanting to enroll, I feel pride and gratitude in attending GIA,” she says. “My education was absolutely invaluable to my pursuit of interests, whether in gems or minerals.”

A year after her exploration of the giant crystals, a photo of Hutchison inside the caves was included in the April 2002 issue of Smithsonian magazine. It was an honor, Hutchison says, that came full circle at this year’s AGTA Gem Fair when she was asked to share her research with the Smithsonian Gem and Mineral Council.

“In the original article there was a quote by Dr. Jeffrey Post (chair of the department of mineral sciences for the Smithsonian Institution) and there he was in the audience as I presented to the Smithsonian,” Hutchison says. “It was really amazing, a top honor.”

Hutchison’s passion for the heart of her work – gems and minerals – remains strong. She recently spent time in Arkansas digging for quartz. A personal trip, she says, because “it’s fun to go into red clay and pull out beautiful crystals.”

She is equally passionate about building excitement about crystals, hoping to spark her audience’s interest – the way the crystals have captivated her for 17 years. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: A Unique Double Cat’s-Eye Emerald Abstract: Figure 1. In this 1.93 ct double cat’s-eye emerald, the chatoyant bands indicated by yellow arrows are observed from different angles of lighting. Photo by Makoto Miura.
Chatoyancy is generally produced by light reflection from numerous parallel needle-like inclusions or fibrous structures when a stone is skillfully fashioned as a cabochon. Stones such as emerald, chrysoberyl, and scapolite are known for the cat’s-eye effect (see Summer 2015 Gems News International, pp. 200–201). Recently GIA’s Tokyo laboratory examined a unique green marquise double-cabochon stone, weighing 1.93 ct and measuring 11.88 × 6.68 × 4.79 mm, that offered a particularly interesting example of chatoyancy (figure 1).

Figure 2. Emerald cabochon fashioned with a high-dome structure and ridgeline. The width of the stone is 6.68 mm. Photo by Makoto Miura.

Figure 3. Numerous parallel needles and tubes causing chatoyancy. Photomicrograph by Makoto Miura; field of view 1.75 mm.
This stone had a spot refractive index of 1.58 and a specific gravity of 2.74, and standard gemological properties indicated that it was emerald. The stone characteristically had a ridgeline and a high-dome structure (figure 2) containing numerous reflective oriented needles and tubes (figure 3) parallel to the width and perpendicular to the length of the stone. It was noteworthy that the light reflection from the inclusions created two distinct chatoyant bands along the length of the ridgeline (figure 1) under overhead light. These chatoyant bands were observed from different angles of lighting, as shown in figure 1. This double cat’s-eye effect might result from a combination of face angles, inclusions, and the high-dome cabochon structure and ridgeline.

Figure 4. The double cat’s-eye seen in the emerald results from the light reflection from oriented inclusions and the cutting style, as shown in this diagram.
Such an unusual cutting style could be responsible for creating this double cat’s-eye (figure 4). The principle of double cat’s-eye seen in this emerald is different from those of the dual-color double star effect rarely seen in ruby, sapphire, and quartz (e.g., K. Schmetzer et al., “Dual-color double stars in ruby, sapphire, and quartz: Cause and historical account,” Summer 2015 G&G, pp. 112–143). This is a unique example of an unusual optical effect due to the cutting style and inclusion scene. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: A New Deposit of Pink Natrolite from Indonesia Abstract: Figure 1. Rough stones and polished cabochons of pink natrolite. The heart-shaped cabochon is 35.6 mm wide. Photo by Yu-Ho Li.

In early 2020, a parcel of stones representing some unique material found in early 2020 from the island of Nusa Kambangan, Central Java, Indonesia, was sent to Taiwan Union Lab of Gem Research (TULAB) for certification service. At the beginning, wholesalers claimed that the gemstone was thomsonite. Because its texture was very similar to the green-blue pectolite variety Larimar produced in the Dominican Republic, the stone was also misrepresented with the trade name “pink Larimar.”
By observing the rough stones with host rocks provided by the supplier, the occurrence was found to be vein-filling or cavity-filling within basalt. These stones had orange-pink to brownish pink color with white zoning and showed a botryoidal or radial crystal habit (figure 1).

Figure 2. Stacked Raman spectra of the pink natrolite from Indonesia compared to those of natrolite and thomsonite published in the RRUFF database; all spectra are normalized and baseline corrected.

Figure 3. The normalized visible-light transmission spectrum of pink natrolite shows a wide absorption band at 400–570 nm that results in a brownish pink to orange-pink color.
The average specific gravity of this parcel of gemstones was 2.24, and the spot RI was 1.49. With the owner’s consent, the parcel of polycrystalline material was tested with a Vickers hardness tester. The values were converted to Mohs hardness and ranged from 4.4 to 4.6. The samples’ Raman spectra were analyzed and compared to the RRUFF mineral spectral database; unexpectedly, the results were consistent with published spectra of natrolite (Na2Al2Si3O10·2H2O) instead of thomsonite (NaCa2Al5Si5O20·6H2O) (figure 2). The UV-Vis spectra revealed that the pink natrolite stones had a wide absorption band at 400–570 nm (figure 3). The EDXRF results also indicated that the pink gemstone was natrolite and contained a trace iron component. On the basis of EDXRF and UV-Vis results, the orange-pink to brownish pink color appeared to have been caused by Fe3+; however, this presumption still needs further verification.
This natrolite from Indonesia has a unique rose pink color and Larimar-like texture on polished surfaces, which is not common in natrolite from other localities. Although initially misrepresented by the merchant as thomsonite or pink Larimar, its beautiful appearance and durability are indeed comparable to Larimar. Subsequently, a new trade name “rhodatrolite,” meaning “rose natrolite,” was developed by the merchant for marketing this gemstone because of its color and texture. With enough mine production, pink natrolite from Indonesia has the potential to become a popular gemstone on the market. Source: GIA @topic:2


Title: Identification of the Endangered Pink-To-Red Stylaster Corals by Raman Spectroscopy Abstract: All corals within the Stylasteridae family (including the Stylaster genus) are listed in Appendix II of CITES; this means they are protected and their trade requires an export permit, unlike corals from the Corallium genus, which include most pink-to-red corals used in jewelry. Raman scattering demonstrates that corals from the Stylaster genus contain carotenoid pigments (polyenic pigments substituted with methyl groups), whereas those from the Corallium genus are colored by unmethylated polyenic pigments. Additionally, Stylaster corals are made of aragonite, whereas those from Corallium are composed of calcite. Through Raman scattering analysis, the fully protected Stylaster pink-to-red corals may be distinguished from this other type of gem coral. Source: GIA @topic:14


Title: GIA Field Gemologists Visit Chimwadzulu Ruby Mine, Malawi Abstract: Seeking Ruby and Sapphire in Malawi

	Visit Malawi’s Chimwadzulu ruby mine with GIA field gemologists.

	In this video, you will experience the “warm heart of Africa,” as GIA field gemologists visit Malawi’s Chimwadzulu ruby mine for the very first time. Although this is one of the continent’s oldest-known ruby and sapphire deposits—discovered in 1958—it’s largely unknown to the gem trade or public at large.

	Malawi is one of the smallest African nations, bounded by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south, and west. The country is separated from Tanzania and Mozambique by the waters of Lake Malawi.

	“I read about Chimwadzulu a very long time ago…and this is a place I’ve wanted to come to for a very long time,” says GIA Field Gemologist Vincent Pardieu. The deposit’s geology is very complex, he explains, and the mine’s sapphires provide a key to understanding it. Although the Chimwadzulu deposit is known for ruby and orange sapphire, it produces mainly pale green, blue, and yellow sapphire.

	As always, a core goal of the expedition is to procure samples for GIA’s research programs, but understanding the gems as part of the geology and the mining operation—along with the people who labor to produce it—is also tremendously important. “When you look at the stone, you don’t view it the same way when you have the story of the stone, too,” explains Pardieu.

	The country is struggling to develop, and ethical stewardship of its gem resources is a part of the solution. Some of the possible benefits to local communities are a hospital and a school funded by the Chimwadzulu mining operation—a consortium between Nyala Mines Ltd. and Columbia Gem House, Inc.

	Pardieu and his team were able to visit the facility and observe the difference it makes. “In many African countries, the right access to education and health is really a luxury,” remarks Pardieu. “…you’re bringing to these people what is normal for us, but a luxury for them.” They also visited the elementary school, gaining a snapshot of the country’s youth and their boundless potential if Malawi’s resources can be harnessed for the good of all its citizens.

	This GIA Field Expedition (FE56) took place in September 2014. Besides Pardieu, the participants were cameraman Didier Gruel and field gemologist trainee Stanislas Detroyat. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Oiled Ruby: A Remarkable Visual Abstract: The red color of the oil within the cavity of a ruby displays a remarkable contrast with the bodycolor of the gem. Unlike the flattened bubbles regularly encountered, a rounded bubble attests to the size of the cavity containing the oil. Photo micrograph by E. Billie Hughes; field of view approximately 2.5 mm.

As laboratory gemologists working in Bangkok, we often encounter gems that have been treated with oil to minimize the appearance of fissures. Most of these  stones come from Myanmar, where many vendors consider oiling an accepted standard procedure to enhance their goods, particularly ruby and spinel (http://www.lotusgemology.com/index.
php/library/articles/315-lotus- gemology-lab-alertfor-oiled-gems). Furthermore, red oil is commonly used not only to improve clarity, but also to enhance the color of the stone (in Chanthaburi, Thailand, it is sold under the brand name “King Ruby Red Oil”). Often this treatment can be identified by flattened gas bubbles in the fissures or by droplets of oil seeping out of the fissures on the surface when the stone is gently warmed by microscope light or hot point.

