# Publication Year: -
# Title: The British Royal Jewels: Beautiful and Historic Gems
# Abstract: The Sovereign’s Sceptre features the 530.2 carat Cullinan I diamond, which can be removed and worn as a brooch. Photo courtesy of Alan Jobbins.

			All eyes were on Britain in July 2013 as the world eagerly awaited the arrival of the newest British royal. The first child of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge – a boy – was born July 22, 2013, and is third in-line for the throne. He will inherit a rich legacy and perhaps wear some of the most prized, historical jewels of the royal realm.

			The six pieces described below are part of the Royal Collection, held in trust by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II for her successors and the nation, or the personal property of Queen Elizabeth II. These gems are not only beautiful, but have a rich history and distinct gemological allure.

The Crown of Queen Elizabeth

			The crown of Queen Elizabeth, the queen mother, features the famous 105.6 carat Koh-I-Noor diamond, which came to Queen Victoria in 1850 from Duleep Singh, the last Maharaja of the Sikh Empire. It became a part of the Crown Jewels in 1877.

			“Also known as the Mountain of Light, legend said that the owner of the Koh-I-Noor ruled the world. Others believed that any man who wore it would be cursed,” said Dona Dirlam, director of GIA’s Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library.

Imperial State Crown

			The Imperial State Crown features the Black Prince’s Ruby, which is actually a different gem – a red spinel.

			“In ancient times, the mines of central and southeast Asia yielded exceptionally large spinel crystals. These fine stones became known as Balas rubies, and some of them were the treasured property of kings and emperors, often passing through many hands as spoils of war. As a result, some of the world’s most illustrious “rubies” are actually spinel,” said Russell Shor, GIA’s senior industry analyst.

			The cross at the top of the crown is set with a stone known as St. Edward's Sapphire, taken from Edward the Confessor’s (11th c.) ring or coronet. The famous 317.4 carat Cullinan II diamond, or Lesser Star of Africa, is set on the front, while the back band contains the 104 carat Stuart Sapphire (17th c.).

Sovereign’s Sceptre

			The Sovereign’s Sceptre, originally made for the coronation of King Charles II in 1661, was redesigned in 1910 after the discovery of the Cullinan Diamond, and set with the 530.2 carat Cullinan I, known as the Great Star of Africa.

			“The Cullinan diamond weighed an astounding 3,106.75 carats before it was cut into the Great Star of Africa, the Lesser Star of Africa, and 103 other diamonds of nearly flawless clarity,” Shor said. “The Great Star of Africa is now the world’s largest colorless cut diamond, and the second largest cut diamond of any color.”

			The Cullinan I can be removed from the Sovereign’s Sceptre and worn as a brooch.

Queen Elizabeth’s Halo Tiara

			The diamond and platinum tiara features a prominent scroll motif and was made in the “Halo” style, which was popularized by Cartier to suit the softer hairstyles of the 1930s. Platinum was a popular metal during this period until the outbreak of World War II. The tiara was given to Princess Elizabeth on her 18th birthday, and most notably loaned to the Duchess of Cambridge on her wedding day in 2011.

Queen Adelaide’s Fringe Necklace

			Queen Adelaide’s Fringe Necklace has been in the queen’s possession since 2002.

			“This is a versatile piece, much like many other pieces in the royal collection, and has been worn as a necklace, a border to a dress and a crown,” said Larry Larson, GIA trend expert. The piece, originally created by Rundell using diamonds removed from various pieces of George III’s and Queen Charlotte’s jewelry and insignia, has been worn by British queens since 1831.

The Coronation Necklace

			Queen Victoria lost significant pieces of the family jewels that she considered her own in 1857 due to succession laws of the time. This included her grandmother’s (Queen Charlotte) diamond necklace and earrings.

			Garrard, the official crown jeweler at the time, was ordered to replace the lost jewels by taking stones from swords and other “useless things” in the queen’s collection. The original 26 total stones in the necklace – nine between 8.25 and 11.25 carats – were taken from a Garter badge and sword hilt.

			A favorite of Queen Victoria, the necklace was also worn at the coronations of Queens Alexandra; Mary; Elizabeth, the queen mother; and Queen Elizabeth II. @chapter:33 @chapter:2 @chapter:33


# Publication Year: 2017
# Title: Punsiri Heat Treatment on Basalt-Related Blue Sapphire
# Abstract: The 1.63 ct blue sapphire treated by the Punsiri method. Different views show a typical light blue to near-colorless outer layer when the stone is immersed in methylene iodide. Photos by Sudarat Saeseaw.
Heat treatment is often applied to sapphire to modify color or improve clarity. One known heat-treatment technique is the Punsiri method, typically applied to metamorphic or low-Fe blue sapphires. This treatment lightens the blue color by heating the stones in an oxidizing atmosphere to diffuse holes and aluminum vacancies into stones with low Ti levels (J.L. Emmett, lectures on corundum at GIA Bangkok, Aug. 28 and Dec. 4, 2010). The main characteristic of Punsiri heat treatment is distinct color zoning observable when the stone is immersed in methylene iodide. The stone will display a pale blue to near-colorless layer corresponding to the girdle outline that surrounds a deep blue core.

