# Publication Year: -
# Title: Gem Guide Delivers Education, Social Return to Artisanal Miners
# Abstract: A miner in Tunduru, Tanzania examines the artisanal mining guide following GIA’s lecture on the subject. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

Free educational tools provided to miners in some rural areas of Tanzania are helping them reap greater profits.
“[The miners] can sort, they know how to wash and add value into the material … They are really now getting more money than when they didn’t have this project. It has added a lot of value into their life using a book and using a tray,” said Salma Kundi Ernest, secretary general of the Tanzanian Women’s Mining Association (TAWOMA), speaking through an interpreter at the Chicago Responsible Jewelry Conference, held in October 2018.

The artisanal miners gleaned this valuable knowledge from “Selecting Gem Rough: A Guide for Artisanal Miners,” an illustrated book developed by GIA (Gemological Institute of America) to help small-scale miners learn more about the quality and classification of the gems they recover.

Artisanal small-scale (ASM) miners, working in small teams using only hand tools, mine many of the colored gemstones from Tanzania and other areas around the world. They often live and work in remote areas where there are few other opportunities to earn a living and have little or no access to information about the stones they recover. Having even simple information about gem quality and an understanding of market needs puts them in a stronger position to negotiate with buyers.

The GIA team produced a video of their more recent Tanzania trip that captures the setting of the mines, work in the field and the interactions they had with the miners. Norbert Massay, Marvin Wambua and Robert Weldon talk about the effects of the program on the artisanal miners. Video produced by Pedro Padua/GIA
The “GIA Guide for Artisanal Miners” is a photo-rich booklet written in Swahili with photos of the rough gemstones found in East Africa, including tourmaline, corundum, various types of garnet, topaz, spinel, zircon and tanzanite. Since most of the miners have little formal education, the information is presented primarily in pictures, with limited text. Accompanying the water-proof booklet is a durable plastic translucent tray that can be used to sort gems and do other basic gemological evaluations. The pictorial instructions guide the miners – including those who cannot read – on how to evaluate the quality of the rough.

Other illustrations show how to use the tray to view the rough gem material using both direct and transmitted light to best evaluate the gem’s characteristics and how to clean it. A section at the end shows the stages of gemstone cutting from sawing to pre-forming and faceting, and then how a stone is mounted into jewelry. This information gives the miners a better understanding of the market value chain.

GIA contracted with Pact, a Washington, D.C.-based non-governmental development organization with offices in Tanzania and extensive expertise and experience in the region, to conduct two pilot studies – one in 2017 and one in 2018. The first pilot trained approximately 400 artisanal small-scale miners in the Tanga region near the northern border of Tanzania, which GIA and Pact selected because of the diversity of alluvial gemstone deposits in this area. The initial participants were members of TAWOMA.

“We were keen to involve TAWOMA because female miners have faced even more challenges than their male counterparts: sex discrimination, exclusion from some mining sites, less mining knowledge, less access to capital and less education in general,” said Cristina Villegas, director of the Mines to Market program at Pact. “When it comes to education, why not start with women?”

The second pilot distribution reached approximately 750 additional miners in the gem-rich regions of Tunduru, Songea (in southern Tanzania) and Morogoro (in central Tanzania). The Tanzanian government was informed about each of GIA and Pact’s visits and endorsed their efforts. Norbert Massay from Pact provided travel logistics, government contacts and information about mining localities.

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GIA staff, including Robert Weldon, director of the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center at GIA and co-author of the guide, and GIA Graduate Gemologist (GG) Marvin Wambua from Kenya, trained artisanal miners in how to use the guide and translucent tray. All of the miners, who were surveyed several months after being trained, said they developed a solid understanding of the gemological concepts presented. The survey results also revealed that they gained confidence in evaluating the quality of rough they found, which dramatically improved their bargaining power with local buyers.

Wambua, who is also a gem cutter, noted the higher quality of the rough offered from the mining groups. “Prior to the program,” he said, “we didn’t see anything worth cutting. But as we progressed, quality in the samples improved. On our follow-up visit in Tanga, I saw gems worth working on.”

One miner noted that learning how to wash gemstone rough properly made it possible to evaluate the quality of the color and clarity of her finds. Another said that this ability enabled him to separate gems by type and quality, which got him much higher prices in the market.

“I have sold my garnet for 70,000 Tanzanian shillings (about $30 US) after the training. Before I would have received a maximum of 10,000 shillings,” a female miner from Kalalani (near Tanga) told Pact.

Pact calculated that the the knowledge gained from GIA’s $120,000 initial investment in the project – funded by the GIA Endowment fund – generated a 12-fold social return on investment (SROI) to the miners and would continue to help them in coming years.

Massay reported that benefits from the gem guide extend far beyond the miners themselves. “I can see how this is changing things here. People have more money, more kids are in school, more of them have school uniforms and people are building brick houses. All of this shows that it is bringing more value into peoples’ lives,” he said.

Female miners, who face more challenges than men, can use what they learn from the guide to better evaluate what they recover. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
The idea for the gem guide project started with Dr. James Shigley, GIA Distinguished Research Fellow, following a 2008 trip to Kenya and Tanzania. Seeing the artisanal miners working under difficult conditions, he started thinking about the best way to help them. He, together with GIA library staff, developed the text and photos for the guide, with extensive consultation with other experts in the gem trade. First developed in English, the booklet was later translated by Wambua into Swahili.

GIA assumed all of the costs for the pilot project from its endowment fund and will continue to provide the book, tray and training free of charge as the program expands in East Africa and other potential gem localities.

“This is core to the GIA’s mission,” said GIA President and CEO, Susan Jacques. “We are moving practical gemological knowledge to the beginning of the supply chain for the people who can benefit from it tremendously,” she said. “This guidebook brings artisanal miners understanding about the value of the beautiful gems they bring to market.”

Weldon, who was involved with many of the phases of the project, was pleased to see the positive impact the gem guide had on the artisanal miners’ lives and work.

“An understanding of the very basic needs of African miners at the beginning of the supply chain was absolutely key for this to work,” he said. “It is truly humbling to see that the knowledge gained by the miners is helping so much. As they begin to understand the complexity of the supply chain, and how gems are used, these miners can aspire to different jobs, such as cutting and jewelry making.” @chapter:38 @chapter:3 @chapter:38


# Publication Year: 2017
# Title: Dyed Yellow Beaded Freshwater Cultured Pearls Imitating South Sea Cultured Pearls
# Abstract: Figure 1. Uneven color and blemishes on the surface of a low-quality dyed cultured freshwater pearl necklace obtained from Grace Pearls. Photo by Lore Kiefert.

In the spring of 2017, the Gübelin Gem Lab received a yellow pearl necklace for testing. The size and color of the specimens implied that they were South Sea cultured pearls. The high insurance value appeared to confirm this; however, there were some suspicious color patches that suggested the material had been dyed.

Only a few months earlier, author LK visited the Hong Kong office of Grace Pearls, a large producer with a pearl farm and factory in China, to see their latest batch of freshwater cultured pearls. Grace Pearls developed a proprietary method to grow large freshwater pearls with bead, marketed as “Edison” pearls. These occur in all the known colors of traditional freshwater pearls, typically white, orange, pink, and purple. To  complement their color range, they also offer yellow and black treated pearls ranging from approximately 12 to 18 mm.

The goods we saw at Grace Pearls had a wide range of qualities and prices. The lowest price for a strand of Edison pearls was approximately US$100, while the highest-quality yellow dyed pearls go for as much as US$2,000. Prices for top-quality white and pink natural-color pearls may reach up to US$40,000 per strand.

The Gübelin Gem Lab acquired from Grace Pearls a necklace of yellow dyed freshwater bead-cultured pearls to complement our extensive reference collection. The largest of these pearls measured nearly 17 mm. For study purposes, we deliberately chose a low-quality necklace showing color concentrations, slightly irregular colors from pearl to pearl, and slight blemishes on the surface (figure 1).

The grafting process, which Grace Pearls considers a proprietary method, appears to be similar to that of “Kasumigaura pearls” from Japan and “Ming pearls” from China, where the bead is drilled first and a tissue is partly inserted into the drill hole in order to introduce both tissue and bead at the same time during the implantation procedure (H.A. Hänni, “Ming pearls: A new type of cultured pearl from China,” Journal of the  Gemmological Association of Hong Kong, Vol. 32, 2011, pp. 23–24). X-ray images  clearly show drill holes in the beads of several of these cultured pearls, mostly in the  smaller beads (figure 2), while larger beads, like the one in the center of figure 1, have only one drill hole. This may be due to a possible re-implantation into the pearl sac once the first pearl has been harvested. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis gave Mn and Sr values consistent with those of freshwater pearls.

Figure 2. X-ray image of yellow dyed freshwater cultured pearls. The beads range
from approximately 10 to15 mm in diameter, while nacre thickness varies from
<0.2 to >5 mm. Some of the beads show an additional drill hole. Image by Pierre
Hardy.
Upon testing, the necklace submitted by the client showed identical properties: dark yellow color concentrations around drill holes and in cavities, uneven surfaces with various shades of yellow (figure 3, left; see also C. Zhou et al., “Update on the identification of dye treatment in yellow or ‘golden’ cultured pearls,” Winter 2012 G&G, pp. 284–291), X-rays showing an additional drill hole through the bead in some of the pearls (figure 3, right), and the chemical composition of freshwater pearls (figure 4). This demonstrates the importance of staying informed on new developments in the market.

Figure 3. Left: Blemishes and dark color concentrations in cavities on the surface of dyed cultured freshwater pearls in a client-submitted necklace. Photo by Lore Kiefert. Right: An X-ray image of two pearls from the client necklace showing a clear bead. The left pearl displays an additional drill hole in the bead. Image by Pierre Hardy.