The image above shows a small surface-reaching cavity filled with oil in an unheated 1.75 ct ruby from Myanmar. Unlike other examples we have seen, this remarkable gem contained enough of the filler to easily photograph the striking red color of the oil itself within the cavity. With oblique fiber-optic lighting, a stunning image of this enhancement in situ was made possible, turning even an otherwise commonplace forensic determination into an aesthetic exploration of the micro-world. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: Myne London: Sourcing Emeralds with a Mission Abstract: Figure 1. Emerald rough from Swat Valley, Pakistan. Photo courtesy of Myne London.
In 2018, sisters Fiona Wellington and Kate Murray Gordos founded Myne London (www.mynelondon.co.uk), a London-based ethical emerald supplier with a goal of supporting women in the gem trade. Their emeralds are sourced from lesser-known mines in Swat Valley, Pakistan, where they aim to create a sustainable and responsible emerald industry and a lasting positive economic impact in the community. Inspired by their childhood memories of Pakistan, Wellington and Gordos are dedicated to making Swat Valley’s emeralds globally recognized for their traceability and intense vivid green color (figure 1), all while empowering women.

Figure 2. Eighty percent of the Pakistani lapidaries working in the Myne London workshop are women. Photo courtesy of Myne London.
Myne London partners with local groups in the Swat Valley region, including miners and mine owners. In addition to sourcing the emeralds directly from the miners, Myne London is committed to keeping the lapidary work in Islamabad and providing opportunities for women. Partnering with a local company, they train and hire Pakistani women to cut and polish the emeralds (figure 2), a profession traditionally dominated in the region by men. Myne London, which employs a 75% female workforce, collaborates with jewelry designers worldwide—mainly women—to create exquisite pieces featuring the high-quality emerald melee, in addition to designing its own fine jewelry collections.
But Wellington and Gordos aspire to do even more for their female lapidaries. In 2021, they started the Myne London Foundation, a charitable organization designed to give their employees better access to education, which is limited for girls in the country. Illiteracy rates are higher than 50% for adult women in Pakistan. The money raised by the foundation assists the daughters of female employees with tuition costs, school uniforms, and transportation. Without money to pay for these costs, children in the northern regions of Pakistan often do not attend school. The foundation receives 10% of Myne London’s profits.
In March 2022, Myne London hosted an inaugural charity ball for the foundation, raising nearly $20,000, which has already been put to good use in Pakistan. “We immediately actioned to pay for the daughter of one of our lapidary workers to attend school from now on in Islamabad. She is six years old. We plan to provide this for her for as long as she wishes to stay in education,” said Wellington. “We also are committed to find ways to support girls in sport, because that is a great leveler and improves confidence as well as health.”

Figure 3. Ring designed by Octavia Elizabeth in 18K gold featuring 1.24 carats of Swat Valley emerald. Photo courtesy of Octavia Elizabeth/Myne London.
Outside of Pakistan, Myne London continues its ethos of women’s economic empowerment by collaborating with women around the world in jewelry design. Last year, the company partnered with Los Angeles–based jewelry designer Octavia Zamagias of Octavia Elizabeth, who shares the same social goals. Using 18K gold, Zamagias created several stunning pieces featuring Swat Valley emeralds (figure 3). Looking ahead, Myne London is planning jewelry collaborations with three other talented women—two based in London and the other in Florence.
The firm recently partnered with Opsydia, a gemstone security specialist, to permanently place its brand logo beneath the surface of the Swat Valley emerald melee. Encouraged by Opsydia’s success placing identifiers in melee diamonds, Myne London aims to promote traceability using this innovative technology.
With all their success in Swat Valley, Myne London hopes to expand to other areas of the world someday, using the same model for ethics, traceability, and women’s empowerment. But for now, they remain focused on the women and emeralds of Swat Valley. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Mogok Expedition Series, Part 1: The Valley of Rubies Abstract: Mogok, Myanmar, is also known as the "Valley of Rubies." Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.

                      There’s an old saying that whatever you are doing at the start of the year will reflect on the rest of the year. Hopefully this is true, because for the authors, 2014 truly started out right. The authors spent that time exploring the famed and captivating gemstone areas collectively known as Mogok, or the Mogok Stone Tract. Mogok, located in Myanmar (Burma) is also referred to as the "Valley of Rubies," a name made famous by the novel Mogok, the Valley of Rubies by Joseph Kessel and Stella Rodway.

Vincent Pardieu, senior manager of field gemology at GIA's Bangkok lab, has traveled extensively to Mogok in the past. For foreigners, travel to Mogok had been next to impossible over the last decade, but the Myanmar government recently loosened restrictions, and Vincent visited there in the latter part of 2013. At year’s end, Vincent invited Andrew Lucas, manager of field gemology for GIA education, to travel to Mogok with him. Andrew had been to Myanmar three times before but never to Mogok, as it had always been off limits. The 2013 and 2014 trips were the first visits to Mogok by GIA gemologists in over a decade, and the first time GIA education had someone on the ground in the area.

The authors left Bangkok on December 28, arriving in Mogok the same day. Vincent’s mission was to collect gemstone samples for the lab’s origin-of-gemstones research and to document the industry. Andrew was there to document the industry for GIA education. The expedition to a legendary gemstone source that many believe is unequalled had begun.

	Top-quality Burmese rubies are the standard by which the world's production is judged. A record selling price for ruby was set at Christie's in St. Moritz on February 15, 2009, when an 8.62 carat cushion-shaped ruby realized a price of $425,000 per carat. This record-breaking gemstone was termed the desired "pigeon's blood" red used for highly sought rubies from Myanmar. Photo courtesy of Christie's.

	Myanmar
Myanmar is an amazing country with an incredibly diverse population. The country borders China, India, Thailand, Laos, and Bangladesh. It also reaches the shores of the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal. The country is home to approximately 60 million inhabitants, comprising numerous ethnicities and dialects. The government recognizes 135 ethnic groups, with the Burmese as the majority.

The Mogok area borders the Shan State, which was settled about 1500 years ago. Today, the area hosts numerous ethnic groups. Besides the Burmese and Shan, other important ethnicities in Mogok include the Lissu and the Gurkha, the latter of whom are of Nepalese descent.

	This Lissu woman is attending the morning gem market. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
On this trip, we spent almost all our time in Mogok, focusing on gemstones. The authors had previously visited some of the country’s amazing cultural sights, such as the Shwedagon Pagoda on top of Singuttara Hill in Yangon. Gilded with gold plates, it provides one of the world’s most intense sightseeing experiences.

	The Shwedagon Pagoda is an amazing sight. In addition to being covered in gold, the
	upper areas contain thousands of gemstones, with a 76-carat diamond orb at the top.
	Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
Bagan is one of the most inspiring areas in the world. Located on the banks of the Irrawaddy River, it has the world’s largest and densest concentration of Buddhist temples, pagodas, stupas, and other ruins. Bagan thrived from the 10th-13th centuries. At one time, the area might have had 13,000 temples and stupas. Today, those that remain have a romantic look, weathered by wind and erosion.

One of the best ways to get to Bagan is by taking a boat from Mandalay. This takes the better part of a day, but provides stunning views of temples along the river banks, with nomadic fishermen and villages devoted to making pottery. Also in the Bagan area are workshops where you can observe expert craftsmen creating all types of lacquerware.

	Anyone interested in history, architecture, ruins, or a romantic, exotic location will be captivated by Bagan. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
Buddhism’s influence is felt throughout Myanmar in its temples and pagodas and in the ever-present monks, who are often seen walking barefoot. While all the major religions are represented in Myanmar, the majority of the population—an estimated 89 percent—are practicing Buddhists.

	Monks in red robes are seen throughout Myanmar. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
At the start of our trip, the authors flew into Mandalay, the second largest city in Myanmar, the economic center of Upper Burma, and the country's last royal capital. It is also home to a thriving jade market, where vendors sell rough jadeite, and fashion and sell finished jadeite and jadeite-set jewelry. There are local dealers, foreign dealers, and tourists, all making their way through the market’s crowded lanes. Restaurants are busy serving customers and workshops are busy fashioning jadeite. It is a noisy place, with deals being made, cooking pots being handled, and jadeite being sawn, carved, and polished.

	The jadeite market in Mandalay is a hustling environment with plenty of dealing in, and fashioning of, jadeite. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.

	Mogok
From Mandalay, we traveled by van to Mogok with our guide. Jordan is his nickname, inspired by his exceptional height—especially for the Burmese—which inspires comparisons to Michael Jordan.

	This amazing necklace, known as the Fai Dee Red Magic, is composed of untreated rubies from both Mogok and Monghsu, Myanmar. Photo courtesy of Fai Dee.
The trip to Mogok is much easier today than it was in the past. There are two paved roads reaching Mogok. The first was constructed in the early 1990s and takes you from Mandalay to Mogok in about six hours. The other road was finished fairly recently and allows you to bypass the drive through Mandalay to arrive a couple of hours earlier.

Mogok is about 200 km northeast of Mandalay. It is part of the Kathe district of the Mandalay region, in an area often referred to as Upper Burma. The famous gem-producing area called the Mogok Stone Tract is actually made up of several valleys and their towns. The main ones are Mogok and Kyatpyin, but gems are also found in the valleys surrounding the villages of Bernardymo, Chaung Gyi, and Kyauk Pya That; they are also produced in the Kabaing and Kin valleys. Mogok has approximately 300,000 residents and Kyatpyin around 250,000.