Recently, GIA’s Bangkok laboratory examined a 1.63 ct blue sapphire, identified by standard gemological testing (refractive index of 1.760–1.769 and an inert reaction under long- and short-wave UV radiation). Microscopic observation revealed only a few inclusions, consisting of stringers and small healed fractures. We then immersed the stone in methylene iodide and observed Punsiri-type color zoning (see above). Fourier- transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a common technique used in advanced gemological laboratories to determine whether a stone is heated or unheated. When the FTIR spectrum shows Punsiri features (e.g., multiband structures at 3191, 3064, 2626, and 2412 cm–1; see chapter 4 of R.W. Hughes, Ruby and Sapphire: A Gemologist’s Guide, RWH Publishing, Bangkok, 2017), this is conclusive for heat-treated metamorphic blue sapphire. However, when the FTIR spectrum does not show these features, it does not necessarily mean the stone has not been heat treated. Such was the case for this stone, which showed signs of heat treatment through its distinctive color zoning and near-colorless rim.

UV-visible near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectroscopy revealed a broadband at about 880 nm, indicating a blue sapphire of basalt-related origin. Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) showed no beryllium and limited amounts of other trace elements: 7 ppma Ti, 860 ppma Fe, and 47 ppma Ga were detected. This is the first time we have observed Punsiri heat treatment on a basalt-related blue sapphire. It was possible to perform the treatment on this sample due to the low amount of Ti, which allowed for faster diffusion. This report demonstrates the importance of the immersion technique in identifying heat treatment. @chapter:19 @chapter:0 @chapter:19


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Report Check - 2211478950
# Abstract: gia report number
2211478950

date of issue
Feb. 16, 2021

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LABORATORY-GROWN DIAMOND REPORT - DOSSIER

Laboratory-Grown Diamond Report - Dossier

REPORT DETAIL

TREATMENT
GROWTH METHOD
COUNTRY OF ORIGIN

Laboratory-Grown Diamond Specification*

Shape and Cutting Style

Describes the shape and Cutting Style.

Round Modified Brilliant (Sample Cut)

Measurements

Diamond dimensions listed as “minimum diameter – maximum diameter x depth” for round diamonds and “length x width x depth” for fancy-shaped diamonds.

6.02 - 6.09 x 4.06 mm

Carat Weight

Weight given in carats, recorded to the nearest hundredth of a carat. One carat is equal to 1/5 of a gram.

0.99 carat

Color

Includes a color description describing the hue as well as a fancy color grade describing the combined effect of tone and saturation. More generalized description is used for laboratory-grown diamonds.

D

Clarity

The relative absence of inclusions and blemishes.

VS1

PROPORTIONS

Depth

Table-to-culet depth, expressed as a percentage of average girdle diameter for round shapes or width for fancy shapes.

67.0%

Table

Table size expressed as a percentage of a round brilliant’s average girdle diameter for round shapes or width for fancy shapes.

58%

Girdle

Thickness of the intersection of the crown and pavilion which defines the perimeter of the diamond.

Medium to Slightly Thick, Faceted

Culet

Size of the facet at the tip of a gemstone relative to the average diameter for round shapes or width for fancy shapes.

None

FINISH

Polish

Smoothness of the diamond’s surface, assessed on a scale ranging from excellent to poor.

Excellent

Symmetry

Exactness of the diamond’s outline, and the shape, placement, and alignment of its facets, assessed on a scale ranging from excellent to poor.

Excellent

FLUORESCENCE

Fluorescence

Strength and color of the diamond when viewed under long-wave ultraviolet light. A fluorescence description of “none” represents a range of fluorescence from indiscernible to very faint. Used for identification purposes.

Medium Blue

CLARITY CHARACTERISTICS

Clarity Characteristics

List of the most significant clarity characteristics present in the diamond that justifies the clarity grade; a maximum of four characteristics are listed.

Growth Remnant, Feather, Indented Crystal Surface

COMMENTS

Comments

This is a man-made diamond produced by CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) growth process and has evidence of post-growth treatments to change the color.

INSCRIPTION(S)

Inscription(s)

GIA 2211478950, LABORATORY-GROWN

*This GIA Laboratory-Grown Diamond Report describes color and clarity specifications on the same scale as the GIA Diamond Grading Report for natural diamonds. The specifications do not correlate to nature’s continuum of rarity. To learn more about laboratory-grown diamonds, including how GIA differentiates them from natural diamonds visit GIA.edu/GIALGDR

Feb. 16, 2021

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Important Limitations
GIA LGDR results will only be provided via Report Check. All Report Check information is subject to these limitations.

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Learn More About Diamonds

Explore diamond history, research, quality factors, and more in the GIA Gem Encyclopedia.