Figure 4. A plot showing the theoretical distribution of MnO vs. SrO in freshwater
and saltwater pearls (after W. Gutmannsbauer and H.A. Hänni, “Structural and
chemical investigations on shells and pearls of nacre forming salt- and fresh-water
bivalve molluscs,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 24, No. 4, 1994, pp. 241–252).
The red dots represent values for our reference collection necklace, the yellow
dots the values for the client-submitted necklace. @chapter:53 @chapter:4 @chapter:53


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Beads: The World’s First Jewelry
# Abstract: Sindi Schloss, GIA GG, an expert on beads and global adornment, and the president of the GIA Alumni Association’s Metro Phoenix chapter, presented, “Estate Exotics: Gems of the People, Collectible Beads” in a recent lecture at GIA’s Carlsbad campus. Photo by Jaime Kautsky/GIA

Beads are ubiquitous, an undeniable staple of personal adornment around the world. Their use spans not only generations, but millennia, and cuts across political, socio-economic and cultural boundaries.

One could find molded-glass “snake beads” gracing the necks of both superstar Rihanna on a magazine cover and Bontoc women working in rice fields in the Philippines. Music icon Sting has been photographed wearing a highly valued, 9-eye dZi bead of ancient treated chalcedony similar to those worn in 2500 BC.

Beads range widely in material, symbolism and value – from the pastel candy necklaces of American childhood to the rich jade strand netting more than $27 million in a 2014 Hong Kong auction.

“Beads are the gems of the people,” says jewelry appraiser and historian Sindi Schloss, GIA GG.

Schloss said one of the reasons she wrote “Beads: a Reference and Price Guide,” is to help bridge the knowledge gap between the “worlds” of beads and jewelry design. Photo by Jaime Kautsky/GIA
That’s why it confounds Schloss, president of Scottsdale, Arizona’s International Gemological Services and two-time president of the GIA Alumni Association’s Metro Phoenix chapter, that there is such a disconnect between the worlds of jewelry design and beads.

“The jewelers who are most comfortable with faceted gemstones are sometimes uncomfortable with beads, as the bead world is huge and can be daunting – and those in the bead world often feel the same way about gemstones,” said Schloss in a recent lecture to GIA’s San Diego Alumni Association chapter at the Institute’s Carlsbad headquarters.

“There’s an interface that’s not passing through, and it’s simply a lack of knowledge. There is some overlap, but each has its own language and learning curves to overcome, and requires some knowledge and hands-on experience,” she said.
Schloss said she decided to write her new book, “Beads: A Reference and Price Guide,” for many reasons, including to help jewelry designers who called her, unsure and uncomfortable about how to proceed with a client’s request for custom bead jewelry.

“The study of beads is the study of human migration, commerce and trade, identity and cultural identification, spirituality and connection to ancestors, communication, expression and art form,” she said, noting that researchers have determined beads to be older than rock art – and the world’s oldest form of jewelry.

Schloss indicated that though one technical definition of a bead is “an object capable of being suspended and worn,” she prefers definitions that include a nod to the objects’ abilities to trace the evolution of humanity, and serve as a language of connection.

She shared a quote from cultural anthropologist Dr. J. Mark Kenoyer, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

“Turns out that beads,” he wrote, “are, in fact, one of the most important forms of information on ancient trade and exchange networks, ancient technological developments and ancient beliefs and rituals.”

The strand of pink, molded-glass snake vertebrae beads and natural snake vertebrae choker (background), and the string of imitation amber and imitation dZi beads (foreground), are styles that have found popularity in multiple cultures and eras throughout time. Photo by Jaime Kautsky/GIA

The many functions of a bead
Beads hold sacred, spiritual meaning within many religious traditions and belief systems, Schloss said. Some count beads as part of praying, like the rosary. Charms such as amulets and talismans – with amulets believed to repel evil, and talismans to attract good – have long held special significance worldwide. She discussed how shamanic necklaces, often made of organic materials, are used to identify the spiritual leaders.

“In regions of Indonesia, they believe that there is a protective spirit in the bead,” she said, sharing photos from a trip to Borneo, where antique blue glass beads were believed to protect people. The wife of a tribal chief showed her how their village’s rice was stored in ancient glazed ceramic vases, with a bead buried inside to protect the supply.

She said beads have been used as social markers in many cultures, including: ethnic identity and tribal associations, such as Kenya’s Maasai and Samburu people; the headhunting Naga tribe of Burma and India; or an individual’s identity, gender, age or marital status.

Beads have also been used throughout history as currency and barter. Schloss noted that they’ve been called “the greatest trade item of all time,” having been traded at times for gold, and countless other items of convenience and survival.

“Archaeologists originally thought that early populations did not know of each other,” she said, “but they found beads in places they hadn’t expected, suggesting otherwise.”

Schloss discussed a late-1990s excavation of a 1684 shipwreck excavation off the coast of Texas that yielded tens of thousands of tiny blue, black and white glass beads that French explorers planned to use in trading with Native Americans.

A necklace of Bohemian, molded-glass uranium beads (background) and contemporary, hand-painted powdered-glass beads (foreground) from West Africa, were among the beaded treasures that Schloss displayed for attendees after the lecture. Photo by Jaime Kautsky/GIA
From pre-history into the future
The earliest appearance of beads is thought to be 100,000-130,000 years ago, Schloss said. Neanderthals were the first to make and use beads, or ornaments of any kind, long before even rock art. As early humans became self-realized and demonstrated complex, symbolic thought – developments that led to these early humans being called ‘modern man’ – they began to use objects for symbols and not survival alone, she said.

“They were not just random, they were symbolic,” Schloss said. “Beads were indicative of symbolic thought.”

The Paleolithic era saw the first attempts to harden beads, including shell and bone, with fire. Thus, Schloss said, the first experimentation with heat treatment on beads goes back 20,000 years. The era also introduced a technique called heishi to grind and fashion them.

As Schloss walked attendees through the major milestones in human and bead history – from the prehistoric times through the ages of European exploration – the rise of stone and glass beads became pervasive.

“Glass’ first purpose was to imitate stone beads,” she said, “and diamond’s first purpose was to be used as a drill bit for the highly desired, coveted bead.”

Lecture attendees, left, and Rebecca Buys, GG, president of the GIA Alumni Association San Diego chapter, admire a string of uranium beads Schloss, right, illuminated with long-wave ultraviolet rays. Schloss said she’s “enjoyed sharing the passion of gemology with like-minded enthusiasts and ensuring a local platform for continued education,” as a chapter leader. Photo by Jaime Kautsky/GIA

Schloss reviewed some characteristics such as color, age and common techniques that can help audience members identify beads and thus, better understand how to value them – whether shopping at trade shows, working for clients or browsing an estate sale.

“When you have more knowledge, it’s so much more fun to work with them,” she said. “And, you can give your customers more information.”

Schloss said that some beads – like that auctioned strand of jade in Hong Kong that sold for $27 million ($1 million per bead), or Sting’s $1 million dZi bead – are of significant, even shocking, value.

She is pleased to see beads bringing in healthy valuations and hopes more designers will embrace the artistic and creative possibilities found in them. She was happy to see “more use of interesting and storied, ancient and antique beads in high-end designer jewelry” at the 2018 Tucson gem and mineral shows.

“[Bead jewelry] was the first kind of jewelry that existed, and it’s still important,” she said. “They were present in prehistory, continue in the present day, and likely into tomorrow.” @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: 2022
# Title: RFID Device Embedded in South Sea Bead Cultured Pearl Necklaces
# Abstract: Figure 1. A: Necklace of South Sea bead cultured pearls, 14.80–15.90 mm in diameter. Photo by Nuttapol Kitdee. B and C: Real-time microradiography (RTX) revealed one bead cultured pearl in the necklace containing an RFID device showing an obvious demarcation of typical shell bead nuclei. The embedded electronic component is visible as a white opaque stepped square feature. D: When aligned at right angles to the previous direction, the electronic component is harder to see but can be observed within a long, sharp laminated plane separating the two parts of the shell bead nucleus.
New technologies are increasingly being applied to cultured pearls, and it is exciting to witness developments in pearl traceability. GIA’s Bangkok laboratory recently received two South Sea bead cultured pearl necklaces, each consisting of 29 pearls ranging from 14.80 to 15.90 mm in diameter (strand A, figure 1A) and 14.40 × 14.20 mm to 16.20 mm in diameter (strand B, figure 2A). General observation under a binocular microscope revealed clear aragonite platelets characteristic of nacreous pearls, with no indications of treatment.

Figure 2. A: Necklace of South Sea bead cultured pearls, 14.40 × 14.20 mm to 16.20 mm in diameter. Photo by Nuttapol Kitdee. B–D: RTX analysis revealed five bead cultured pearls containing an off-center RFID device within the shell bead nucleus.
Real-time microradiography (RTX) revealed obvious demarcation features separating the shell bead nucleus from the overlying nacre layers. The nacre thickness range was consistent with bead cultured pearls produced by the Pinctada maxima mollusk (N. Sturman et al., “Bead cultured and non-bead cultured pearls from Lombok, Indonesia,” Fall 2016 G&G, pp. 288–297). However, the most striking feature was the presence of some electronic components within a few of the pearls. They were visible as opaque white squares with a stepped pattern in keeping with previously examined samples containing radio-frequency identification (RFID) devices (H.A. Hänni and L.E. Cartier, “Tracing cultured pearls from farm to consumer: A review of potential methods and solutions,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 33, No. 7-8, 2013, pp. 239–246; Spring 2020 Lab Notes, pp. 134–136). Interestingly, only a single pearl in strand A (figure 1, B–D) and five pearls in strand B (figure 2, B–D) contained an RFID device. The device is usually positioned off the center of the bead to avoid being drilled.