Besides ruby, inhabitants also mine sapphire and spinel, along with commercial quantities of other gems, including apatite, scapolite, moonstone, zircon, garnet, iolite, and amethyst. The Tract is also home to rare stones such as painite, hibbonite, and poudretteite, which are found only in Mogok and a few other gem localities. While in the region, the authors visited a lapis lazuli mine at Oo Saung Thaung Mountain. Peridot is mined at Pyaung Gaung in the Bernardmyo area, where phot bought samples from miners.

View Gallery

	Browse through this gallery and see the beauty and mystery of Mogok Valley.

	Mogok History
In 1915, G.F. Kunz reported hearing a legend about how rubies originated in Mogok. The legend goes that around 2,000 years ago a serpent laid three eggs. The first egg bore the King of Bagan, the second egg bore an Emperor of China, and from the third egg came the rubies found in the ruby mines of Mogok.

References to rubies and Burma have been found dating to the sixth century, during the Shan Dynasty. The ruby mines in Mogok were taken over from the Shan by the king of Burma in 1597. Any rubies over a certain size and weight had to be given to the king. It’s said that some larger stones were broken up so they could be sold rather than turned over. This is illustrated by the legend of Daw Nan Kyi.

According to the legend, a miner named Nga Mauk found an amazing ruby. Instead of giving the entire stone to the king, he broke it in half and gave half to the king, for which he was rewarded handsomely. He sold the other half to a Chinese merchant. Later, a Chinese prince requesting protection from the king presented the ruby as a gift to his court. Upon examination, the king felt that something about it looked familiar. When he compared the newly gifted ruby to the one the miner had presented, he saw that they fit together perfectly and realized he had been cheated. The king had the miner and his family burned alive. His wife, Daw Nan Kyi, witnessed this from a hill where she was collecting wood. She then died from a broken heart—broken in half like the ruby.

	This is the view looking down Daw Nan Kyi Hill into the town of Kyatpyin. According to
	legend, Daw Nan Kyi looked upon a similar view as she watched her family burned alive.
	Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
The story of the Nga Mauk ruby does not end there. In the 1870s, during the reign of King Mindon (1853-1878),  the French and the English were building colonial empires in Asia. A representative of the French visited the Burmese king and asked him how much he would ask to let some French companies mine in Mogok. The Burmese king then showed the Nga Mauk ruby to the Frenchman, asking him how much he would estimate its value to be. The Frenchman, who had never seen such a beautiful gem, said that it would be impossible to assign a value to such an exceptional gem. The Burmese King replied: If you cannot give me an estimate for that stone, how do you expect me to give you an estimate for the mine that produced it? The Frenchman was speechless and departed. Later, the British learned of the French interest in Mogok and Upper Burma, and feared that the French would take over the region and control access to China. Backed by a consortium of London-based gem merchants, they planned an invasion of Burma with one of its main objectives being control of Mogok and its ruby mines.

	A Mogok made gem painting shows King Mindon presenting the Nga Mauk Ruby to a Frenchman around 1870. Photo by Vincent Pardieu, ©GIA.
In 1886, the British succeeded in taking over Upper Burma. By 1889, they had formed Burma Ruby Mines Ltd. With tremendous interest in the company stock, the company received a series of leases, and was generally profitable until World War I. They introduced water cannons, washing plants, and other mechanized mining methods, and actually moved the town of Mogok into alluvial mining. The company did much to promote Burmese rubies in Europe and around the world. There were numerous operational problems, however, including flooding and theft. Also, the introduction of synthetic ruby caused widespread fear and plummeting prices in the marketplace. These problems finally led the company to abandon the mines in 1931.

In the 1950s, French writer and traveler Joseph Kessel visited the mines and was inspired to write the novel, Mogok, the Valley of Rubies. This increased public recognition of Mogok as the homeland of the finest rubies in the world, especially among the French. After Burma Ruby Mines Ltd. departed the region, local mining went back to its former small-scale methods. Although not as productive as large-scale production, they proved to be more cost-effective and sustainable. When the government nationalized the mines in 1969, smuggling became rampant.

By 1990, mining regulations eased, allowing joint ventures. During the authors’ visits to the mining areas, we found numerous joint ventures between private companies and the government, as well as sole private ventures and foreign investment in mines.

	Mogok mining activity includes both private and joint-venture operations. Photo by
	Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.

	The Geology
To view the topography of the Mogok Stone Tract is to witness a true geological spectacle. It is one of the most interesting and diverse gemstone environments in the world, with a wide range of geological events happening in the area.

Among the most striking visuals of the geological environment are the impressive marble pinnacles that are blackened from weathering. These formations are visible throughout the stone tract and can vary tremendously in size. Once the black, weathered surface is removed, the white marble becomes visible. One of the largest of these outcroppings is the one that the temple Kyauk Pyat That sits upon. It is truly amazing to see these temple structures sitting on outcrops of rock called karsts, like something out of the science fiction movie Avatar.

View Gallery

	Open this gallery and learn about marble pinnacles and their significance to Mogok’s terrain and ruby mines.
The karsts result from the weathering of the marble. This weathering process also plays a part in mining at Mogok. Since marble is an intricate component of much of ruby and spinel formation, as well as its host rock, the gems are weathered and transported along with the marble. The gems are then concentrated in gravels that the Burmese call byon. These gem-rich gravels are highly important to economically viable mining. The authors have seen similar karsts in other locations, like the ruby-producing region of Luc Yen, Vietnam, where they are mostly covered by jungle. The impact on the viewer of these impressive outcrops in Mogok, however, is hard to equal.

Ruby and spinel are formed primarily by metamorphic events—the conditions that form mountain ranges—with rocks altered by both regional and local heat and pressure. One such giant earth event occurred when India collided with Asia. The tremendous force of that collision created the Himalaya Mountains and the geological conditions that allowed for the formation of many gemstones, including ruby, sapphire, and spinel.

	This Burmese ruby necklace, scheduled for auction at the Hong Kong Sotheby's show on April 7th, 2014 is expected to yield USD $8.7million. Photo courtesy of Fai Dee.
Ruby and spinel are commonly found in marble. Deposits associated with the collision between Asia and India are found in several locations on all sides of the Himalayan range: In Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan on the western side, in Nepal in the center, and in Vietnam and Myanmar on the eastern side. Because their geological origins are very similar, the stones from these deposits share many characteristics. This creates some fascinating challenges for gemologists working on origin determination.

Skeletons of creatures from ancient ocean-associated, lagoon-type environments contributed calcium and carbon to the sediments, forming limestone that was very impure and rich in clay and organic matter. Heat and pressure converted the limestone to marble during the geologically catastrophic collision of India and Asia. During that metamorphic event, fluids rich in salt and carbon dioxide, resulting from evaporation, were also put in motion. The interaction between these fluids and the marble deposits caused reactions that freed elements like aluminum, chromium, magnesium, and vanadium. The combinations crystallized as spinels when magnesium was present; otherwise, rubies formed in the cavities that resulted from the dissolution of the salt from the evaporite beds.

The actual formation process is very complex, but simply stated, the rubies associated with marble-type deposits along the Himalayan chain originated from the remains of some of the first life forms that existed on earth hundreds of millions of years ago. Blue sapphire, on the other hand, is associated with igneous intrusions, and forms from a relationship between the igneous intrusions and the metamorphic rock, called metasomatism.

These geological events illustrate the great complexity and combination of circumstances necessary for gemstone formation. The chance that a fine ruby or other gemstone will form is also dependent on slow cooling and enough time and space for the crystal to grow—rare combinations indeed. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: A Large Aquamarine with Unusual Etch Features from Xinjiang, China Abstract: Figure 1. This 778 g (approximately 11 × 4 cm) aquamarine crystal from Xinjiang displays a unique natural etch pattern (detail in bottom photo). Photos by Ting Zheng; courtesy of Shino Gold Jewelry (Shanghai) Co.
Etch features are commonly seen in beryl crystals (e.g., Spring 2002 GNI, pp. 102–103). Their formation is related to various factors during or after crystal growth, both internal and external, including chemical composition, lattice defect types and their distribution, pressure-temperature conditions of the forming environment, solvent composition, and dissolution time (R. Kurumathoor and G. Franz, “Etch pits on beryl as indicators of dissolution behaviour,” European Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 30, No. 1, 2018, pp. 107–124).

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the etch feature parallel to the c-axis of the aquamarine crystal.
Recently, Shino Gold Jewelry (Shanghai) Co. submitted a large piece of rough aquamarine crystal to the National Gemstone Testing Center (NGTC) lab in Beijing for identification service. The crystal, weighing 778 g (figure 1, top), was claimed to have been mined in the Altay region of Xinjiang, China. Standard gemological testing revealed a refractive index of 1.577–1.583 and a specific gravity of 2.69. These values were typical for aquamarine and were confirmed by the infrared and Raman spectra. The numerous hexagonal etch features on the (0001) crystal face (figure 1, bottom), combined with the contents in the fissures (mainly kaolinite and hematite) identified by Raman spectroscopy, indicate that the crystal is of natural origin. Notably, one of the etch features has not been previously reported to our knowledge—the crystal had two hexagonal dissolution cavities with openings about 3 mm in diameter, connected by a hexagonal etch channel 4 cm long and parallel to the c-axis (figures 2 and 3). Interestingly, the etch channel appeared to be empty and penetrated throughout the crystal.