Read More @chapter:41 @chapter:1 @chapter:41


# Publication Year: 2009
# Title: A Crystallographic Analysis of the Tavernier Blue Diamond
# Abstract: While the Tavernier Blue has been established as the “grandparent” of the Hope diamond, the only firsthand historical documentation for it is a 17th century line drawing of questionable accuracy. It has been suggested that the diamond was crudely cut, conforming to the shape of the original crystal. If this is correct, then it should be possible to correlate the facets on the Tavernier Blue to the faces of a diamond crystal, and thus gain information on the crystallography of the original rough. This study used this information, the original drawings, and a computer model of the French Blue diamond generated from the laser scan of a recently discovered lead cast, to generate a computer model of the Tavernier Blue. This new model completely encloses the computer model of the French Blue, conforms to Tavernier’s physical description, and establishes the orientation of the finished diamond within the original diamond crystal. @chapter:41 @chapter:1 @chapter:41


# Publication Year: 1986
# Title: A Gemological Study of Turquoise in China
# Abstract: Gem-quality turquoise is currently being mined in Hubei Province, China. The material ranges in color from light blue to bluish green; it usually occurs as nodules 1 to 5 cm in diameter, although much larger pieces have been found. For the most part, the gemological properties of this Chinese turquoise are similar to those of material from other localities; one specimen was found to approach end-member turquoise in chemical composition. @chapter:2 @chapter:0 @chapter:2


# Publication Year: 1994
# Title: The Indaia Sapphire Deposits of Minas Gerais, Brazil
# Abstract: The discovery of significant quantities of gem-quality sapphire in Minas Gerais could add corundum to the formidable list of gem species already commercially produced in Brazil. The presence of sapphire has been confirmed over a wide area within a 42-km2 mining claim, and exploration has yielded over 500 ct of corundum per square meter from alluvium in a small section of the claim. Faceting-quality stones typically range from 0.5 to 2ct; some are purple or violet, and many show a color change. Future production will depend primarily on the results of ongoing exploration and the feasibility of mechanizing an area of difficult access. @chapter:0 @chapter:0 @chapter:0


# Publication Year: -
# Title: The Ramaura Synthetic Ruby
# Abstract: A new synthetic ruby grown by a process involving high-temperature flux with spontaneous nucleation has been developed. This new synthetic ruby is currently commercially available under the trade name Ramaura. The Ramaura synthetic exhibits some internal characteristics that are distinctly different from those observed previously in commercially available synthetic rubies. Some of the Ramaura synthetic rubies are readily identifiable, while others could present a serious cause for concern in the world's ruby markets and call for extreme care on the part of gemologists in the examination of rubies. In this article, the author examines in detail the gemological properties of the Ramaura synthetic ruby and discusses means of identifying this new synthetic. @chapter:19 @chapter:1 @chapter:19


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Books: The Collector's Guide to the Minerals of New York State
# Abstract: By Steven C. Chamberlain and George W. Robinson, 96 pp., softcover, illus., publ. by Schiffer Publishing, Ltd, Atglen, PA 2013. US$19.99.

                      From the outset, authors Steven Chamberlain and George Robinson acknowledge that their goal was not a field guide, but rather a guide for mineral specimen appreciation. On the whole, it succeeds in this aim, and is worth its moderate price for those cultivating an interest in minerals of the Empire State.

In the introduction, the first of four chapters, Chamberlain and Robinson provide a brief positioning of the mineral sources of New York State. While there are no localities as important as Mont Saint-Hilaire in nearby Canada or Franklin, New Jersey, but it is of note that (starting with warwickite in 1838) twelve new mineral species have been discovered in New York. Some have become world-famous for their beauty, like the Herkimer diamonds, which could soon be designated as the official state mineral.

The authors devote an entire page to the important collections and collectors of New York minerals since the early 19th century, but only one page of text (plus ten references) to the geology of New York State. The other pages of this sub-section contain beautiful photos, though most do not contribute much to the illustration of the subject. The most important geological takeaway is that almost all mineralogically interesting occurrences are found in either sedimentary or crystalline rocks and in fractures within these rocks.

The following chapters are devoted to the description of the mineral occurrences. In contrast to conventional field guides, which are usually organized geographically, this book groups the localities according to the geology of the host rocks: occurrences in sedimentary rocks, in crystalline rocks, and in fractures. This is perhaps the most unique feature of the book. The description of each locality discusses the same aspects: its significance to specimen mineralogy, its location and history, its geological setting and origin, and the relevance of the minerals to collectors. Each chapter ends with a listing of similar occurrences (with GPS coordinates) and references.

As both authors are recognized as specialists in New York minerals, these chapters are a treasure trove of information, especially as they attached importance to include the latest research results and modern mineral nomenclature (e.g., the brown tourmaline from Bush Farm has now been identified as fluoruvite).

The authors claim that the guide’s organization is “a new approach that brings coherence to relationships among similar localities.” This seems plausible and is certainly true to some extent, as the relations between similar occurrences become more visible. My overall impression, however, is that the advantages of this approach do not reach as far as the authors probably hoped.