Figure 3. A: Necklace of South Sea bead cultured pearls, 10.04–12.21 mm in diameter. Photo by Tony Leung. B: RTX analysis of one of the pearls in the necklace revealed an RFID device. C: The internal structure was compared with two known bead cultured pearls containing RFID devices from GIA Hong Kong’s reference collection, and they proved to be identical. D: RTX clearly showed the outline of the square RFID device, as well as the sawn plane and small recess where the RFID device had been placed.
GIA’s Hong Kong lab has also begun seeing similar features in recent submissions (figure 3, A–B). The team compared the RTX data with some known bead cultured pearls containing an RFID device (figure 3, C–D) and confirmed that they were identical. The previous studies mentioned earlier describing RFID devices in bead cultured pearls have shown that these nuclei are produced by a patented pearl technology invented by Fukui Shell Nucleus Factory, which also supplies laminated beads to certain pearl farms. This explains the link between the laminating technique and its application in the production of RFID shell beads.
The use of RFID shell beads is known to assist in the storage of certain data such as a pearl farm’s location, mollusk data, and harvest date. However, a specific RFID reader is required to retrieve the data, so we were unable to obtain the information stored within these particular devices. Since the RFID devices do not influence their external appearance, the pearls containing a shell bead nucleus with such components are still identified as bead cultured pearls. Because the RFID device could increase the weight and have a misleading effect if undetected, a special comment is routinely included on GIA pearl identification reports as a means of disclosure. While pearl tracing technology has not been extensively adopted by the cultured pearl industry, the increasing number of electronic devices in shell bead nuclei submitted to the laboratory is noteworthy. GIA will continue to monitor and provide updates to the pearl trade and consumers. @chapter:11 @chapter:4 @chapter:11


# Publication Year: 2022
# Title: Extremely Rare Hellandite Inclusion Found in a Mogok Ruby
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 0.45 ct oval-shaped ruby, measuring 4.25 × 3.65 × 3.24 mm, exhibited a highly saturated red color. Photo by Huixin Zhao.
Recently, Guild Gem Laboratories (Shenzhen) received a 0.45 ct ruby (figure 1) for origin determination. Standard gemological testing, including a refractive index of 1.762–1.770 and specific gravity of approximately 4.00, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed its identity as corundum. Additionally, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence revealed extremely low iron (247 ppmw) and relatively high chromium (3819 ppmw) and vanadium (448 ppmw) concentrations, consistent with those in marble-hosted samples.

Figure 2. Dense, nested concentrations of silk in the ruby suggest an origin of Mogok, Myanmar. Photomicrograph by Huixin Zhao; field of view 1.13 mm.

Figure 3. A series of irregular calcite crystals in the ruby from Mogok. Photomicrograph by Huixin Zhao; field of view 1.84 mm.

Figure 4. These two transparent brownish hellandite crystals found in a Mogok ruby possibly represent a new ruby inclusion. Photomicrograph by Huixin Zhao; field of view 1.70 mm.
Microscopic observation showed a typical inclusion scene for Burmese ruby from Mogok, including nested concentrations of fine, long to short rutile needles (figure 2) and irregular calcite crystals (figure 3). To our surprise, two transparent brownish crystals (figure 4) were observed. Their slightly corroded state indicated these crystal inclusions’ protogenetic origin. Micro-Raman spectroscopy using 473 nm laser excitation produced some interesting results. Raman analysis showed several distinct peaks at 207, 238, 298, 317, 349, 423, 475, 574, 793, 868, 987, and 1018 cm–1, consistent with those of hellandite according to the RRUFF database (figure 5; see B. Lafuente et al., 2015, https://rruff.info/about/downloads/HMC1-30.pdf). These hellandite inclusions are rarely observed in ruby from any origin.

Figure 5. Raman analysis identified the two transparent brownish crystals shown in figure 7 as hellandite. Spectra are offset for clarity.
Hellandite, a rare borosilicate mineral with the proposed ideal formula of (Ca, REE)4(Y, Ce)2Al2(B4Si4O22)(OH)2, comes in various colors, including colorless, brown, brownish red, gray, green, and yellow. First found in granitic pegmatite in Norway, hellandite belongs to the monoclinic crystal system. Its crystal structure was determined on a specimen from Predazzo, Italy, and described as B4Si4O22 chains parallel to the c-axis (M. Mellini and S. Mellini, “Hellandite: A new type of silicoborate chain,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 62, No. 1-2, 1977, pp. 89–99).
Myanmar’s ruby deposits occur in marbles intercalated with gneisses that are sometimes intruded by granitoids (G. Giuliani and L.A. Groat, “Geology of corundum and emerald gem deposits: A review,” Winter 2019 G&G, pp. 464–489). Therefore, we speculate that hellandite crystals in the granitoids intruding gneiss were captured by ruby when the ruby formed.
To our knowledge, this is the first time hellandite has been observed in ruby. This finding allows for a better understanding of included minerals in the ruby from the geological setting of the Mogok mine. @chapter:8 @chapter:0 @chapter:8


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Internal World of Aquamarine from Xinjiang
# Abstract: Figure 1. Hematite inclusions extend from the center of an aquamarine sample from Xinjiang, China. Photomicrograph by Yubing Chen; field of view 3.64 mm.
The authors recently examined a batch of aquamarine samples from the Xinjiang autonomous territory of China. Microscopic observation revealed rich and colorful features.
The aquamarines contained yellow-brown to black-brown inclusions. Microscopic observation and further Raman analysis confirmed that these dot-like, flaky, and dendritic yellow-brown to black-brown inclusions were hematite. Interestingly, when observed with a microscope using LED white light illumination, the hematite inclusions appeared to extend from the center to the periphery, and the overall hexagonal shape resembled a rose floating on a calm sea (figure 1).

Figure 2. Thin-film liquid inclusions and visible internal tubes parallel to the c-axis with spectral interference colors were observed in the aquamarine samples. Photomicrograph by Yubing Chen; field of view 0.70 mm.

Figure 3. Disk-shaped fissures in the aquamarine were caused by solid inclusions in the middle with tubular fissures extending inward. Photomicrograph by Yubing Chen; field of view 1.50 mm.
Colors generated by interference phenomena are very common in gemstones. A number of thin-film liquid inclusions were seen in the aquamarines, along with the spectral interference color phenomenon parallel to the c-axis (figure 2). Many disk-shaped inclusions (figure 3) were also found. Stress fractures were caused by solid inclusions in the middle to the surrounding areas, and tubular fractures extended in the direction perpendicular to the disk-shaped fractures. The disks were filled with thin films of liquid, and the interference phenomenon could be seen under the microscope using oblique fiber-optic illumination. The entire disk-shaped inclusion resembled a jellyfish floating in the sea. @chapter:13 @chapter:0 @chapter:13


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Jonathan Muyal Named Gem-A's Photographer of the Year
# Abstract: Figure 1. This inclusion scene showing a growth blockage and thin-film rosette within a Sri Lankan sapphire was enhanced by modified Rheinberg illumination to resemble a flower in a rainstorm. The image won the Internal and Overall categories in Gem-A's annual photography competition and earned Jonathan Muyal the Photographer of the Year award. Field of view 1.34 mm.

Thanks to a stunning photomicrograph revealing the inclusion scene of a Sri Lankan sapphire, Carlsbad staff gemologist and G&G contributor Jonathan Muyal has been named Gem-A’s 2017 Gemstone Photographer of the Year. The winning shot—which also took top honors in the competition’s Internal category, dedicated to photomicrography—shows a growth blockage resulting in an elongate tube terminating in a rosette-like thin-film fluid inclusion. By applying modified Rheinberg illumination with blue and yellow filters, Muyal achieved the appearance of a flower caught in a rainstorm (figure 1). The image was the subject of a Fall 2017 Micro-World entry (p. 371).

Figure 2. Muyal also won Gem-A's Humanity in Gems category with this photo of a miner after finishing for the day at a sapphire deposit near Ilakaka, Madagascar.
Muyal was also the winner of the Humanity in Gems category, which focuses on scenes of people mining, dealing, or otherwise working with gemstones. Muyal’s photo shows a Malagasy miner who has finished a day’s work at a sapphire deposit near Ilakaka (figure 2).

The Photographer of the Year competition is open to all Gem-A members and students. @chapter:17 @chapter:0 @chapter:17


# Publication Year: 2024
# Title: Stellate Cloud in Diamond
# Abstract: This patchy cloud with an uneven distribution of pinpoints observed in a natural diamond appears to depict a celestial star. The image was captured in monochrome. Photomicrograph by Tejas Jhaveri; field of view 2.9 mm.
Impurity clouds in diamonds occur in a variety of forms such as scattered, planar, or patchy clouds. The author recently observed one such cloud with an unusual morphology in a 1.51 ct natural diamond with E color and SI2 clarity (see above). This remarkable cluster of pinpoints took the form of a four-point star. This celestial inclusion is sure to be seen as a lucky charm. @chapter:22 @chapter:1 @chapter:22


# Publication Year: 2020
# Title: GSA Annual Meeting: Gem Research Session
# Abstract: The 2020 annual meeting of the Geological Society of America was held online this year due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Courtesy of GSA and Image AV/e-Attend.