Figure 3. The unique etch features of the crystal: two hexagonal dissolution cavities connected by a hexagonal etch channel. The channel (left) is about 4 cm long and empty throughout, and the openings display a hexagonal funnel shape (right). Photos by Chao Liu (left; field of view 23 mm) and Ting Zheng (right; field of view 6.25 mm).
The formation of this etch feature cannot be fully explained at present. One possible explanation is that it is related to the defects (dislocations) parallel to the c-axis, which control the locations of the preferred dissolution process (T. Lu et al., “Observation of etch channels in several natural diamonds,” Diamond & Related Materials, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 68–75). Also, the formation of these special etch features is affected by different dissolution rates in different directions of the crystal. The selected dissolution on the (0001) plane was very slow, while the dissolution rate along the c-axis was significantly faster, resulting in the special funnel-shaped etch pits connected by a very long etch channel. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: Assemblage of Synthetic Ruby in Calcite Matrix Abstract: Figure 1. This synthetic ruby was fixed in a white and cream-colored matrix and represented as natural ruby. Photo by Sutas Singbamroong, Dubai Central Laboratory.

              Recently, the Dubai Central Laboratory received a white and cream-colored rough sample for identification (figure 1). The 124.4 × 107.7 × 65.8 mm, 5917.35 ct specimen had two openings, the larger one about 25 mm long and 10 mm wide. A hexagonal red stone embedded in the matrix could be seen through these openings (figure 2). Only the prism side was visible, and the rough concealed both terminations.

	Figure 2. The synthetic ruby was embedded in a calcite matrix, seen here under incandescent light. Photo by Nazar Ahmed, Dubai Central Laboratory.
The red stone’s refractive index and specific gravity were impossible to determine, and only a very small portion was visible for obtaining other information. A spectroscope was the only option, and the stone clearly showed a ruby spectrum. It also displayed strong and medium red reactions to long- and short-wave UV radiation, respectively. Microscopic examination with fiber-optic light revealed a group of round gas bubbles and tiny fractures, but curved striae were not seen. These properties indicated a flame-fusion synthetic ruby cleverly embedded in matrix to imitate natural ruby.

Raman spectroscopy identified the matrix as calcite. Close examination indicated that the cream-colored side of the stone had been drilled to make a hole for inserting the synthetic ruby. After the drilled area was sealed with a mixture of glue and calcite powder, two openings were cut to reveal the synthetic ruby inside. Under long-wave UV radiation, the drilled area showed strong greenish blue fluorescence, while the rest of the stone was inert or exhibited a light greenish blue reaction (figure 3).

	Figure 3. Under long-wave UV radiation, the drilled area showed strong greenish blue fluorescence. Photo by Nazar Ahmed, Dubai Central Laboratory.
These types of artificial assemblages should alert traders to exercise caution when purchasing rough stones, especially in newer, less established markets. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: G. Robert Crowningshield (1919–2006) Abstract: For more than 50 years, G. Robert Crowningshield was the mainstay of GIA’s New York laboratory. After serving as a naval officer during World War II, he joined GIA as an instructor in Los Angeles before being sent east in 1948 to set up the New York office. In 1950, Crowningshield was named director of the New York office, where he began groundbreaking work that would take GIA and the young field of gemology to new heights.
His first breakthrough came in 1956, when he found the spectroscopic feature for detecting yellow irradiated diamonds. The spectroscope was a largely overlooked gem instrument at the time, but Crowningshield used it to examine every transparent gemstone submitted to the lab, meticulously drawing the absorption patterns with charcoal on paper. By examining the spectra of more than 10,000 natural-color and irradiated yellow diamonds, Crowningshield spotted the 592 nm absorption line that indicated irradiation treatment. It was a landmark contribution, one that also established the spectroscope as an invaluable tool in gem identification.

	G. Robert CrowningshieldLeading the Way in Gem Testing and Detection

In 1970, Crowningshield reported on the new laser drilling process used to bleach dark inclusions in diamond. A year later, after General Electric announced the development of gem-quality synthetic diamonds, he wrote the first scientific study of the material. During the mid-1970s, he examined hundreds of Tahitian black cultured pearls and determined they were of natural color, an important milestone in the trade’s acceptance of these products. His 1983 Gems & Gemology article describing the color nomenclature of orange-pink “padparadscha” sapphires is considered the authoritative explanation for these rare and highly prized specimens.
Over a span of four decades, Crowningshield published more than a thousand brief observations in G&G’s Lab Notes column, which he started in 1957.

The left image shows a diamond sample that contains the newly recognized mineral crowningshieldite, in the dark area circled in red. The sample is an offcut from a larger type IIa diamond from the Letseng mine, Lesotho. The right image shows an enlargement, using an electron microscope, where individual grains of crowningshieldite are seen in a fine grained mixture with other minerals. Photo credits: Evan M. Smith (left image) and Fabrizio Nestola (right image).
GIA scientists, in collaboration with researchers at the University of Padova, discovered a new mineral and named it in honor of Crowningshield in 2018. Crowningshieldite was discovered as an altered inclusion in two CLIPPIR diamonds – a variety of type IIa diamond that forms at significantly greater depths than most diamonds – from the Letseng mine in Lesotho. Crowningshieldite is a nickel sulfide mineral with a hexagonal crystal structure and can be regarded as the high-temperature polymorph of the mineral millerite. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: A New Discovery of Emeralds from Ethiopia Abstract: Figure 1. This suite of untreated emeralds is from a new find in Ethiopia’s Seba Boru district. The largest faceted stone weighs 10.64 ct. The largest rough crystal weighs 63.12 g. Photo by Robison McMurtry, courtesy of Michael Nemeth Inc.

In recent years Ethiopia has gained considerable attention in the gem trade for large amounts of high-quality opal from an area near Wegel Tena (B. Rondeau et al., 2010, “Play-of-color opal from Wegel Tena, Wollo Province, Ethiopia,” Summer 2010 G&G, pp. 90–105). Apart from opal, emeralds have been sporadically mined, near Dubuluk, for more than a decade. This deposit is located about 80 km from the Kenyan border. Gemfields has been exploring this deposit since July 2015 (Fall 2012 GNI, pp. 219–220).

A new deposit of high-quality emeralds (see figure 1) has been found in the rural villages of Kenticha and Dermi, in the Seba Boru district (figure 2). In November 2016, author MN and business partner Daniel Kifle visited the local trading town of Shakiso, where Ethiopian gem merchants gather to legally buy and sell emeralds that are mined several kilometers away. Shakiso is located about 160 km north of the Dubuluk emerald deposit. The mining area is divided into a few “associations.” Each consists of a manager and several members who control the actual mining and distribution of the emerald rough. After the rough has been sorted, it makes its way first through Shakiso before being sold to dealers in the capital city of Addis Ababa, about a 12-hour drive from the mining area.

Figure 2. The new deposit of Ethiopian emerald is located near the town of Shakiso,
about 12 hours from Addis Ababa.
According to Tewoldebran Abay, the mineral marketing director of the Ministry of Mines, Petroleum and Natural Gas, more than 100 kilograms of emerald rough have been produced to date. Mining still is done the traditional way using hand tools, without heavy machinery.

Samples from the new deposit, acquired from multiple independent sources, were examined at GIA’s Carlsbad and Bangkok laboratories. Even though most of the material is commercial grade, lighter in saturation, and moderately to heavily included, fine gem-grade crystals of exceptional size, color, and clarity (see figures 1 and 3) are obtainable and can produce stones that do not require clarity enhancement. Many of the rough crystals were completely covered in dark biotite crystals, but had an extremely pleasant green color when examined with transmitted light. However, these Ethiopian crystals often do not yield large clean stones because their interior is riddled with dense, dark biotite mica crystals. Some show a double termination, but most are broken and heavily included on one end. Usually only one end of the crystal is clean enough to yield faceted gems. The matrix minerals attached to some of the emeralds were identified as dark brown to black biotite flakes, quartz, and kaolinite.

Figure 3. Author Michael Nemeth sorts through parcels of gem-quality rough emeralds from the open market in Shakiso. Rough crystals can weigh more than 20 g, with reports of some weighing almost 100 g. Photo by Michael Nemeth.
These emeralds are very similar in appearance to other schist-hosted emeralds—in particular, those from Brazil and Zambia. Among the faceted and rough samples examined, blocky multiphase inclusions and irregular biotite crystals were the most common microscopic features observed (figure 4). Otherwise, the gemological properties were very consistent with emeralds, including an average specific gravity of 2.73 and a refractive index of 1.581–1.589. These emeralds were generally inert to long- and short-wave UV exposure due to their moderately high iron content, which is typical of schist-hosted emeralds. UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy results (figure 5) were consistent with emeralds colored by chromium and vanadium. The Fourier transfer infrared (FTIR) spectrum was consistent with beryl, as expected, but did not reveal any other diagnostic features.

Figure 4. Microscopic observation of the Ethiopian emeralds revealed (A) biotite crystals; (B) blocky multiphase inclusions; (C) multiphase inclusions containing a liquid, gas, and multiple daughter crystals seen parallel to the c-axis; and (D) a multiphase fluid inclusion showing liquid and gaseous CO2 phases and an immiscible aqueous liquid (parallel to this inclusion are several growth tubes). Photomicrographs by Nathan Renfro (A and B) and Victoria Raynaud (C and D). Field of view 2.04 mm (A), 1.79 mm (B), 1.07 mm (C) and 1.03 mm (D).

Figure 5. The characteristic UV-Vis-NIR spectra of the new emerald production from Ethiopia.
Quantitative trace element chemical analysis was performed with a Thermo Scientific iCap Q inductively coupled plasma–quadrupole mass spectrometer combined with a New Wave Research UP-213 laser ablation unit. The analyses were compared to data from other known sources using GIA reference samples, including Zambian and Brazilian schist-hosted emeralds. Based on the results, it was possible to separate the new find of Ethiopian emeralds from other sources by comparing trace alkali metals and some transition metals (figure 6).