Apart from minor criticisms (What is the interest of the lengthy enumeration of collections and collectors? Shouldn’t the part on geology be elaborated a little more, especially as the basic approach of the book is based on it?) one question immediately comes to mind: Can the minerals of an entire state be adequately described in just 96 pages, a quarter of which is filled with (admittedly beautiful) color photos? Obviously, the authors recognized this and chose to limit themselves to the most important occurrences: While this book is too incomplete to serve as a field guide or to act as a comprehensive local mineralogy text, its merit lies in the attempt at a new approach, the well-written and up-to-date text and the sheer beauty of the photos. @chapter:21 @chapter:0 @chapter:21


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Marie Antoinette’s Jewels: ‘How Can You Put a Price on Such History?’
# Abstract: A natural pearl drop with a diamond bow that belonged to Marie Antoinette brought $36 million at Sotheby’s Nov 14 auction. The oval cut diamond was added later. Photo courtesy of Sotheby’s

As the French Revolution engulfed the nation in 1791, the uneasy arrangement that allowed French King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette to remain on the throne began to unravel, and the royal family prepared to flee into exile.

In March, Marie Antoinette entrusted her favorite jewels to a loyal retainer, Count Mercy Argentau, who packed them into a wooden chest and spirited them to Brussels for safe keeping. By the end of June, King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were imprisoned and her jewels – natural pearls and diamonds – were on a tortuous journey from Brussels to Austria and finally Parma in northern Italy where they would remain for over two centuries. Until 2018.

Ten of those pieces belonging to the French queen, along with 90 other jewels from the Bourbon-Parma royal family, brought astounding prices at Sotheby’s Nov. 14 Geneva auction. Valued at $7 million before the sale, the extraordinary history and provenance of the collection sent bids soaring to a total of $53 million.

Daniela Mascetti, deputy chairman of Sotheby’s Jewelry Europe and senior international specialist, said it was one of the most important royal jewelry collections ever to appear in the market. “Every piece is imbued with history,” she said. “They offer captivating insight into the lives of their owners going back hundreds of years.”

“No one knew of this collection’s existence for a century or more, apart from the family. [They] contacted us 10 years ago about selling the collection, but we had to do much research on every piece before any of them could be put up for sale.”

- Olivier Wagner, senior specialist at Sotheby’s

The signature piece (lot 100) was Marie Antoinette’s natural pearl and diamond drop pendant featuring a slightly baroque drop pearl (15.90 x 18.35 x 25.85 mm) probably from the Persian Gulf, attached below a diamond-set bow with an oval cut diamond of about 5 carats. According to a 1907 inventory of the collection, the pendant was a parure originally suspended from a three-strand pearl necklace owned by Marie Antoinette, but offered separately at this auction.

David Bennett, chairman of Sotheby’s international jewelry division, began the auction of the pendant at 900,000 Swiss francs. Bidding proceeded methodically up to 6.5 million francs, then quickly escalated past 30 million to the final bid of 32 million, where he brought the hammer down to the applause of the room. The winner, noted as a private European buyer, paid a total price of 36 million francs ($36.1 million), after the auction house commission. (At the time of the auction, the U.S. dollar and Swiss franc were nearly equal.)

A three-strand natural pearl necklace owned by Marie Antoinette brought a winning bid of more than $1.9 million at the Sotheby’s auction. Photo courtesy of Sotheby’s

The three-strand necklace the pendant had been attached to (lot 97) started at 160,000 francs, half the pre-sale estimate. Again, bidding proceeded slowly until the 1 million franc mark, when it picked up and quickly reached 1.9 million francs when Bennett lowered his hammer.

One of the most personal items in the collection was a small ring containing a lock of Marie Antoinette’s hair, with her initials MA in small rose cut diamonds. The pre-sale estimate of 8,000-10,000 Swiss francs was surpassed within a few seconds of the opening and escalated rapidly to over 447,000 francs before closing. Also, a ring with a miniature portrait of Marie Antoinette in profile framed by small, round-cut diamonds, sold for 250,000 francs against a pre-sale estimate of 8,000 to 10,000 francs.

The 10 pieces from Marie Antoinette’s collection sold for 43.1 million francs, against a pre-sale estimate of 1.6 million francs.

A week before the sale, Mascetti explained that the estimates were based on the values of the pieces without their history. “How can you put a price on such history? It’s impossible to have a true estimate,” she noted with a shrug.

Although the jewels were centuries old, there was no doubt about their provenance, said Olivier Wagner, senior specialist in the auction house’s Geneva branch. The collection was in the hands of an Italian family, descendants of the Parma-Bourbon royal houses, which had branches in France, Spain, Austria. Sotheby’s spent a full decade tracing the lineage of each of the 100 lots in the auction.

“No one knew of this collection’s existence for a century or more, apart from the family,” he said. “The family contacted us 10 years ago about selling the collection, but we had to do much research on every piece before any of them could be put up for sale.” The family kept extensive paperwork in the form of inventories and bequests but some pieces had been altered or broken up completely with the diamonds being set into newer jewels.