The Geological Society of America held its 2020 annual meeting as a virtual conference October 26–30 (see above). The session on gemological research took place on Thursday, October 29, and featured presentations on various gemological topics.
Nelson Eby from the Department of Environmental, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences of the University of Massachusetts in Lowell presented a chemical classification of emeralds from 24 deposits in 10 countries. Using data on major and minor chemical elements in emeralds obtained by the instrumental neutron activation analysis, he demonstrated how these emerald occurrences could be grouped into deposits related to igneous processes, to those related to low-to-moderate temperature solutions in sedimentary environments, and to metamorphic processes. Rhiana Henry of the Department of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences of the University of British Columbia in Vancouver described a method that could be used to calculate the water content of an emerald based on measured values of either Na+ atoms per formula unit (apfu) or weight percent Na2O. Cisil Badur of the Department of Geosciences at Auburn University in Alabama investigated plagioclase megacrysts containing macroscopic inclusions of native copper from the Dust Devil mine in south-central Oregon. She concluded that the homogeneous distribution of major and trace elements (including Cu) in the feldspar resulted from a rapid rate of cooling of the host basalt (which prevented substantial internal chemical diffusion following initial crystallization). The megacrysts display anomalously young argon-argon (or 40Ar/39Ar) ages, which she attributed to the loss of radiogenic argon. Shiyun Jin of GIA in Carlsbad, California, investigated the thin, oriented, ribbon-like inclusions of magnetite and hematite whose presence creates an aventurescence effect in some rainbow lattice sunstone from Australia. The iron in these inclusions is thought to have been initially dissolved in the feldspar lattice and then expelled during exsolution of albite (as lamellae) and ordering of the crystal structure during cooling of the host orthoclase.
A study of zircon inclusions in unheated sapphires from four important commercial metamorphic deposits was carried out by Wenxing Xu from the Gübelin Gem Lab in Lucerne, Switzerland. She demonstrated how Raman spectroscopic features can help distinguish geologically younger sapphires from Kashmir and Myanmar from geologically older samples from Sri Lanka and Madagascar. Wim Vertriest of GIA in Bangkok discussed the identification of opaque sulfide inclusions in rubies. Inclusions in marble-hosted rubies from Mogok, Myanmar, proved to be pyrrhotite and sphalerite, while those from amphibole rocks in Montepuez, Mozambique, were complex mixtures of Fe-Cu-Ni sulfide minerals, which suggests differences in the geological conditions of ruby formation. Evan Smith from GIA in New York discussed the genetic relationship between type IIb and certain type IIa diamonds. Both types appear to have formed in the sublithospheric mantle with the involvement of subducted serpentinized peridotite.
Ping Ma of the China University of Geosciences in Wuhan discussed the value of using three-dimensional fluorescence spectra to help differentiate untreated and various treated jadeite samples in the marketplace. Di Cui of the Engineering Research Center of Gems and Technological Materials of Tongji University in Shanghai described the chemical composition and crystal structure of both the emeralds from the Davdar deposit in Xinjiang Province of northwest China, and in a separate presentation, the high vanadium-content emeralds from the Dayakou deposit of Malipo County in southwestern China. Elina Myagkaya of GIA in New York described an unusual brownish yellow diamond that was found to be a IIa + IIb mixed-type diamond. Investigation using cathodoluminescence and photoluminescence hyperspectral imaging revealed a complex growth pattern distinguished by differences in luminescence colors and various optical defects. @chapter:2 @chapter:0 @chapter:2


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Book Review: Exotic Gems, Volume 4: How to Identify, Evaluate & Select Jade & Abalone Pearls
# Abstract: By Renée Newman, softcover, 136 pp., publ. by International Jewelry Publications, Los Angeles, 2016, $19.95.

Exotic Gems, Volume 4 is the latest book in a series focusing on jadeite, with a bonus section on abalone pearls. This volume is geared for the consumer and the professional, but is accessible to jewelers, sales associates, gem dealers, collectors, gemology students, and appraisers. Its 136 pages are visually rich, with 338 color photos, diagrams, and tables. Author Renée Newman has packed the book with information about jadeite’s historical significance, countries of origin, and defining characteristics.

	Jadeite is inherently inscrutable. There are so many factors to be considered—color, luster, transparency, to name a few—along with confusion over its counterpart nephrite and the many jade imitations on the market. The two large charts in the "Imitation or Real Jade?" chapter help the reader to discern jadeite’s unique characteristics, such as refractive index reading, specific gravity, and hardness. The charts help to separate the simulants from jadeite and nephrite. The chapter ends with visual clues: closed-back settings, warm surface, and a low sales price are among the many hints.

	The "Treated or Untreated" chapter indicates the instruments in a gemologist's arsenal can be used to identify treatments, such as the Chelsea filter, and what the results express about the integrity of the material. Ms. Newman further delves into advanced detection tools are found in gemological laboratories, including various spectrometers, thereby making the laboratory reports more comprehensive.

	Jadeite is traditionally sold by the piece, rather than by carat weight, and the chapter on price factors discusses at length the three quality factors that have the most impact on jadeite values: transparency/translucency, treatment, and color saturation and tone. The next five chapters explore jade sources and its impact on world cultures such as China, Myanmar (Burma), Guatemala, Canada, and the United States. Minor sources of jadeite such as Russia, New Zealand, and Taiwan are covered briefly, with a review of the region’s history mining or cultural uses of jade. Color photos give great examples of jadeite from these areas.

	The last chapter concentrates on abalone pearls, an increasingly respected colorful pearl product. Sourcing, pricing factors, gemological characteristics, and general appreciation for the material are explained with Renee Newman's typical thoroughness.

	For the consumer, there are sections on historical significance, therapeutic powers and, of course, advice on caring for jadeite, nephrite, and abalone pearl. For the professional, The book helps professionals navigate the complexities of "exotic" jadeite through increased awareness of a commonly imitated, treated, enhanced, and faked gemstone. @chapter:51 @chapter:4 @chapter:51


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Diamond Inclusion with Radiation Halo
# Abstract: Figure 1. Left: This 0.49 ct Fancy pink brown diamond, measuring 4.11 mm wide, contains a monazite inclusion with a brown radiation halo. Right: A photomicrograph of the monazite inclusion shows the halo thickness of about 10–20 µm. The inclusion’s color is masked by the brown radiation stain, but it appears to be yellow or colorless. The dark feature extending from the bottom of the inclusion is a graphitized crack. Field of view 0.36 mm. Photos by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao (left) and Evan Smith (right).

Radiation is known to impart green or brown coloration to diamond. This effect most commonly appears as colored spots, presumably where radioactive mineral grains settled against the diamond for an extended period. Circulation of radioactive groundwater may contribute to a “skin” with more evenly distributed color. In either case, the radiation comes from an external source. GIA’s New York lab recently examined a 0.49 ct Fancy pink brown diamond containing an inclusion with a brown radiation stain in the form of a halo (figure 1). In this case, the radiation originated from the inclusion itself.

Because the inclusion is completely enclosed within the diamond, the material must have been trapped during diamond growth in the mantle. Raman spectroscopy (figure 2) revealed the inclusion to be monazite, (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4, a mineral capable of carrying significant amounts of radioactive thorium. Xenotime, YPO4, a similar rare earth phosphate, has also been reported as an inclusion in diamond with a radiation stain (Fall 2014 Lab Notes, pp. 237–238), but that inclusion was interpreted as epigenetic.

Figure 2. A Raman spectrum of the inclusion with a radiation halo shows a strong peak at 972 cm–1 and smaller peaks at 575 and 415 cm–1, all of which correspond to monazite.
Monazite is very rarely reported as an inclusion in diamond. It is not part of the common mineral assemblage of peridotitic or eclogitic mantle host rocks. Instead, a rare earth element–enriched phosphate like monazite could be attributed to carbonatitic fluid or melt that infiltrated the host rocks and contributed to diamond growth. Monazite found within peridotite mantle xenoliths has also been ascribed to carbonatitic metasomatism (R.L. Rudnick et al., “Carbonatite metasomatism in the northern Tanzanian mantle: Petrographic and geochemical characteristics,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 114, No. 4, 1993, pp. 463–475). Other phosphate minerals, chiefly apatite, can be found as a component of the fluid microinclusions that characterize so-called fibrous diamond. Diamond-forming fluids or melts are believed to be an important source of incompatible elements that may re-enrich the otherwise depleted refractory lithospheric mantle. @chapter:29 @chapter:1 @chapter:29


# Publication Year: 1983
# Title: Fall 1983 Gem News International
# Abstract: Diamonds
            Australia: First Commercial Sale of Argyle Diamonds in Perth
            Belgium: Exports of Polished Goods Increases 6.3%
            Israel: Exports and Imports Up; More Use of Open Market Sources
            Thailand: Leaders Pledge to Make Bangkok a Major Diamond-Cutting Center
            U.S.: Diamond Mining in Colorado; NY Industry Associations; GE Synthetic
            Zaire: Returns to CSO System for Two Years
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            Amethyst: Recent Find in Minas Gerais
            Blue Chalcedony: Namibian Mine Resumes Production
            Coral: Asian Coral is Being Gathered in Increasing Quanity
            Idocrase: New Source of Californite Promises Abundant Material
            Malachite: Reduction in Availability Due to Rigorous Regulations
Synthetics
            Cat’s-Eye Chrysoberyl:  Successful Synthetic Claimed by Japanese Company
Exhibits
            Cooper-Hewitt Museum
            Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History/Thomas M. Evans Gallery
            Smithsonian National Museum of African Art
Announcements
            $20,000 Reward Offered for Info on Houston Stolen Gems
            Bangkok Seminar on Diamond and Simulants
            AGTA Holds Third Annual Meeting In Tucson
            Tucson Gem & Mineral Society Holds 30th Annual Show

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:34 @chapter:0 @chapter:34


# Publication Year: 1986
# Title: Winter 1986 G&G Book Reviews
# Abstract: “Natüraliche und Synthetische Rubine”
By Karl Schmetzer, 131 pp., illus., publ. by E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung,
Stuttgart, West Germany, 1986. US$22.50

“The Magic of Minerals”
By Olaf Medenbach and Harry Wilk, transl. by John S. White, 239 pp., illus., publ. by Chilton Book Co., Radnor, PA, 1986. US$35.00

“Descriptions of Gem Materials”
By Glenn and Martha Vargas, 190 pp., publ. by the authors, Thermal, CA, 1985. US$10.00

“Jewelry: How to Create Your Image”
By Jorge Miguel, 119 pp., illus., publ. by Taylor Publishing Company, Dallas, TX. US$19.95

“The New Jewelry: Trends & Traditions”
By Peter Dormer and Ralph Turner, 192 pp., illus., publ. by Thames and Hudson, New York,
NY. US$35.00

“Opals: Rivers of Illusions”
By Alina Loneck, 64 pp., illus., publ. by Gemcraft Pty Ltd., East Malvern, Victoria, Australia, 1986.
US$6.95

“Treasures of the British Museum”
By Mariorie Caygill, 240 pp., illus., publ. by Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, NY, 1985. US$29.95

”A Time to Watch”
By Jac Zagoory and Hilda Chan, 200 pp., illus., publ. by ChiuZac Ltd., New York, NY, 1985. US$88.00.