Figure 6. LA-ICP-QMS quantitative trace-element composition analysis of alkali and some transition metals (measured in ppmw) proved useful in separating this new deposit of Ethiopian emeralds from Brazilian and Zambian schist-hosted deposits.
Due to heightened tensions and fear of price instability, most of the mine area was temporarily closed by a joint effort of the mining associations and the local government from early November through December 2016. It has been reopened, but now all dealers, including Ethiopian dealers, need written permission to enter the Shakiso area for buying. The law is vigorously enforced, and penalties are severe.

This exciting discovery in Ethiopia will provide a new source of large, high-quality emeralds for the gem and jewelry trade. So far, this deposit appear to be quite promising, as significant production was seen in the recent gem shows in Tucson, Bangkok, and Hong Kong. Only time will tell how significant this deposit will be. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: New Sapphire Material from Kashmir Abstract: Figure 1. Left: Two Kashmir sapphire rough crystals: 77.00 ct unheated (left) and 25.20 ct heated (right). Right: Unheated Kashmir sapphires. Left to right: 1.29 ct pear shape, 2.60 ct cushion cut, 21.09 ct dragon carving, and 4.08 ct oval cut. Photos by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Eddie Cleveland of KashmirBlue and Jeffery Bergman of EighthDimensionGems.
The legendary and remote sapphire mines of Kashmir, the disputed Himalayan territory between India and Pakistan, produced the finest-quality sapphires from 1890 through the 1920s. These coveted gems made their way south to Mumbai and eventually to Europe and America. Now, 100 years later, rough stones are still found, deposited through erosive processes. During the summer months, Kashmiri shepherds migrate north through the higher Himalayas, where they occasionally find sapphires in the riverbeds and on the hillsides. The glacier-tumbled rough typically exhibits rounded surfaces, affectionately referred to as “plums in pudding” by English geologist C.S. Middle in the 1930s (figure 1, left). Many in the trade believe the best available material dates back to five productive years in the 1880s.

Figure 2. Two untreated Kashmir sapphire rings. Top: 1.59 ct cushion-cut cornflower blue sapphire set in white gold with VVS baguette diamonds. Bottom: 1.00 ct oval-cut medium lighter blue sapphire set in an Art Deco style diamond platinum ring. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Eddie Cleveland of KashmirBlue and Jeffery Bergman of EighthDimensionGems.
Exhibited at the AGTA show by Jeffery Bergman (EighthDimensionGems, Bangkok) and Mayer & Watt (Maysville, Kentucky), this selection of newly found rough crystals, loose cut gems (figure 1, right), and mounted Kashmir sapphires (figure 2) was all recently faceted by lapidary artisan Eddie Cleveland of KashmirBlue, who lived in Kashmir researching the historic mines for more than a decade. Cleveland uses his heat-treating experience to turn much of the pale grayish geuda-like rough to rich, well-saturated blues through standard high-temperature heating techniques. A limited amount of new material is found each year, and only a few pieces find their way to market. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Book Review: The Secret Teachings of Gemcutting: 50 Classic Gemstone Designs Abstract: By Justin K. Prim, hardcover (US$100) and spiralbound (US$80), 237 pp., illus., publ. by Magus Publishing, 2021. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

In the world of gemology, books are rarely published on the subject of lapidary arts or gem cutting. The most recent of such books that this author can recall is the invaluable two-volume reference guide by Tom Herbst titled Amateur Gemstone Faceting (2014). In all likelihood, the reason we don’t see more books on the subject is that there isn’t much new information to be added to the volume of work already available. However, Justin Prim has found a gap in the available published work on faceting and filled it with The Secret Teachings of Gemcutting: 50 Classic Gemstone Designs.
In this 237-page book, the reader will find that the first 32 pages contain explanatory notes on how to use the book, basic information on gemstone design, gemology, evaluating rough, and a brief summary of the history of gemstone design. The following 200 or so pages are the reference portion dedicated to the 50 classic gem designs with detailed cutting instructions and related diagrams. This section has been neatly organized by shape and cutting style, covering round, oval, cushion, square, rectangle, emerald, fancy, and other historic and rose cut gem designs. Hobbyist faceters who are most familiar with meetpoint faceting (using the intersection of facets, or meetpoints of three facets as a reference for facet placement) may find the cutting instructions a bit challenging. The designs presented are not well suited to the meetpoint style, as none of the designs utilizes a faceted girdle, except for square, rectangular, and emerald cut stones. However, the cutting method outlined with its curved girdle is largely responsible for giving this faceting style its very classic appeal. In the author’s experience, most other widely available reference books on faceting have not focused on gem design in this way, and Mr. Prim has done a wonderful job in filling that gap. He has also provided cutting angles for high and low refractive index gems, another novel approach not often seen in instructional gem cutting books that will prove to be highly valuable to the reader.
To test the information presented in the book, I used a rectangular cushion mixed-cut diagram to facet an 11.16 ct pink synthetic sapphire. The instructions and angles worked nicely, and the design was also “test cut” in the computer-aided design faceting software GemCad with no issues. Aside from the curved unfaceted girdle style, which this reviewer was not familiar with but picked up quickly, the work went smoothly and the explanations offered were very easy to understand. Any reasonably experienced gem cutter will find the information in this book very useful.

This reviewer used the information and diagrams in Prim’s book to facet this 11.16 ct synthetic sapphire in a classic rectangular cushion mixed-cut design. Photo by Nathan Renfro.
The Secret Teachings of Gemcutting is available in either a hardcover ($100) or a clever spiralbound softcover ($80) that will prove useful in its ability to lie flat while referencing the cutting diagrams while faceting. The printing is on high-quality heavy paper, and the handsome design and layout are very minimalistic and pleasing to the eye. This reference book will be extremely appealing to anyone interested in faceting gems. The project was originally offered as a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign, and copies of the book at the time of this review are available for order at www.magusgems.com. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Ethiopian Precious Opal with a Dyed Brown Bodycolor Abstract: Figure 1. A 17.15 ct brown dyed precious opal from Ethiopia (left). The back of the stone was almost white, which suggests that it had been repolished after dyeing (right). Photos by Robison McMurtry.
Brown opal exhibiting play-of-color has been previously reported (M.L. Johnson et al., “Opal from Shewa Province, Ethiopia,” Summer 1996 G&G, pp. 112–120) and can occasionally be found in the marketplace as “chocolate opal.”

Recently, a 17.15 ct semi-transparent oval cabochon with brown bodycolor and strong play-of-color (figure 1, left) was submitted to the Carlsbad laboratory for identification services. Basic gemological observation and properties confirmed that the stone was opal. The spot refractive index was 1.41. The opal displayed hydrophane behavior by absorbing water, which was easily observed during microscopic examination (Fall 2013 Lab Notes, pp. 175–176).

While this specimen’s properties were consistent with Ethiopian opal with a natural brown bodycolor, it was necessary to confirm that the color was not the result of dye, since this was hydrophane-type material (N. Renfro and S.F. McClure, “Dyed purple hydrophane opal,” Winter 2011 G&G, pp. 260–270). Meticulous examination showed that the brown color conformed to the surface, indicating that it was in fact the result of dyeing after the stone had been fashioned. The uneven bodycolor was difficult to detect because of the stone’s transparency and strong play-of-color. Careful microscopic examination with strong transmitted and diffused white lighting revealed very subtle color concentrations in pits and uneven blotchy brown patches on the surface (figure 2), which confirmed that the brown color was artificially induced. Interestingly, the back of the stone was almost white in the center and brown along the edge (see figure 1, right), showing clear surface-conformal brown color. This suggests that the back of the stone was repolished after dyeing, which would have removed the dark brown rind in the process.

Figure 2. Uneven color is observed with the help of strong transmitted and diffused lighting; the blotchy darker brownish area is the result of dyeing. Photo by Jonathan Muyal; field of view 3.57 mm.
On the brown side, the opal showed an unusual chalky greenish yellow color when examined under long-wave UV light, possibly due to the dye. Advanced gemological analysis with Raman spectroscopy revealed a natural opal spectrum that was free of any peaks pertaining to foreign substances. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) did not detect manganese, which is the cause of brown color in Ethiopian opal.

Although dyed opal is often easy to identify, this brown dye looked natural, and the color of the stone did not change after hydrophane testing. While the dye was difficult to detect on the top surface of this stone, its back fortunately appeared to have been repolished, offering additional evidence of dye. When examining opal, it is important to consider carefully whether it could be dyed, especially if it is hydrophane material with a color that occurs naturally. Source: GIA @topic:12


Title: Emerald Description Abstract: A hand-held flashlight reveals the green color of a rough emerald from the Coscuez Emerald mine in Colombia. Photo by Eric Welch/GIA.

                      Emerald is the green to bluish green variety of beryl, a mineral species that also includes aquamarine as well as beryls in other colors.

Gem experts differ on the degree of green that makes one stone an emerald and another stone a less-expensive green beryl. Some people in the trade tend to give the name emerald to any green beryl colored by chromium. But to most gemologists, gemological laboratories, and colored stone dealers, it is more correct to call a stone green beryl when its color is "too light" for it to be classified as emerald. Even among that group, however, there's a difference of opinion about what's considered "too light."