This monogrammed diamond ring contains a woven lock of Marie Antoinette’s hair and brought more than $447,000. Photo courtesy of Sotheby’s

The research was often difficult and complex because of the complicated lineage of European royal families, and tracing the paths of gems after the pieces had been altered, Wagner explained

The signature piece, the $36 million parure natural pearl and diamond pendant, for example, went to her eldest and only surviving daughter, Marie Therese’ (1778-1851), who was imprisoned with her other family members on Aug. 13, 1792. During her three years of captivity, her father, Louis XVI was executed Jan. 21, 1793, and her mother, Marie Antoinette was led to the guillotine on Oct. 16, 1793.

Marie Therese was released from prison in December of 1795, just as she turned 17 years old, and was taken to Vienna. While she lived in other European capitals through much of her life, her jewels, including those she inherited from her mother, remained on deposit in the Imperial Treasury of Vienna.

After she died in 1851, she left one-third of her jewels, including the pendant, to her niece, Louise de Bourbon-Parma the Duchess of Parma, in what is now Italy. The will stated that her jewelry collection would be divided between her nieces and nephew: Louise, Marie Therese and Henri.

At that time, Italy was in upheaval with the armies of King Victor Emmanuel battling to form the various principalities into a unified nation, causing Louise de Bourbon-Parma to flee to Venice with the collection of jewels. After Louise died in 1864, the jewels were passed to her children, then through their descendants, until 1907 when Prince Elie de Bourbon-Parma ordered a full inventory, including photographs of each piece. By this time, an approximately five carat oval cut diamond had been attached to the top of Marie Antoinette’s pearl pendant and the collection had grown considerably from pieces belonging to other branches of the family.

These other pieces also sold well above their pre-sale estimates:

A fleur de lis diamond tiara, which by Vienna jeweler Hubner created in 1912 from diamonds that belonged to Charles X of France (1757-1836), sold for 975,000 francs, about double its pre-sale estimate.
A diamond and emerald badge of the Order of the Saint-Esprit, which belonged to Louis-Antoine de Bourbon (1775-1844), Duc of Angouleme, realized a price of 1.6 million francs against a pre-sale estimate of 100,000 to 150,000 francs.
A ruby and diamond bow brooch, given by Archduke Frederic of Austria (1856-1936) to his daughter Anne Marie in 1909, realized 375,000 francs against a pre-sale estimate of 200,000 to 300,000 francs.
A 2.44 ct Fancy orangy pink diamond, owned by the Archduke, graded by GIA, sold for 579,000 francs, four times its pre-sale estimate.

Coincidentally, a 24.04 ct Fancy yellow diamond named the Moon of Baroda, which had been in the collection of Marie Therese of Vienna (1717-1780), went up for auction at Christie's in Hong Kong on Nov 27. Marilyn Monroe wore this diamond when she was publicizing the film “Gentlemen Prefer Blondes.” It sold for $1.3 million, almost double its pre-sale estimate.

Why did the owner want to sell this historic collection?

“It’s a question Sotheby’s never asks its clients. We feel it’s an intrusion,” Mascetti explained. “Usually they volunteer this information only when selling their pieces for charity.”

As the will of Marie Antoinette’s daughter stated, the majority of the queen’s jewels went to other members of this extended family, so there is the enticing possibility that additional treasures may reach the market.

Of the possibility that Sotheby’s may be planning another sale in the future, Mascetti smiled and replied: “We cannot say.” @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: 2004
# Title: A New Method for Detecting Be Diffusion-Treated Sapphires: Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)
# Abstract: This article describes the first application of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) to gemology. So far, the detection of Be-diffused sapphire and ruby has been based on LA-ICPMS or SIMS, neither of which is readily available to most laboratories. In this study, we use LIBS to detect beryllium in corundum at very low concentrations (down to ~2 ppm). This technique is a reliable tool for identifying Be diffusion–treated sapphires, and is affordable for most commercial gemological laboratories. As with other laser-based techniques, LIBS may cause slight damage to a gemstone, but this can be minimized by choosing appropriate instrument parameters. @chapter:19 @chapter:1 @chapter:19