“Struck by Lightning”
by Les Taylor, 183 pp., illus., publ. by Jon the Printer Pty. Ltd., Ashmore, Queensland, Australia, 1985. US$10.00 (approx.)

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Books: Untamed Encounters: Contemporary Jewelry from Extraordinary Gemstones
# Abstract: By Mimi Lipton, 245 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by Thames & Hudson, New York, 2014. US$95.00.

Untamed Encounters: Contemporary Jewelry from Extraordinary Gemstones is a print gallery of 80 jewels commissioned by collector and author Mimi Lipton, whose interests run not to faceted and finished stones but to unfinished raw materials: mineral crystals, fragments of opal broken from the vein, gems inextricably bound to the matrix in which they have formed, coral worn by the ocean, unusual Baltic amber, and strangely shaped freshwater pearls. In her world travels, Lipton has also discovered carved pieces of amber, bone, ivory, and jade, as well as coral nuggets from old jewelry.

Crystals take millennia to form and rise to the earth’s surface, the accident of their survival a small miracle; corals are burnished by sea and sand into stark, skeletal shapes. Each unique “untamed” piece shows us the beauty and power often inherent in the unfinished and the worn. They are reminiscent of ancient talismanic jewelry in which raw materials of surpassing beauty or strange shape were thought to hold magical powers. Or perhaps they were simply beautiful to look at and to hold.

Suiting the international provenance of these raw materials, Lipton has gathered an international group of seven jewelry artists to create large, bold, unusual works that emphasize the uniqueness of each material. The pieces are often inspired by ethnic jewelry Lipton has encountered in her travels. While most are in 22K gold, some include iron, silver, driftwood, and silk cord. Many of the rough-hewn pieces echo the unfinished quality of the materials set into them. Others contrast the rugged quality of the materials with smoothly finished metal.

Illustrated with 260 large-format color photographs, many of them extreme close-ups, the book allows readers to visually examine these works in detail, from mineral and stone shapes and surfaces to material textures, craftsmanship, and connections. So that nothing interrupts the visual feast, a section at the end provides material and artist information next to thumbnails of each piece. Another section provides biographies of the artists, the photographer, and other contributors.

If anything is missing, it is the stories behind the pieces: where and how Lipton discovered each one, what they mean to her, the story behind each creation—her vision and the artists’ visions and how those met and evolved into finished jewelry. Collaboration is an art in itself, and it would have been enlightening to see how the artists and the collector communicated to create these unique pieces.

Regardless, Untamed Encounters  is certain to be a treat for anyone who appreciates or collects jewelry. It inspires us to take a second look at the world and to question our definitions of beauty and preciousness. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: 2022
# Title: Synthetic Rock Crystal Quartz Cluster with Natural-Looking Inclusions
# Abstract: Figure 1. The cluster specimen weighing 1114 g and measuring 119 × 126 mm. Photo by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.
A client recently submitted for identification the piece shown in figure 1, assuming it to be a natural mineral specimen. It weighed 1114 g, measured 119 × 126 mm, and contained colorless transparent to semitransparent crystals. Eye-visible inclusions as well as numerous tiny crystals and some minute powdered material were seen around the cluster’s base.

Figure 2. Magnification revealed obvious fluid and two-phase inclusions within the crystals. Photomicrograph by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab; field of view 4.60 mm.

Figure 3. A peak at 3584 cm–1 in the FTIR spectrum proved the rock crystal quartz specimen was synthetic (red). In contrast, a natural quartz reference sample analyzed by our lab exhibits peaks at 3378, 3482, and 3595 cm–1 (black) that were absent in the sample.
Standard gemological testing yielded a refractive index of 1.542–1.555, a specific gravity of 2.65, and inert reactions under long- and short-wave UV radiation, properties consistent with quartz. Microscopic examination revealed obvious fluid and two-phase inclusions (figure 2). Examination by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy showed an absorbance region in the 400–1600 cm–1 range, also consistent with quartz, and Raman spectroscopy confirmed the identification. However, the most important data came from the FTIR analysis in transmission mode in the 1000–6000 cm–1 range. A characteristic peak of synthetic quartz at 3584 cm–1 (figure 3) was observed, while peaks consistent with natural quartz (3378, 3482, and 3595 cm–1) were not detected. Similar spectra were collected from the other crystals in the group, confirming a synthetic origin (S. Karampelas et al., “Infrared spectroscopy of natural vs. synthetic amethyst: An update,” Fall 2011 G&G, pp. 196–201; Winter 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 439–440).

Figure 4. Natural quartz’s horizontal prismatic striations, relative to the c-axis (left, reference sample), were instead diagonal in the synthetic quartz cluster studied (right). Because striations can be faked, they should not be considered diagnostic. Photos by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.
Synthetic quartz crystal clusters are not new to the market, but as the use of synthetic quartz has increased, such crystal specimens have become available on numerous online shopping platforms. Surprisingly, most of them are sold as “natural quartz clusters.” One of the common trade methods for separating natural and synthetic quartz clusters is to observe the striations on the prism faces. In natural quartz, the striations form horizontally (perpendicular to the c-axis), while synthetic quartz typically displays diagonal or triangular striations (figure 4) (Winter 2016 G&G Micro-World, pp. 425–426). This method may aid in identification but should not be considered diagnostic, since the striations can be faked.
When synthetic quartz clusters are fashioned into polished products, the potential of misidentifying them as “natural quartz” increases significantly, especially with inexperienced consumers and small-scale labs lacking analytical equipment. In such cases, the inclusion scene is almost identical to that observed in natural quartz, and the helpful prismatic face growth lines disappear. Therefore, members of the trade should be cautious when handling synthetic quartz, although the crystal clusters may be somewhat easier to identify. @chapter:26 @chapter:0 @chapter:26


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Banded Turquoise from Zhushan County, Hubei Province, China
# Abstract: Figure 1. Banded turquoise specimens from Zhushan County, China. Photos of the six specimens show the variation in the color and width of the bands as well as the sharpness of the boundaries between bands. Photos by Tianting Lei.
Zhushan County in China’s Hubei Province is the world’s most abundant source of commercial gem-grade turquoise (F. Xu, “Study on turquoise in Shiyan City, Hubei Province,” Shanghai Art & Crafts, No. 3, 2017, pp. 30–32). It produces turquoise with special patterns, including “raindrop,” “Tang tricolor,” “growth layer,” “spiderweb,” “water grass vein,” and “Ulan flower” (L. Liu et al., “Unique raindrop pattern of turquoise from Hubei, China,” Fall 2020 G&G, pp. 380–400). Turquoise materials with growth layers display a yellow, red, brownish red, brown, blue, or blue-green banded structure, occasionally accompanied by tiny colored spots. This pattern is called “banded turquoise” in the trade. The gemological and mineralogical characteristics, color origin, and origin traceability of common turquoise have been well studied. However, there are few reports on banded turquoise, which is highly valued in the Chinese market.

Figure 2. Division of bands and FTIR spectra of specimens T1, T3, T4, and T6, which were sliced open. A: T1-1 through T1-6, six bands. B: T3-1 through T3-6, six bands. C: T4-1 through T4-7, seven bands. D: T6-1 through T6-5, five bands. Photos by Tianting Lei.
Six specimens of banded turquoise were obtained through long-term cooperation of local miners from the turquoise market in Zhushan. The specimens displayed numerous bands with various colors, including blue, green, yellow, red, and brown (figure 1). The band profiles of samples T1, T3, T4, and T6 were separated according to color for investigation (figure 2). Specimens T3 and T5 were severely damaged during the cutting process and could not meet the requirements of FTIR testing, but they were measured to analyze the composition and structure. The FTIR absorption spectra, which were typical of those for turquoise, were essentially identical in the various bands within a sample (figure 2). The FTIR absorption fingerprint peaks of turquoise, produced by the vibrations of the phosphate group, range from 483 to 653 cm–1 and from 1000 to 1200 cm–1, respectively. The FTIR absorption peaks of the functional group area, characterized by the vibrations of water molecules and hydroxyl ions (Q.L. Chen et al., “Turquoise from Zhushan County, Hubei Province, China,” Fall 2012 G&G, pp. 198–204), are located near 842, 787, 1659, 3087, 3290, 3461, and 3508 cm–1.