GIA uses lab-graded comparison stones to determine if the green color is dark enough and saturated enough to be called emerald. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: The Biron Hydrothermal Synthetic Emerald Abstract: A new synthetic emerald grown in Western Australia is now commercially available as faceted stones. Infrared spectra revealed the presence of water, thereby confirming that these synthetic emeralds are synthesized by a hydrothermal process. Chemical analysis showed that they contain vanadium as well as lesser amounts of chromium. This new synthetic exhibits some characteristics that are distinctly different from other synthetic emeralds and therefore must now be considered when identifying emeralds. In addition to distinctive inclusions such as gold, the Biron synthetic is inert to ultraviolet radiation, has a specific gravity of 2.68 -2.71, and refractive indices of Σ = 1.569 and ω = 1.573. This article examines in detail the gemological properties of the Biron hydrothermal synthetic emerald and discusses means of identifying this new synthetic. Source: GIA @topic:3


Title: Fortieth Anniversary of the Belmont Mine Abstract: Figure 1. This 13 ct emerald represents some of the finest production material from Belmont’s underground tunnel. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.

This year marks the 40th anniversary of the Belmont emerald mine. Director Marcelo Ribeiro updated us on mining and cutting activities in Brazil and shared his thoughts on today’s dynamically changing market.

As in 2017, mining activities are still focused on underground mining below the original Belmont open-pit site and the newly developed Canaan mine about 2 km away. In the near term, underground mining will continue to dominate emerald production. Ribeiro shared some new geological study findings related to multiple deposits in the Belmont area. Detailed geological analysis proved that over the past 40 years, only about one-fifth of the deposit within the Belmont property has been mined. Some exciting mineralogical study results from a mining site nearby hint at even deeper extension of the emerald-bearing rocks. Belmont has better wall rock stability than some other famous emerald sources around the globe. This makes underground mining an ideal option in the foreseeable future.

Updates from the Belmont Mine
Marcelo Ribeiro, director of Brazil’s Belmont mine, talks about new developments at the site.
Currently, all rough emerald with a value of more than $20 per carat is faceted by Belmont’s own cutters, while everything else is transported to Jaipur, India, for processing. The cutting facility at the Belmont mine now handles 1,500 to 2,000 carats of emerald per month. Ribeiro visited the factories in Jaipur in late 2017 and is very satisfied with the quality of goods produced from the rough he exports to India. In terms of adding value to the medium- to low-quality rough stones, cutters in Jaipur have more experience and expertise. According to Ribeiro, the company’s sales jumped about 15% each of the past three years. A 13 ct top-quality emerald recovered in 2017 from the underground mine at the original site (figure 1) and a 15.01 ct stone from the Canaan mine (figure 2) were brought in by Ribeiro. The stone from Canaan showed a very special color reminiscent of the electric bluish green color of some copper-bearing tourmalines. This stone also displayed quite strong green and blue pleochroism. Ribeiro informed us that this is a very rare color and only a very limited amount of rough can potentially produce stones of this color.

Figure 2. This 15.01 ct emerald from the Canaan mine had an unusual color, and many customers at the show thought it was a Paraíba tourmaline. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.
Belmont has exhibited in Tucson for the past 17 years, and Ribeiro pointed out that the way of doing business has changed dramatically in recent years. The booth at the GJX show once generated about 80% of the company’s sales. Now, 80% of the sales happen online. Ribeiro used to stay at the booth to sell stones, but nowadays he needs to spend most of his time walking around the show to talk to different people. When asked about the role of middlemen in the current and future marketplace, Ribeiro shared his opinion. When he first got into the trade, he envisioned that one day middlemen would be removed from the picture and he would market his stones directly to end consumers. With the industry experiencing dramatic changes these days, he has started to feel that middlemen will remain but must change their mindset to adapt to new ways of doing business.

The State of the Emerald Industry
Marcelo Ribeiro talks about how the emerald business has changed over the years he has exhibited at Tucson.
The logistics network within the United States allows very fast, safe, and economically viable transportation of gemstones between dealers and jewelers. Overseas suppliers like Belmont do not have access to the same services, which makes it necessary to have an intermediary located in the States who can handle shipping, receiving, and securing stones between the supplier and the buyers. This person also works as a sales representative to connect the supplier and the buyers. Ribeiro pointed out that unlike the traditional middleman, this person does not do business by trying to hide the supplier from the buyers and vice versa. In fact, this representative should ideally make the supply chain even more transparent by letting the two ends easily see and connect with each other to build more solid trust, connections, and inventory in between.

For the past 40 years, the Belmont mine has practiced community building and empowered people through gemstone mining. Ribeiro feels that this is already embedded in the DNA of the company and will continue to guide their good work. He hopes that gemstone purchasing will remind younger buyers of the benefits these stones bring to the local people and their next generation. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Enriching a Tradition Abstract: Duncan Pay brings more than a decade of gemology education, manufacturing and retail experience to Gems & Gemology as the quarterly’s new editor-in-chief. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.

              As the new editor-in-chief of Gems & Gemology, I thank Jan Iverson for her recent stewardship of the journal. Jan will be taking over as GIA’s director of Education Content Development. I wish her every success in this new role. Let me also thank GIA president and CEO Donna Baker and vice president of Education Bev Hori for giving me this opportunity.

Allow me to introduce myself. My background is in the colored stone industry. I also have extensive experience in jewelry manufacture and retail. Besides being a Graduate Gemologist, I am a Fellow of the Gemological Association of Great Britain (Gem-A). At GIA, I’ve been director of Course Development for over a decade. One of my proudest accomplishments was the recent transformation of our distance-education gemology courses from print to eLearning.

I join G&G at a tremendously exciting time. GIA has the largest cadre of talented research scientists and the most extensive network of labs and research centers in its history. The topics of their investigations have never been wider—or more challenging. And G&G is your window into this exciting world of research.

G&G will be at the center of the Research & News section of the new GIA website, which launches April 30, so please keep this date in mind. The new website provides an unparalleled online knowledge base that will serve your professional needs better than we’ve ever done before.

We’re placing a remarkable resource—almost 80 years—of groundbreaking gemological knowledge at your fingertips. As a visitor to www.gia.edu, you’ll have unrestricted access to every G&G issue back to the journal’s inception in January 1934—full articles, Gem News International, Lab Notes, and all the regular features. And we pledge to continue to provide the highest levels of gemological research in the exacting tradition of G&G’s rich legacy.

G&G has never been more necessary. Let no one to be in any doubt over GIA’s commitment to our journal. We see it as a vital part of a wider system, one that links GIA’s education with its ongoing research, and delivers that essential knowledge to our readers. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Unusual Carved Tourmaline Suite Abstract: This unique 303 carat “Snow White” tourmaline suite was reportedly carved in Idar-Oberstein in the 1970s. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy Jan Goodman Co.

              Jan Goodman (Beverly Hills, California), had an exquisite 303 carat suite of carved, particolored tourmaline depicting Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. In most depictions of the dwarfs in a line, the lead figure is “Doc” carrying a lantern. In this series, in a nod to the jewelry industry, the lead dwarf is depicted carrying a beaded necklace. Goodman recalls that the set was carved in Idar-Oberstein in the 1970s and came to him mounted in the presentation case. The suite had been in his personal collection for more than 30 years. Goodman told us “demand and price are finally in such a place as to justify parting” with it. Source: GIA @topic:9


Title: The Rock Hound: Muzo Emeralds and Ethical Practices Abstract: Figure 1. The centerpiece of the Molten Muzo collection, the “Candelabra” necklace features 20.63 carats of responsibly sourced Colombian emeralds. Photo by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of The Rock Hound.

At the JCK Tucson show, Susi Smither (The Rock Hound, London) displayed pieces that showcase her love of gemstones and her passion for color. Combining technical knowledge with aesthetics to create unique lines, Smither refers to her business as “the gemologist jeweler,” and receives a number of commissions from gemologists. She offers jewelry at multiple price points, ranging from $400 to $11,000. A major point of pride for Smither is Molten Muzo, a five-piece fine jewelry collection launched in December 2018. One of 25 international jewelry designers selected by Muzo Emerald Colombia for collaboration, Smither combined ethically sourced emeralds in tumbled form with Fairtrade 18K yellow gold. The “Candelabra” necklace, the collection’s lead piece, is shown in figure 1. The collection also features two pairs of earrings and two rings, one of which is shown in figure 2. Smither allows the emeralds to steal the show; the gold “dripping” from the gemstones complements, rather than overtakes, the simplicity of the tumbled stones.

Figure 2. Left: The “Drip” earrings from the Molten Muzo collection use 16.22 carats total of emerald, catching the light as the wearer moves. Photo courtesy of The Rock Hound. Right: An inner world is visible in this 11.05 ct emerald, from one of two rings in the collection. Photo by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of The Rock Hound.
The daughter of mineral collectors, Smither entered the industry as a jewelry designer and maker about 10 years ago. As she took on more commissioned work, she earned her FGA diploma from Gem-A, immersing herself in the world of “science and beauty.” During a field trip to Sri Lanka with the Scottish Gemmological Association in 2012, she was struck by the disparity between the luxuriously appointed jewelry shops of Hatton Garden and Bond Street and the gritty, often dangerous reality of mining. Thus, at the core of Smither’s brand are her ethical practices. The Rock Hound has been a Fairtrade licensee since its inception in 2015, using only recycled gold and Fairtrade Gold from Peru.

Figure 3. Pieces from The Rock Hound’s Chromanteq line. Left: This pendant features a 6.48 ct Brazilian heliodor in an 18K recycled white gold setting and an 18K yellow gold chain. The pendant’s blue color comes from a signature ceramic coating. Right: The rings in this line also use the ceramic coating. The ring on the left uses 18K recycled white gold and is set with a 9.95 ct Afghani peridot. The ring on the right has a 2.38 ct Tanzanian spessartine set in 18K recycled yellow gold. Photos by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of The Rock Hound.
Smither noted that the industry has evolved even since The Rock Hound began. Last year she found a casting house in the UK that creates three different alloys of 18K gold three times a week, opening the doors for a fully Fairtrade Gold collection called RockStars, inspired by the shape of a natural tourmaline crystal. To ensure the integrity of her supply chain, she works with artisanal lapidaries who go into the field to work with mining communities. Stones sourced in this way are used in her Chromanteq line, which sets colored gemstones in ceramic-coated recycled 18K gold (figure 3).