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Chicago Responsible Jewelry Conference
# Abstract: Figure 1. Pauline Mundia, Susan Wheeler, Eric Braunwart, and Ola Erogbogbo-Oyeniyi discuss working with gem traders in source countries. Photo courtesy of RJT.
The seventh annual Chicago Responsible Jewelry Conference (CRJC) was held August 11–13, 2023, in Rosemont, Illinois. Susan Wheeler, Responsible Jewelry Transformative (RJT) founder and Virtu Gem cofounder, opened by highlighting efforts to further the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the UN Women’s Generation Equality campaign. The first of the 17 SDGs is to end poverty, which disproportionately affects the roughly 40 million artisanal and small-scale miners worldwide. Wheeler said poverty poses a risk to the jewelry industry because consumers do not want to perpetuate it. Responsible supply chains can help lift miners from poverty, she noted, and the industry can make great strides toward the UN’s goals.
Anna Samsonova (Samsonova Consulting) moderated a panel on opening markets for artisanal gemstone miners in East Africa. Pauline Mundia (Virtu Gem Zambia), Jessica Hudson (Virtu Gem), Sejal Karavadia (Brilliant Earth), and Cristina Villegas (PACT and Moyo Gems) discussed the importance of information exchange with miners and cutters, developing trust with the help of local associations, creating sourcing standards, and training and education. Karavadia said customers are very receptive to a gem’s mine-to-market story. Sixty percent of the miners in Moyo’s supply chain are women, Villegas said, and they have begun incorporating young woman cutters. “For many years, Africa was exporting raw unprocessed materials,” she said. “Now it’s high-end beautiful faceted gemstones, and we should celebrate that.”
Deep-sea biologist Lisa Levin (Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego) explained how deep-sea mining of minerals, including gold and silver, would disrupt ecosystems. The International Seabed Authority (ISA) has approved 31 mining exploration contracts in international waters as of January 2023 and is developing regulations. Deep-sea ecosystems host abundant life, with interdependent species that depend on specific hydrologic and geochemical properties, she said, and provide many benefits to the broader ocean. The deep sea is also home to bacteria that consume methane, a driver of global warming. Levin said mining could cause extinctions and risks destruction of deep-sea biodiversity. Additionally, scientists believe that post-mining restoration is not possible on the seafloor. Since the definition of serious harm remains unclear and much about these ecosystems is still unknown, she said, there is insufficient knowledge for evidence-based decision making by the ISA.
Holly McHugh (Mejuri, Inc.) moderated a panel on responsible silver sourcing. Panelists noted an increase in high-level guidance for responsible sourcing. Examining this market is complex because more than 70% of silver production is a byproduct of other mining, panelists said, while artisanal and small-scale mining is challenging because silver requires so much mining effort. Torry Hoover said Hoover & Strong’s refined metals are now 100% recycled, and Will Nevins-Alderfer’s W.R. Metalarts uses Fairmined silver for its alloys. Many of the Richline Group’s larger customers now ask about sourcing, said Mark Hanna, and the company has begun tracking silver with blockchain. He emphasized knowing your supplier and customer to ensure ethical products.
Susan Wheeler and Virtu Gem’s Chiko Manda (via video message) discussed Malawi’s gem trade. The country exports hundreds of kilograms of high-quality aquamarine annually but is one of the poorest in the world. Manda said very few gems mined in Malawi are processed there due to lack of expertise and equipment, compounded by smuggling problems, and data indicate that less than 1% of its aquamarine is legally exported. He asked jewelry companies to allocate a small percentage of their budgets to buy cut stones from source countries to motivate cutters to improve their skills. Wheeler added that this would improve traceability. “If you support the gem processing industry in Africa, you empower a lot of people,” Manda said.
In a virtual presentation, Mkhululi Nkosilamandla Ncube (African Minerals Development Center, AMDC) introduced the African Mining Vision (AMV), a project of the UN. The AMV aims to transform the paradox of mineral wealth and dire poverty through equitable mineral exploitation. The AMDC’s methods to implement the AMV include community engagement, training, technology, and financial support. As part of the approach, the Africa Gemstones and Jewellery Exhibition and Conference (AGJEC) series promotes the trade of African gemstones within the continent. The first event was held in Zambia in July; upcoming events will take place in Nigeria and Ghana this fall.
Brecken Branstrator (GemGuide) moderated a panel on working with source country gem traders (figure 1). Eric Braunwart (Columbia Gem House), Ola Erogbogbo-Oyeniyi (Deinte Designs Limited), Pauline Mundia, Stuart Pool (Nineteen48), and Susan Wheeler shared key takeaways, including the importance of understanding the local market and legal system, supply chain analysis, and working with local partners. Erogbogbo-Oyeniyi said that helping a community and weaving that into a gem’s story is a great benefit.
Anna Bario described founding jewelry company Bario Neal with fellow designer Page Neal in 2008 and developing a responsible supply chain. Early on, they connected with Ethical Metalsmiths, the Alliance for Responsible Mining (ARM), and artisanal miners in Tanzania and Peru. They built relationships with ethical suppliers over the next decade and in 2019 hired a consultant to help establish a process based on the UN SDGs and OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct. This includes a code of conduct they share with suppliers, supplier interviews, and an eight-step partner and material evaluation process. In 2020, the company released its first biannual sustainability report, possibly the first by a small independent jeweler. Their next goal is Climate Neutral certification.