Figure 3. SEM microtopography of different bands in samples T1, T2, T3, and T6. Images by Tianting Lei; field of view 13.5 µm.
The banded turquoise microcrystals were characterized by platy, columnar, and layered structures visible with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (figure 3). The samples had a disorderly crystal structure, except for the deep green band (T6-2) with specific directionality. The more deeply saturated turquoise had higher density, less porosity, and more compactness than the lighter-colored turquoise. The edges of the blue band turquoise (T1) microcrystals were straight and clear with sharp corners (T1-5), while the red and brown band turquoise microcrystals did not show sharp corners (T1-2, T1-4). The same was true for specimens T2 and T3. The edges of the turquoise microcrystals were always straight, while the corners of blue band turquoise microcrystals (T2-2, T3-1) were sharper than those of the red bands (T1-2) and yellow bands (T3-3, T3-5) in the same samples.

The chemical compositions for turquoise (as a microcrystalline aggregate mineral) obtained from electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) are often not completely consistent with the theoretical value, which is mainly due to the mixed weathering and leaching of minerals. The chemical composition of bands in specimens T1, T3, and T5 is shown in table 1. There was little difference in the chemical composition of each band within the same turquoise, except for the FeOT content in specimen T1. Additionally, there was no obvious linear relationship between the content of other major elements and the color change of turquoise in each band. In specimen T1, the FeOT contents of the red band (T1-2), brownish red band (T1-3), brown band (T1-4), and tan band (T1-6) were higher than that of the blue band (T1-1, T1-5).
Although bands in this turquoise showed obvious color differences, there was no obvious difference in the infrared spectrum and chemical composition of each band. The crystallinity of blue bands was higher than that of the red, brown, and yellow bands. An explanation of the formation mechanism of this material needs further investigation. @chapter:14 @chapter:0 @chapter:14


# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: 2019 GSA Annual Meeting
# Abstract: Figure 1. Presenters and session hosts from the gemology session at the 2019 GSA annual meeting. Front row, left to right: Sarah Steele, Dr. Christopher M. Breeding, Kyaw Soe Moe, and Rachelle Turnier. Back row: Dr. Evan Smith, William Aertker, Dr. Aaron Palke, Dr. Sally Eaton-Magaña, Roy Bassoo, Dr. Wuyi Wang, Samuel Martin, Dr. Jim Shigley, and Dr. John Valley. Photo by Tao Hsu.

The Geological Society of America (GSA) annual meeting took place in Phoenix, Arizona, September 22–25. GIA participated in the exhibition and hosted speaker and poster sessions that attracted great attention on gemology among the geoscience community (figure 1).
The talks started with research by Dr. Tingting Gu (formerly with GIA) on lower-mantle inclusions trapped in a type IaB diamond. The study identified inclusions of hydrous ringwoodite, ferropericlase, and enstatite (a back-transformation product of bridgmanite). This was the first evidence of them occurring together at this depth of the earth, which will help to unravel the pyrolytic nature of the 660 km discontinuity. The study was presented by co-author Dr. Wuyi Wang  (GIA). Dr. Sally Eaton-Magaña  (GIA) presented a detailed study of natural radiation stains in diamonds. Temperature-controlled experiments revealed that the stains’ color changes from green to olive green at about 400°C and then to brown at about 550–600°C. Color-changing rates of different related defects were then carefully calculated. This study provides needed information about the reliability of using radiation stain color to identify diamond color as either natural or treated. Graduate student Roy Bassoo (Baylor University) put forward a source study of Guyana diamonds mined from alluvial gravels in the Amazon rainforest. Several possible primary diamond sources were proposed, and multiple advanced analytical methods were used on rough diamond crystals. Detrital zircon dating ruled out West Africa as a potential source. Inclusion and isotopic data suggest that these diamonds are of upper-mantle peridotite paragenesis, with a subpopulation of eclogite paragenesis and an undiscovered kimberlite source that still needs to be identified. Dr. Evan Smith (GIA) shared the characteristics of the newly discovered nickel sulfide mineral crowningshieldite (α-NiS). This mineral was found as inclusions in a so-called CLIPPIR diamond (Cullinan-like, Large, Inclusion-Poor, Pure, Irregular, and Resorbed) that came from 350–750 km below the earth’s surface. Crowningshieldite features one Ni atom connected to six sulfur atoms, while the known β-NiS features one connecting to five.
Dr. Christopher M. Breeding (GIA) discussed the rarity and color causes of orange diamonds. Orange diamonds account for only 2.4% of all colored diamonds, based on GIA’s intake database. Single substitutional nitrogen and the 480 nm band are the two major mechanisms responsible for this rare color. Of the two, the 480 nm absorption band is not well understood and has been proposed to be composed of substitutional oxygen atoms in the diamond lattice. At low concentration this defect causes yellow color, while at high concentration the color shifts to orange. Diamonds with this defect can also be heated to temporarily change their color to orange. Kyaw Soe Moe  (GIA) continued the discussion on the 480 nm band using the study results of a bicolor diamond. The 480 nm band was detected only in the brown-orange portion of this diamond. An interesting find was that the fluorescence image and optical image of this color zone do not match, which indicates that the 480 nm band caused color zoning that does not align with growth zones. This observation suggests that the defect causing the 480 nm absorption formed or penetrated the diamond after its growth. The authors proposed that the defect consists of localized vacancy clusters, in addition to other previously proposed possibilities.
Following a series of diamond presentations, the talks continued with colored gemstone discussions. Graduate student Samuel Martin (Brigham Young University) presented a geochemical comparison study of sapphires from Bingham Canyon in Utah and from Yogo Gulch, Montana. Although the two sapphire populations were formed 10 million years apart, they do broadly share the same trace element signatures, and both contain silica melt inclusions. Oxygen isotope study of both suggests that they have different protoliths, with Bingham Canyon sapphires as a mixture of multiple populations in the Bingham magma system. The study proposed that sapphires from both sources have been produced through partial melting of Al-rich rocks. Graduate student Rachelle Turnier  (University of Wisconsin–Madison) shared her research on the genesis of basalt-related gem corundum with zircon inclusions in samples from nine different sources around the globe. Through a combination of element mapping, growth texture imaging, zircon geochronology, apparent pressure estimation, oxygen isotope study, and in situ geochemical analyses, variations were revealed among these deposits, which have generally been grouped in a single category. PhD candidate William Aertker (Colorado School of Mines) discussed the genesis of metasomatic sapphire from the Whitehorn stock metamorphic aureole in central Colorado. Sapphires occur within a ductile shear zone that experienced contact metamorphism. Extensive evidence suggests that desilication was not the only process involved in corundum formation. Element exchange must have happened at the same time, and ductile shearing facilitated fluid channeling to facilitate this exchange process, known as metasomatism. Retired geologist Charles Breitsprecher (California State University, Sacramento) presented a self-funded field investigation of sunstone from three mines in southeast Oregon. The occurrence and regional geology were discussed. Gemologist and professional lapidary Sarah Steele talked about her archaeogemological and chemistry study on gem-quality jet, including its use since the Upper Paleolithic and the market for it today. The author’s analyses found 33 different hydrocarbons and biopolymers that are used as gems, which goes beyond the current commonly used definition for jet. Dr. Aaron Palke  (GIA) closed the session with a presentation on the newly recognized mineral johnkoivulaite (Cs[Be2B]Mg2Si6O18), named in honor of renowned GIA researcher John Koivula. This new member of the beryl group was discovered in Mogok, an area full of opportunities to expand the mineral family. Due to its special structure, johnkoivulaite does not contain as much water as other members of the beryl group.

Figure 2. GSA poster presenters shared their latest research. Photo by Tao Hsu.
This year’s poster session featured five presenters (figure 2). Dr. Qishen Zhou (China University of Geosciences, Wuhan) presented two posters, on the results of colored diamond and sapphire auctions, respectively. Dr. Zhou and his team collected more than 50,000 auction results over the past decade. These results are representative of the global auction sector, including the Chinese domestic auction sector, which is not well known to the rest of the industry. The colored diamond study poster focused on pink and blue diamonds. Both studies explored the relationship between auction results and the quality factors of the stones. The authors found that color largely determines colored diamonds’ auction prices, while both color and carat weight have a high impact on sapphire. Dr. Aaron Palke (GIA) delivered research on rare rubies found in blue sapphire–dominant deposits. The study compared sapphires and rarely encountered rubies from four different sources. Geochemical results indicate that the trace element Cr, which causes the red color, behaves quite independently of the other trace elements. However, trace elements other than Cr share similarity between sapphires and rubies from the same deposit, which was also supported by inclusion scenes. Paul Johnson (GIA) displayed an interesting research project on melee-size HPHT lab-grown diamonds, which have a different crystal shape from large crystals made with the same method. The authors used element mapping of nickel to reveal the growth structure of these small diamonds. The results indicated multiple growth stages of the small lab-grown diamonds, which explained their elongated crystal shape. Garrett McElhenny (GIA) presented a study on type IIa pink diamonds. The author studied a suite of 30 samples with inclusions using Raman spectroscopy. The inclusions identified were mainly of sublithospheric origin. The existence of sublithospheric inclusions again proved that these diamonds came from the sublithospheric mantle.
The 2020 GSA annual meeting is scheduled for October 25–28 in Montreal. @chapter:35 @chapter:1 @chapter:35


# Publication Year: 1996
# Title: Russian Demantoid, Czar of the Garnet Family
# Abstract: Demantoid, green andradite garnet, was discovered in the Central Ural Mountains of Russia in the mid-19th century. A favorite of the Czar's court, demantoid was another victim of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, when mining of this and other Russian gems was halted. Today, however, independent miners are recovering notable quantities of stream-worn demantoid pebbles from two major districts: Nizhniy Tagil, about 115 km north, and Sissertsk, about 75 km south, of Ekaterinburg. As a result, these distinctive bright "golden" green to dark green garnets are re-emerging in the gem market. Although cut stones continue to be small for the most part, a number of fine demantoids over 1 ct have been seen. @chapter:0 @chapter:0 @chapter:0