	The Rock Hound

Smither’s commitment to responsible standards extends to her packaging, made from the perch leather that is a byproduct of the fishing industry. She has sometimes had to choose from a limited selection of materials due to her commitment to responsible sourcing. As a result she would design once she procured her materials rather than designing solely with good in mind. However, she feels that as a young designer starting out, she was better positioned to put sustainable practices in place. Trying to replace longstanding protocols would have been far more difficult for an established business. As this type of sourcing becomes more widespread, she feels that she can expand the design side of The Rock Hound—these days, Smither is “dreaming bigger.” She is eager to create new lines for the next wave of consumers who are equally passionate about sustainable jewelry. Source: GIA @topic:9


Title: Sustainability Conference at JCK Abstract: GIA participated in two panels on sustainability during the June 2023 JCK Las Vegas show. President and CEO Susan Jacques started the first panel by sharing with the audience the United Nations Brundtland Commission’s definition of sustainability: “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” A discussion covering GIA’s sustainability initiatives followed, highlighting the goal of building an inclusive and resilient future for people and the planet. These initiatives focus on social inclusion, environmental protection, and economic growth—all interconnected and crucial for the well-being of individuals and societies.
Sustainability has risen to the forefront of the gem and jewelry industry in the past ten years. A 2022 joint study by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) and Comité Colbert estimated that 65% of consumers consider brands’ sustainability commitment when purchasing luxury products, and McKinsey & Company projected that sustainability-influenced fine jewelry sales will go from 5–10% in 2019 to 20–30% in 2025.
GIA uses scientific and research-based expertise to advance its crucial consumer-protection mission by driving transparency and bringing clarity to sustainability in the gem and jewelry value chain. In June 2023, GIA released its first sustainability report, developed in reference to the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) framework and to the institute’s first sustainability strategy.
Looking ahead, GIA has outlined a sustainability strategy for the next two years. GIA’s 2025 sustainability strategy outlines the organization’s ambition for change, aiming to champion transparency by building resilience in the gem and jewelry sector through pioneering research and innovation, ultimately instilling greater confidence in GIA. The institute will drive change from the inside out by building an inclusive culture and reducing its climate impact. Drawing on a science-led approach, GIA plans to improve traceability through digital tools. Collectively, the institute will accelerate circularity, spearhead sustainability-related gemology research, and continue to raise awareness through responsible education programs. By working together to champion transparency and build all-important trust, GIA intends to spark real, sector-wide sustainable change.
The second panel gathered sustainability experts from across the industry: Sara Yood (Jewelers Vigilance Committee), Iris Van der Veken (Watch and Jewelry Initiative 2030), Josephine Silla-Afuwape (SCS Global Services), and consultant Christina Miller. The session began with various definitions of sustainability, followed by a discussion of how the industry collaborated on the Federal Trade Commission’s Green Guides. Panelists analyzed rising sustainability regulations in Europe and the U.S. and changing consumer behaviors. The presentation ended with key initiatives needed to start a sustainability journey. Source: GIA @topic:10


Title: Books: Gemstones of the World Abstract: By Walter Schumann, 272 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by Sterling Publishing, New York, NY, 2013. US$24.95.

              First published in English in 1976, Walter Schumann’s Gemstones of the World has served as a handy reference guide to gemologists of any level. The most recent fifth edition is no exception.

The text begins with a brief mineralogical and gemological study, focusing on such topics as basic crystallography and crystal systems, hardness, refractive index, and other pertinent features of gem materials. Schumann largely focuses on minerals but does give proper descriptions of organic and synthetic materials as well. These first few sections serve as an excellent introduction to, or refresher on, many of the basic concepts that help make identification easier. The text is easily comprehensible to those at least somewhat familiar with the science of gemology, and it does a reasonably good job explaining the concepts for a novice. For someone completely new to the science, the jargon may be difficult, although Schumann attempts to bypass this issue by providing a brief list at the beginning of the book of terminology that may be unfamiliar.

Schumann devotes the most space, logically, to the most well-known and economically significant gemstones, such as diamond, sapphire, ruby, and emerald. Lesser-known and rare gems are not neglected, however, and he has compiled a fairly exhaustive list of gemstones, complete with color, hardness, density, refractive index, crystal system, and chemical composition.

At first glance, it would appear that little has changed since the fourth edition in 2009, and indeed most of the easy reference and good basic information is the same. Even the photographs, while very colorful and helpful, remain unchanged and could benefit from some modernization. New to this recent edition is a chapter discussing the symbolic and supposed medicinal significance of different gem materials. The author does approach this subject as a scientist, which is to say with great skepticism, and makes clear numerous times that there is no real proof of gemstones’ effectiveness in easing ailments beyond a well-intentioned placebo effect. It is a brief, interesting look at the historical and current importance of gemstones within a more mystical or homeopathic context, but probably not worth the price of repurchase.

This being the fifth edition, one would expect errors to be essentially nonexistent. Unfortunately, there were a few instances of misspelled gemstones (some of the charts refer to “peridote” rather than “peridot”) and grammatical errors. The brief description of diffusion treatment in corundum is not correct. He vaguely describes the treatment as creating a thin metal layer on the stone, similar to a foil backing. Although diffusion treatment commonly utilizes titanium, a metallic element, the connection between his description and actual diffusion treatment stops here. Additionally, unlike the other treatments he mentions, no detection method for diffusion treated corundum is given. Still, it should be noted that these errors are few and far between, and the book can still be used for referencing and basic information without trouble.

Gemstones of the World is a conveniently sized and organized reference book for both the casual and serious gemologist. Because it is fairly compact, it would be easy to take on field trips for use as a handy guide. The comprehensive listing of gem materials that includes many of the most important identifying features makes it useful for identifying both common and unusual gemstones. For those who already own the previous edition, there might not be much to gain from this latest version. For a first-time buyer, though, it would be a wise investment. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Gemstone Guidebook Project Abstract: Figure 1. A miner in northern Tanzania examines rhodolite rough from a local deposit. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.

Selecting Gem Rough: A Guide for Artisanal Miners was researched, photographed, written, and produced by GIA and distributed in Tanzania through a joint venture between GIA and the nongovernmental organization Pact. It is an educational tool to help artisanal and small-scale miners understand the value of rough gem material. The pilot program was launched in four villages in the Tanga/Umba area of northern Tanzania in the first half of 2017. The sites were selected by Pact staff, who also helped deliver the content and monitor the impact of the training. The region produces a variety of garnets (figure 1), sapphire, tourmaline, and zircon.

Figure 2. Gemologist Marvin Wambua (right) shows women miners how to use the white tray to sort gem rough. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
The guidebooks, written in Swahili and showing different types of gem rough found in the area, were distributed to the Tanzanian miners along with small white trays. These trays are used to sort gem rough in reflected or transmitted light (figure 2), which allows stones of higher quality to be separated.
The pilot program reached approximately 200 miners. Participants were surveyed afterward on the effectiveness of the training, and many reported a better understanding of gem quality. Women miners in particular said the training gave them a greater sense of financial independence, indicating that they might be more likely to sell rough on their own rather than rely on men. Using the responses to the survey, Pact calculated that for every $1 invested in the program there was a $12 social return on investment.
In their impact report, GIA and Pact identified areas that might benefit from this resource. GIA has decided to proceed with the project, with plans to include a number of gem localities throughout Tanzania. This expansion is expected to take place in late 2018 and in 2019. Source: GIA @topic:7


Title: Iolite History and Lore Abstract: Iolite has a long history of use as an adornment and possibly as a navigation tool. – Robert Weldon

                      According to legend, iolite is called the Viking Compass Stone. It’s said that thin slices of iolite served as glare-reducers and polarizing filters that helped ancient Viking navigators locate the sun on cloudy days. This allowed the Nordic mariners to pinpoint their own location on the seas.

	Whether or not it ever served as a navigation tool, iolite can be very attractive. It has long been fashioned for use in jewelry. – Robert Weldon, courtesy New Era Gems, Steve Ulatowski
The name iolite comes from the Greek word ios, meaning “violet.” Some believe that the gem aids sleep and helps to unlock creativity. Iolite is often cited as the twenty-first wedding anniversary gemstone. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: The Latest in Field Gemology from Wim Vertriest: Sapphires and Demantoid Garnets from Northern Madagascar Abstract: Demantoid garnet rough mined from northern Madagascar. Photo: Wim Vertriest/GIA.
On January 24th 2024, Wim Vertriest, GIA Manager of Field Gemology, gave GIA’s first student lecture of the year at the GIA World Headquarters in Carlsbad, California. In this lecture, Wim explored the purpose of GIA field gemology and dove into the wealth of gems and minerals that can be discovered in Madagascar — particularly those in the northern parts of the country. Join us as we cover some of the highlights of this riveting topic or watch the full lecture on Facebook.
The Purpose of GIA Field Gemology
When GIA researchers go on field gemology trips, they have two primary goals — acquire gemstones for treatment and country of origin research and learn about the story and context surrounding gemstones.

A gem’s story includes its geology, mining methods and environmental impact, as well as the culture, history, politics, and miners involved in mining gems from different sources. Understanding a gem’s context from multiple perspectives helps the trade and the public better appreciate the gem’s value and significance.