Figure 2. Left: Abigail Sibanda describes efforts by the Marange Women’s Alliance to help women and girls in Zimbabwe. Right: Laura Galvis (ARM) speaks about Fairmined-certified projects combining gold mining and agriculture in Colombia. Photos courtesy of RJT.
A panel on sex trafficking in Marange, Zimbabwe, moderated by Brandee Dallow (Grandview Klein Diamond Group), began with a documentary clip of survivors’ stories. The area has been fraught with conflict and violence since the discovery of diamonds there in 2006. The U.S. has banned imports of Marange diamonds due to reports of forced labor. According to Abigail Sibanda (Marange Women’s Alliance, MWA) (figure 2, left), the military, police, mine guards, and informal miners collaborate to smuggle diamonds out and exploit women and girls. Vulnerability to trafficking stems from Zimbabwe’s high poverty, and many victims are lured by the promise of mining work. The community questions where the diamond revenue goes because there is no development, Sibanda said. Susan Wheeler noted that RJT and MWA have facilitated support for survivors through court advocacy, but prosecution is still very limited. MWA helps survivors with peer-to-peer counseling and other support and empowers all women to speak out, holding weekly meetings on WhatsApp. The group has been planning to purchase a chicken coop to develop consistent income and pay for their cellular data, which RJT currently covers. MWA is also creating a billboard campaign for Marange to highlight the issue. “We protect the diamonds. Why don’t we protect the women?” remarked Sibanda, who has relocated outside of Zimbabwe because her activism has put her at risk.
Roy Maconachie (University of Bath, England) described the relationship between mining and agriculture in Sierra Leone based on his research there since 2003, after the civil war. Most mining occurs in the dry season, with income used to farm in the rainy season. Over the last decade, artisanal miners have shifted to gold because most alluvial diamond deposits are mined out. Artisanal gold mining here is dominated by women and provides a reliable income. The interconnected nature of farming and mining can help rebuild agricultural institutions destroyed during the war, he said, but miners still need basic infrastructure, access to markets and credit, and technology.
Laura Galvis (ARM) (figure 2, right) detailed three Fairmined-certified projects—the Íquira cooperative, La Gabriela, and the Chede mine—that support almost 200 workers and show how small-scale gold mining and agriculture coexist in Colombia. The Fairmined label certifies gold, silver, and platinum from small-scale mining organizations using responsible practices, and it comes with the Fairmined Premium, an economic incentive. The Chede mine committee will use this year’s premium to sponsor a coffee brand sourced by miners farming coffee; they have 5,600 Fairmined credits and need 20,000 for this project. Businesses can buy Fairmined credits to support the project of their choice.
Sarah Yood (Jewelers Vigilance Committee) and Andrea Hill (Hill Management Group) discussed U.S. sanctions against Russian diamonds due to the war in Ukraine. Yood explained that because diamonds are considered a product of the country in which they are cut—with 90% cut in India—Russian diamonds can still reach the U.S. She acknowledged India’s difficult position and the issue of protecting jobs there. The EU and the G7 countries are working to stop the flow of Russian diamonds. (At press time, an announcement was expected shortly.) Yood said that starting in 2024, G7 countries will likely require diamonds of one carat or larger to carry proof they were not mined in Russia (the size threshold will be progressively lowered). Hill said that in theory, it will eventually be clear if a diamond originated in Russia or Zimbabwe.
Saleem Ali (University of Delaware and UN International Resource Panel, IPA) presented an IPA report analyzing resource rushes in Africa, which found that mineral resources can lead to migration within Africa and prevent migration to Europe. A key message of the report was that property rights to resources can reduce forced migration. Ali suggested jewelry companies partner with the UN High Commission on Refugees to train refugees in jewelry making.
Natasha and Eric Braunwart (Columbia Gem House), Megan Cochran (Megan Cochran Jewelry Design), and Hannah Smythe (Toast Fine Jewelry) discussed how responsibly sourced designs can engage consumers. The MJSA 2023 Design Challenge, sponsored by Columbia Gem House, asks for designs based on a set of gemstones and a fictional client story. The Jewelry for Wildlife raffle of selected pieces benefits CRRIFS, a wildlife rescue, rehabilitation, and research center in Guaymas, Mexico.
Shannon Kurzyniec and Chelsea Rowe of the Ethical Metalsmiths Student Committee introduced 2023’s So Fresh + So Clean online responsible jewelry exhibition, which asked artists to consider the life cycle of their creations. This year’s awards went to Rashele Alradaideh (Virginia Commonwealth University), Amy Beeler (Bowling Green State University), and Maria Hammond (Manchester Metropolitan University, England), with cash prizes sponsored by Hoover & Strong, Rio Grande, and Earthworks.
The conference also included a collaborative session on advancing the UN SDGs through jewelry supply chains. Sunday offered a Responsible Gem Boutique with eight suppliers, co-located with the InStore Show. After Saturday’s sessions, Anna Samsonova announced that attendee donations had fully funded the Marange Women’s Alliance’s chicken coop project. @chapter:42 @chapter:3 @chapter:42


# Publication Year: 2020
# Title: Jadeite Jade and Serpentine Doublet
# Abstract: Figure 1. This “jadeite jade” carving submitted for identification proved to be a jadeite jade and serpentine doublet. Photo by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.