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Sweet Home Mine Rhodochrosite from 1888
# Abstract: A 7.94 ct rectangular step-cut rhodochrosite from the Sweet Home mine in Colorado’s Alma Mining District. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Barker & Co.
At AGTA, Ann Barker and Tori Lopez of Barker & Co. (Scottsdale, Arizona) exhibited a 7.94 ct rectangular step-cut rhodochrosite (see above) with a provenance dating back more than a hundred years. The stone is from the Sweet Home mine in Colorado’s Alma Mining District, at an elevation of about 3,300 m in the Rocky Mountains.
Sweet Home was established as a silver mine in 1872. Miners initially discarded most of the rhodochrosite found in association with the silver ore because it interfered with the amalgamation process used then in silver mining. But the large, highly saturated, and nearly perfectly formed crystals later discovered there are some of the world’s finest rhodochrosite specimens.
Rhodochrosite was first described in the mineralogical literature in 1813 based on specimens from what is now Romania. In 1887, George F. Kunz wrote of gem-quality rhodochrosite in Colorado, noting it was the first source with such large and transparent crystals. Most of the rhodochrosite available worldwide was light pink, opaque, and often banded—typically used for beads, cabochons, and carvings. This source introduced pink to red gem-quality single-crystal rhodochrosite, which is rare. The gemstone became more widely known in the late 1930s, after a German gemologist found large volumes in Argentina’s Catamarca Province high in the Andes. (In Argentina, the use of rhodochrosite dates back to the ancient Incas, who are said to have believed it was the solidified blood of their fallen rulers.)
The step-cut stone’s traceable history began in 1888, when a shaft collapse resulted in a 32.61 ct cleavage fragment. Miner Edward Abbott kept it and in 1925 gave it to Denver businessman Edwin Spray, who later owned the mine. The same year, Sweet Home miners found large specimens on quartz matrix, many of which were sold to museums in the U.S. and Europe. In 1968, the fragment made its way from Spray’s widow, Eleanor, through a friend of the family to geologist and mineral collector Charles Trantham in California. In 1981, Glenn Vargas, a gem and mineral dealer and university instructor, expertly cut the stone. Rhodochrosite often presents challenges for cutting due to its low hardness (3.5–4.0 on the Mohs scale) and perfect rhombohedral cleavage.
Rhodochrosite mining at Sweet Home expanded significantly in 1991—long after silver production ended in the 1960s—when Eleanor Spray’s nephew, F. Leonard Beach, leased the property to a group of investors led by Collector’s Edge Minerals. The group found several new pockets and in 1992 uncovered the Alma King, a 14.2 × 16.5 cm deep cherry red rhombohedron, the world’s largest known fine rhodochrosite crystal.
The Sweet Home mine closed in 2004, but the group went on to develop the associated Detroit City mine, which has produced some fine specimens since 2019. @chapter:4 @chapter:0 @chapter:4


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Mogok Expedition Series, Part 3: The Market and the Stones
# Abstract: At the Barnardmyo weekly morning market, a Lissu trader offers a rough peridot in matrix for sale while a baby observes from her mother’s back. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.

	The Market and the Stones
We visited several open-air gem markets in the towns of the Mogok Stone Tract. These included the "Yoke Shin Yone" morning market, usually called the "cinema gem market," and the "Pan Shan" afternoon market, both in Mogok. In Kyatpyin, we went to the "Aung Thit Lwin" morning market and the "Pann Ma" afternoon market. All four of these take place daily. We also visited an interesting market held once a week at the village of Barnardmyo, about an hour's drive north of Mogok.

Each market had its own flavor. At the Barnardmyo weekly market, vegetables and livestock were easier to find than gems. Most of the gems traded there were rough stones brought by local farmers or kanase who had spent some time mining around. The Mogok afternoon market at Pan Shan, held from about 1:00 to 3:00 pm, is definitively the larger and more modern one, with its tables and colorful large umbrellas protecting merchants from the sun or the rain. It has two parts, one for rough stones and crystal specimens and another for faceted gems. The morning "cinema" market is very peculiar, as people place all their stones (mainly rough) in front of them on low tables or on the floor. Most of the stones traded there are of low quality, but it is a colorful market that showcases the variety of gems produced in the area. In Kyaptyin, the morning and evening markets are more like a large crowd of people meeting in the street.

While the markets had their own specialties, they shared common threads. When we visited morning and afternoon markets or even the ones in Mogok and Kyatpyin, we often saw the same dealers and kanase women offering us the same stones, though often at much lower prices than before. In Mogok, time runs much slower than in places like New York or Hong Kong, and closing a deal on a stone can take weeks.

The markets were always bustling with activity. The action was primarily among local dealers, traders, and kanase women. Foreigners were always easy for local dealers to spot, and if they were considered serious buyers they were quickly surrounded with offers of gemstones for sale. Foreigners are not legally allowed to purchase gems in Burmese mining areas such as Mogok, but in practice it seems the authorities are tolerant when they only buy a few souvenirs. In any case, the legal export process in Myanmar is complicated, and only faceted stones mounted in jewelry can be exported easily, if purchased from a registered shop.

Both rough and cut gemstones were offered for sale. There were mineral specimens and even finished jewelry at the markets as well. At the Barnardmyo morning gem market, gemstones were a minor attraction while produce and livestock took center stage.

The stones were predominantly lower quality, with most of the better-quality material sold discreetly through dealers to established customers. Often the most stunning features of the gem markets were the kanase women in their hats and colorful attire, selling their wares. To add a modern twist, it was common to see women and men wearing motorcycle helmets while dealing gems. The gem torch was also prevalent among serious traders, along with the occasional head loupe.

View Gallery

	The Mogok Stone Tract Gem Markets

	The Value Chain
Most of our expedition was spent at gem mines and gem markets, as that was the focus of our trip. However, it is always interesting at any location, and especially at a source, to witness the area’s complete value chain. The first thing we noticed in the markets was that finished stones were offered for sale along with the rough. It is not uncommon for stones to be fashioned at cutting centers far from a gem source and be brought back to that source for sale. However, many of the stones seemed to be cut in the Mogok area.

We visited a small but active cottage-industry cutting center. The word "cottage" is meant literally, as the cutting was done in people’s homes, which is very common in Mogok. The cutting machines were amazing as they were not powered by electricity but by foot power. The cutters pedaled back and forth to power the lapidary wheel and polish the stones. It was truly eco-friendly gem cutting.

View Gallery

	Mogok’s Cottage Cutting Industry
The cutters were fashioning ruby, intensely colored spinel, sapphire, peridot, and other native Mogok Stone Tract gems. While many of the cut stones in the market had what are called native cuts with less than ideal proportions, some were cut very well and the stones that were fashioned at this tiny home-based factory were well cut and beautiful.

Other components of the local gemstone value chain were gem paintings. The authors had both previously seen this industry in the Luc Yen area of Vietnam. In Mogok, we witnessed a master artist, a gem-painting factory, and some stores selling gem paintings. This art form incorporates tiny gems not suited for jewelry use and turns them into artistic creations. Being able to utilize all the material from a mine in some profitable fashion increases the likelihood of continued mining. Hopefully, this art form will grow and spread throughout gem-mining communities.

View Gallery

	Mogok’s Gem Painters

	My Final Impressions
Mogok is a magical place and a mecca for gemologists. This author is grateful to co-author Vincent Pardieu for inviting him to come along on this expedition to Mogok. I have always wanted to visit the location that was the stuff of legends, visited by some of the most famous gemologists in the world.

	The joint expedition between GIA Laboratory and GIA Education, led by Vincent Pardieu, proved to be highly successful. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
Many images of this land remain in my mind. The kanase women at Baw Lone Gyi against the white marble powder and in the open-air gem markets, the friendliness of the people, the amazing food served by the restaurants and street vendors, the night market. Add to all this the main draw for a gemologist to this land: the white areas on the mountains where gem mining occurred, the incredible black weathered marble rock pinnacles, the amazing crevices in the marble that could reach depths of hundreds of meters, the miners who navigated those depths and did the hard work of bringing up the gem-containing marble. All inspired by the intensely colored gemstones sometimes hiding within nature’s white marble gift wrapping. @chapter:31 @chapter:2 @chapter:31


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Peridot Description
# Abstract: While the 64.57-carat cut peridot is magnificent, it is overshadowed by the amazing 7.9-cm tall crystal. Both are from Sappat, Kohistan, Pakistan. - Jeffrey Scovil

                      Gem miners find peridot as irregular nodules (rounded rocks with peridot crystals inside) in some lava flows in the United States, China, and Vietnam and, very rarely, as large crystals lining veins or pockets in certain types of solidified molten rock. Sources for the latter include Finland, Pakistan, Myanmar, and the island of Zabargad.

	This incredible suite of peridot jewelry has a total weight of 350.40 carats. All are top-quality peridots from Pakistan. - © GIA & Harold & Erica Van Pelt
Geologists believe both types of deposits relate to the spreading of the sea floor that occurs when the earth’s crust splits, and rocks from its mantle are pushed up to the surface. Sometimes—as in Myanmar— these rocks can be altered, deformed, and incorporated into mountain ranges by later earth movements.

Rarely, peridot can have an extraterrestrial source, being contained in meteorites that have fallen to earth.

The color range for peridot is narrow, from a brown-green color to yellowish green to pure green. Yellowish green is the most common peridot color seen in jewelry.

	Peridot is best known for its yellowish green color.
Peridot is the gem variety of the mineral olivine. Its chemical composition includes iron and magnesium, and iron is the cause of its attractive yellowish green colors. The gem often occurs in volcanic rocks called basalts, which are rich in these two elements.