GIA researchers Aaron Palke and Wim Vertriest at miner's home in Madagascar. Photo: Kevin Schumacher/GIA.
Madagascar: Unparalleled Diversity of Gemstones
Madagascar has long been known for its incredible wealth and diversity of minerals and gemstones. There are over three hundred and eighty-nine known minerals in Madagascar, roughly eighty of them occurring in gem quality. Eighteen of these gems and minerals, including liddicoatite, pezzottaite, and dumortierite, were first discovered in Madagascar.

Classic gems mined in Madagascar include beryl, tourmaline, and quartz. Sapphires, first discovered there in the early 1990s, are considered a recent discovery.

The most important sapphire deposits in Antsiranana Province, at the northern tip of Madagascar, are located in the Ambondromifehy region in and near the Ankarana Special Reserve. The inset shows the location of the three major sapphire deposits in Madagascar: Ambondromifehy, Andranondambo, and Ilakaka.
The Formation of Madagascar Sapphires
The geology of Madagascar is largely dominated by events that took place roughly half a billion years ago when several continents smashed together to form the Gondwana supercontinent. This collision created the East African orogeny, a vast mountain range where many gems formed. The gems that formed along the roots of this mountain range include rubies and sapphires from Central & Southern Madagascar, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania; rubies from Kenya and Mozambique; emeralds from Ethiopia; and Cuprian tourmalines from Mozambique. This explains the wealth and similarities of gems found all throughout East Africa and on the island of Sri Lanka.

The Northern part of Madagascar has a different geological history. This area is dominated by much younger volcanic intrusions that resulted in many exotic mineralizations, including sapphires related to a specific type of magma that geologists call alkali-basalt.

Sapphire miners in Madagascar. Photo: Wim Vertriest/GIA.
Magmatic/Basaltic Sapphires vs. Metamorphic Sapphires
Madagascar can be roughly divided into three geological regions — mountains related to volcanoes in the north, highlands that are the remnants of an ancient mountain range (consisting of high-grade metamorphic and magmatic rocks) in the center, and flat plains along its west coast that consist mostly of sedimentary rocks.

Sapphires found in the north are magmatic or basaltic, meaning they formed deep within the earth and were brought to the surface by volcanic activities, hitching a ride from alkali basalt magma as it pushed up through the earth. Basaltic sapphires, such as those from Diego-Suarez, tend to be blue, green or rich yellow in color, sometimes combining more than one color in the same stone. Sapphires in the south, including those found at the vast deposit in the grassy plains around Ilakaka, are metamorphic sapphires. They tend to come in a different range of color, including pale yellows, pinks, and some blues.

Some gemologists call Madagascar sapphires “jungle sapphires” because they are mined in the jungles of Madagascar, often by farmers who grow pepper, cocoa and vanilla. These farmers turn to mining during off seasons to earn supplemental income. Mining is only seen as a secondary source of income for farmers, because finding foreign purchasers for mined goods can be a challenge.
Malagasy Demantoid Garnets, sometimes referred to as “Mangrove Garnets”
Demantoid andradite garnets, which are known for their lush green color and incredible fire and brilliance, are among the most valuable garnets on the market, sometimes fetching up to US$10,000 a carat. Demantoids tend to come in small sizes, with stones over one carat being incredibly rare, and stones over three carats being virtually unheard of. Madagascar demantoids are found in mangroves, and the easiest way to access the mine is by boat. During high tide, the entire forest is flooded, and gemologists must rely on experienced boat guides to find the mine.

Miners recover Madagascar demantoids from skarn, a coarse-grained metamorphic rock. Skarns are formed when mineral-rich fluids intrude into layers of sedimentary rocks/layers that mainly consists of clay, sand, or limestone. While these fluids move through the sedimentary rocks, they react with each other forming a whole new suite of minerals. The final result is a skarn, where many exciting and exotic crystals like demantoid can form.

Demantoid mine in the mangrove forests of Madagascar. Photo: Wim Vertriest/GIA.
Mining Demantoids
Due to the tropical climate in Madagascar, the weathering of rocks has been very intense. Demantoid host rocks are often called “rotten” due to the strong alteration. This makes mining easier since the crews don’t need explosives to break them up. Instead, miners use excavators and jackhammers to remove unwanted rock. Once miners see an indication that a demantoid-rich pocket is near, they resort to hand tools to avoid damaging the crystals. Demantoid-rich pockets can range from football-sized up to the size of a classroom, producing up to several kilograms of material each. The most sought-after demantoids are a rich jungle green or a fresh minty green in color with strong fire. Gems with brown or yellow tones are less desirable.

Demantoids were first discovered in Russia, which is a classic source for demantoids that are rich and vibrant in color and sometimes contain horsetail inclusions. Demantoids in African countries, including those from Madagascar, never have horsetail inclusions and are often less saturated in color. This can be an advantage, however, if you value fire over color, as lighter color allows more fire to shine through.

This faceted demantoid (7.17 ct) is representative of the finest material from Antetezambato. Photo: Matteo Chinellato.
Knowing the geology, history, mining, and environmental impact of gems empowers consumers to make informed choices and to better appreciate the journey their stones took to reach their jewelry boxes. It also empowers those in the gem and jewelry trade to make decisions that ensure the well-being of the parties involved in a gemstone’s mine-to-market journey.

Want to catch the next exciting student lecture? Connect with us on Facebook to stay up to date on upcoming events, GIA’s latest course offerings, and more. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: E. Alan Jobbins (1923–2019) Abstract: E. Alan Jobbins
Alan, as he was known to his friends and colleagues, passed away February 2 at the age of 95. He was internationally respected for his lasting achievements in the fields of mineralogy and gemology. He started down his lifelong career path at the age of 13, when his geography professor showed him some attractive crystal specimens of the mineral mimetite from the Cumberland area of England. This immediately sparked his interest and led to a lifetime devoted to mineralogical and gemological studies, and his career appointment from 1950 to 1983 as curator of minerals and gemstones at the Institute of Geological Sciences in London. There he was responsible for organizing the extensive gemstone and mineral collection and exhibitions.
Over his 33 years at the museum, Alan conducted numerous important gemological and mineralogical research projects, such as a major study of East African garnets, research into the characteristics of synthetic opals, the discovery and description of the mineral magnesio-axinite, and the geological field study of the meteorite in Barwell Parish, England.
Alan’s work took him on many assignments for the United Nations and the British government. These included gemological and geological surveys of gem deposits in Brazil, Cambodia, Guyana, India, and Sri Lanka for the United Nations and the British Overseas Development Administration.
In the late 1960s, Alan set up a mineralogical and gemological training and research laboratory in Burma, guiding that country’s first gemologists to FGA diplomas. Some students went on to obtain doctorates at English universities. Alan led a study of Pailin ruby and sapphire deposits in Cambodia, resulting in a detailed monograph and important recommendations for improved recovery methods. He also spearheaded an assessment of diamond and opal deposits in PiauíState, Brazil, and a survey of the Sri Lankan gemstone industry in which he recommended improved mining methods and cutting techniques.
In 1988 and 1989, he initiated gemological training with new laboratory facilities at the China University of Geosciences in Wuhan. In the UK, his record includes 32 years as a gemological lecturer at the Sir John Cass College (now London Metropolitan University), 20 years as chief examiner for the Gemmological Association of Great Britain (now Gem-A) gemology examinations, and eight years as editor of The Journal of Gemmology (1985–1993). He was also president of Gem-A from 2004 to 2008, and vice president from 2009 until his death.
Alan held various posts throughout his career, including executive member of the International Gemmological Conference (IGC) and past president of the Society of Jewellery Historians. He was also part of the team that conducted the first comprehensive gemological examination of the British Crown Jewels from 1986 to 1989, which led to the publication of an important illustrated catalogue. Among Alan’s major literary contributions were very thorough revisions of B.W. Anderson’s Gem Testing and Robert Webster’s Gemmologists’ Compendium.
In 1984, Alan became a founding member of the ICA (International Colored Gemstone Association). In 2005 the Accredited Gemologists Association (AGA) awarded him its sixth annual Antonio C. Bonanno Award for Excellence in Gemology. He served as a member of G&G’s editorial review board from 1994 on.
In addition to gemology and mineralogy, our dear friend Alan was an avid bird-watcher, an explorer of churches and cathedrals, and a wine aficionado. He was a devoted and loving husband to his wife, Mary. In his honor I will carry the moniker he bestowed upon me many years ago, “Young Buzzard.” Alan passed away peacefully with Mary by his side. Rest in peace, dear friend. Source: GIA @topic:1


Title: Large Aqueous Primary Fluid Inclusion in Amethyst Abstract: Figure 1. This 15.54 ct triangular modified brilliant faceted amethyst (left) features a large aqueous primary fluid inclusion (right; field of view 7.19 mm). Photos by Jonathan Muyal.

	A triangular modified brilliant was submitted to GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory by L. Allen Brown (All That Glitters, Methuen, Massachusetts) for scientific examination. The 15.54 ct stone (figure 1, left) was presented as a Moroccan amethyst. Standard gemological testing established the following properties: RI—1.544−1.553; birefringence—0.009; optic sign—uniaxial positive; pleochroism—moderate purplish blue to purple; SG—2.65; fluorescence reaction—inert to long- and short-wave UV radiation. All of these properties were consistent with amethyst. What made this example notable was a strikingly large primary fluid inclusion under the table facet, which is easily seen with the unaided eye and confirms the natural origin of this stone (figure 1, right). The gas bubble in the fluid inclusion moves freely when the stone is turned slightly. No magnification is needed to reveal the beauty of this interactive inclusion, which can be easily enjoyed by rocking and tilting the stone. Source: GIA @topic:3