	These peridots from Peridot Mesa in the San Carlos Apache Nation, Arizona, are set in a jewelry style called "Healing Sisters.” - Courtesy Apache Gems @chapter:6 @chapter:0 @chapter:6


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Treated Red and Green HPHT Synthetic Diamonds
# Abstract: Figure 1. These two treated synthetic diamonds, a 0.57 ct Fancy red and a 0.50 ct Fancy Vivid yellowish green, show strikingly vibrant colors rarely found in natural-color diamonds. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

	Natural-color red and green diamonds are extremely rare and command some of the highest prices in the market. Only a small number of natural diamonds have ever been graded as Fancy red without any modifying hues such as brownish red or orangy red. A 0.57 ct round brilliant with Fancy red color (figure 1, left) was recently submitted to GIA’s New York laboratory for a colored diamond grading report. It showed a heavily saturated and pure red color, without any modifications to the red hue. From another client, we received a 0.50 ct round brilliant graded as Fancy Vivid yellowish green (figure 1, right) for a synthetic colored diamond grading report. The striking features shared by these two specimens caught our attention.

	Examination with a standard gemological microscope revealed that both of them contained pinpoint clouds and metallic inclusions (figure 2), a typical feature of synthetic diamonds grown by high pressure and high temperature (HPHT). Mid-FTIR absorption spectra identified both as type Ib, with the relatively high concentration of isolated nitrogen that is responsible for the yellow to brown color typically observed in HPHT synthetics (Winter 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 430–431).

Figure 2. A large metallic inclusion breaks the table of the Fancy red synthetic diamond. This inclusion and the tiny pinpoint clouds in the background are typical identification features of HPHT synthetics. Photomicrograph by Yixin (Jessie) Zhou; field of view 2.85 mm.

	The strong short-wave UV radiation of the DiamondView (figure 3) showed red and yellowish green fluorescence in the red and green samples, respectively. Furthermore, the presence of both cubic {100} and octahedral {111} growth sectors in the DiamondView images suggested that the specimens formed with a relatively high growth rate that facilitated cubic and octahedral development simultaneously, a strong indicator of synthetic origin (Winter 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 429–430).

	Figure 3. DiamondView fluorescence images of the Fancy Vivid yellowish green synthetic diamond (left) and the Fancy red synthetic diamond (center and right) show similar combinations of cubic and octahedral sectors. Images by Yixin (Jessie) Zhou.

	Diffused lighting showed uneven color zoning in both samples, consisting of their bodycolors and the yellow color from the isolated nitrogen content (figure 4). Spectroscopic analysis revealed that the Fancy red synthetic had an unusually strong peak at 637 nm (NV– center). This peak indicates color alteration by post-growth annealing (T.W. Overton and J.E. Shigley, “A history of diamond treatments,” Spring 2008 G&G, pp. 33–55). In the Fancy Vivid yellowish green synthetic, a concentration of green color on the culet area indicates that artificial irradiation was applied to alter the as-grown yellow color to vivid green. Both synthetic diamonds underwent post-growth treatment to change their color to the desirable red and yellowish green hues. While the yellowish green round brilliant received a synthetic colored diamond report, the undisclosed nature of the Fancy red’s growth required the lab to issue an identification report to properly disclose its synthetic origin.

	Figure 4. Under polarized light, the Fancy Vivid yellowish green synthetic diamond (left) displays patchy yellow color zoning caused by isolated nitrogen and a green color concentration on the culet caused by post-growth artificial irradiation treatment. The Fancy red sample (right) shows yellow to near-colorless zones following the cubic growth sectors, with the red color caused by post-growth annealing. Photomicrographs by Yixin (Jessie) Zhou; fields of view 7.19 mm (left) and 4.79 mm (right). @chapter:9 @chapter:1 @chapter:9


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Diamond Market Sentiment Continues to Improve
# Abstract: Diamond manufacturers, with an eye toward the JCK Las Vegas Show in May, say market sentiment has strongly improved since January thanks in large part to better-than-expected orders from U.S. retailers.

The improvement in market sentiment has stabilized polished diamond prices, which had been weakening for months, and touched off a new wave of speculative buying of rough diamonds on the belief that supplies will be short after nearly a year of reduced sales into the market.

De Beers offered a relatively cautious sight – about $665 million, with some price increases averaging about 5% – to grab some of the rising premiums manufacturers are paying for sight goods.

While some dealers are predicting supply shortages in coming months, it has become extremely difficult to accurately predict the supply situation because of the large amounts of rough held for speculative buying and the very large polished inventories held in dealers’ safes around the world.

Inventories of polished goods have swelled in recent years because, after more than a decade of trying, the major diamond industry banks have succeeded in greatly limiting the use of memo to large U.S. retailers. Bankers are unwilling to offer an estimate on the percentage of current memo business, but say it is generally limited to its original purpose of supplying short-term seasonal needs.

The catalyst for ending the widespread use of memo was the spate of trade and retail bankruptcies in 2007-8 that resulted in hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of disputed (or missing) diamond inventories and costly legal battles over ownership.

De Beers CEO Varda Shine offered her company’s outlook for the diamond market at a recent diamond conference in Dubai:

		Retail diamond demand will grow 5.5-6% on average by value each year, with most of that growth centered in India, China, Turkey and the Middle East. The U.S. will also grow, though more slowly.

		In 2016, the U.S. will represent 35% of world diamond sales; India 13%, China/Hong Kong 17% (Taiwan 2%); Japan 7%; the Gulf Region 9%; and Turkey 2%.

		Diamond production will begin to recede after 2017. Botswana (23%), Russia (22%) and Canada (12%) will be the world’s largest producers by value.

		Producing nations will continue to press for greater control over their resources: Botswana, Namibia and Canada are pressing for a minimum of 10% of their production to be processed locally. These nations are also developing branding efforts to aid this goal.

The conference, organized by the Dubai Multi Commodities Commission, focused on the changing distribution patterns of the diamond trade in light of emerging markets in China, India and the Middle East. @chapter:37 @chapter:3 @chapter:37


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Enormous Cat’s-Eye Aquamarine
# Abstract: Figure 1. Left: A 586.43 ct cat’s-eye aquamarine donated by Gary Bowersox and Kathleen Kolt-Bowersox to the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History gem collection. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Right: Dr. Jeffrey Post (left) and Gary Bowersox with the cat’s-eye aquamarine. Photo by Kathleen Kolt-Bowersox.
On the AGTA show’s opening day, we were on hand as Gary Bowersox and Kathleen Kolt-Bowersox donated an extraordinary cat’s-eye aquamarine to Dr. Jeffrey Post, mineralogist and curator-in-charge of gems and minerals at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (figure 1).

Figure 2. Left: Kathleen Kolt-Bowersox holding the 7,700 ct aquamarine rough before it was cut. Right: The rough aquamarine was cut and polished in Sri Lanka by Rohitha Perera. Photos by Gary Bowersox.
The 586.43 ct untreated transparent light greenish blue aquamarine with a sharp cat’s-eye is from the Pech Valley pegmatite mine in Afghanistan. The rough (figure 2, left) weighed approximately 7,700 ct and was kept for 15 years before it was finally cut in 2017 by Rohitha Perera in Sri Lanka (figure 2, right). The Bowersoxes have several other cut gems from this find, with the next largest weighing in at 541.96 ct. @chapter:1 @chapter:0 @chapter:1


# Publication Year: 2020
# Title: Exceptional Natural Freshwater Pearl
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 16.23 mm, near-round 28.38 ct natural freshwater pearl was found along the banks of the Cumberland River in 2019. Photo by Emily Lane; courtesy of Gina Latendresse.

At the AGTA show, we visited Gina Latendresse at the American Pearl Company of Tennessee booth to find out about anything new in the pearl industry. We were excited to learn that an exceptional pearl, both in size and quality, was discovered last year in the Cumberland River (figure 1). The pearl was found by a fisherman along the bank of the river in a “Pistol Grip” (Tritogonia verrucosa) mussel (figure 2). This 28.38 ct white pearl with natural color measured 16.23 mm in diameter and was near round with good luster. This was the first pearl of such size and quality found in the Tennessee region since the 1970s. The pearl is so unusual that Ms. Latendresse described it as either a collector specimen or suitable for museum display.

Figure 2. The natural pearl from figure 1 shown in its shell (left), and the “Pistol Grip” shell exterior (right). Photos by Emily Lane; courtesy of Gina Latendresse.
For context, the eastern portion of the United States was a source of many natural freshwater pearls to native Americans as evidenced by John Smith’s 1608 writings noting the “many chains of great pearls about his [Chief Powhatan of the Powhatan Confederacy near present day Richmond, Virginia, also the father of Pocahontas] neck” (P.L. Barbour, Ed., The Complete Works of John Smith (1580–1631), Vol. 1, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1983, p. 53). Two and a half centuries later, a pearl rush started with the discovery of pearls of notable size and quality by fishermen in New Jersey, which resulted in people searching streams and rivers throughout the country. In 1857, David Howell found a near-round 100 ct pearl in a fried mussel he fished from Notch Brook in New Jersey (which unfortunately had its luster destroyed by the frying process). Shortly thereafter, Jacob Quackenbush discovered a 23.34 ct pink baroque pearl of fine luster, later named the “Queen Pearl,” that he sold to Charles Tiffany for $1,500. Good-quality pearls were found in the Cumberland, Tennessee, and Clinch Rivers in the state of Tennessee for many years thereafter (G.F. Kunz and C.H. Stevenson, The Book of the Pearl: The History, Art, Science, and Industry of the Queen of Gems, The Century Co., New York, 1908).
The recent discovery of such an extraordinary pearl proves that it is prudent to check the inside of mollusks known to produce pearls before consuming them! @chapter:11 @chapter:4 @chapter:11