The Lai Tai-An Gem Lab in Taipei recently received a carving presented as jadeite jade. The rectangular, uneven green piece, carved on one side but almost plain on the back and sides, weighed approximately 171.01 ct and measured approximately 50.4 × 39.9 × 7.4 mm (figure 1). Standard gemological testing revealed a spot RI of 1.66 on an area of the carved side, but surprisingly the smoother surfaces failed to yield clear readings. Microscopic observation revealed a coating in the areas where the failed RI attempts were made.

Figure 2. FTIR analysis revealed absorption valleys at 1167, 1077, 962, 853, 665, 587, 529, 476, and 433 cm–1 in the jadeite jade portion (red spectrum) and valleys at 1001, 646, 557, and 460 cm–1 in the serpentine portion (green spectrum).
Subsequent infrared analysis proved the carved side was jadeite jade owing to the relevant absorption valleys observed at 1167, 1077, 962, 853, 665, 587, 529, 476, and 433 cm–1. However, the four sides and base revealed valleys at 1001, 646, 557, and 460 cm–1, characteristic of serpentine despite the surface coating observed (figure 2).

Figure 3. Removal of the coating from the four sides and base exposed a clear boundary between the two materials (B and D). Prior to the coating’s removal (A and C), there were no indications the item was a doublet. Photos by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.
The client granted us permission to remove the coating in order to analyze the item in more detail. After removal of the coating, the four sides and base showed a lighter saturation of green color separated by a visible horizontal line (figure 3, B and D). Before coating removal, the layering was not as obvious (figure 3, A and C). Magnification confirmed that the object was composed of two different materials. Standard gemological testing of the lighter colored material yielded RIs of 1.56, consistent with those expected for serpentine and supported by the FTIR and Raman analyses. Jadeite jade and serpentine can have a very similar appearance. The identification of this particular piece proved relatively straightforward, but if it were mounted in a closed-back setting with only the carved face visible, a costly identification error could easily result. @chapter:46 @chapter:4 @chapter:46


# Publication Year: 2003
# Title: Spring 2003 Gem News International
# Abstract: Tucson 2003
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            Dyed “Landscape” Agate
            Carved Brazilian Bicolored Beryl and Nigerian Tourmaline
            A New Saturated Purplish Pink Cs-“Beryl” from Madagascar: Preliminary Analyses
            A New Find of Demantoid at a Historic Site in Kladovka, Russia
            Fire Opal from Juniper Ridge, Oregon
            Cultured Pearls with Diamond Insets
            Effect of Cutting on the Appearance of Spinel
Instruments and Techniques
            Gemewizard™ Gem Communication and Trading Software
Conference Reports
            AGTA Corundum Panel
GNI Regular Features
Diamonds
            European Commission Approves the De Beers Supplier of Choice Initiative
            A type IaB Diamond Showing a “Tatami” Strain Pattern
Colored Stones
            Poldervaartite from South Africa
            Triphylite Inclusions in Quartz from Brazil
Synthetics and Simulants
            Life Gem Synthetic Diamonds
Conference Reports
            SME 2003 Annual Meeting
Announcements
            AGTA Spectrum Awards Competition
Exhibits
            GIA Museum Exhibits in Carlsbad
            Gems at the Bowers Museum Extended Again
            Fabergé at the Walters Art Museum
Conferences
            CIM Montreal 2003
            GIA GemFests 2003
            Field Symposium in Urumqi
            13th V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
            JCK Show Las Vegas
            Faceters Symposium 2003
            Jewelry 2003: Honoring the Sataloffs
            FIPP 2003
            Diamond 2003

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:4 @chapter:0 @chapter:4


# Publication Year: 1997
# Title: Fall 1997 G&G Book Reviews
# Abstract: “Birthday Book of Diamonds”
Photos by Harold and Erica Van Pelt, 112 pp., illus., publ. by Harold & Erica Van Pelt, Los Angeles, CA, 1997. US$19.95

“Ruby & Sapphire”
By Richard W. Hughes, 511 pp., illus., publ. by RWH Publishing, Boulder, CO, 1997. US$98.00

“The National Gem Collection”
By Jeffrey Post, 144 pp., illus., publ. by Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, 1997. US$39.95

“Classical Loop-In-Loop Chains and their Derivatives”
By Jean Reist Stark and Josephine Reist Smith, 190 pp., illus., publ. by Chapman and Hall, New York, 1997. US$44.95

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:33 @chapter:2 @chapter:33


# Publication Year: 2017
# Title: Book Review: Van Cleef & Arpels: The Art and Science of Gems
# Abstract: By Alvin Pang, Laurence Mouillefarine, Bérénice Geoffroy-Schneiter, Adriano Davoli, Timothy Adams, Vivienne Becker, Alberto Cavalli, Laurence Benaïm, François Farges, hardcover, 295 pp., illus., publ. by Éditions Xavier Barral, Paris, France, 2016, $75.00.

	This exquisite collaboration memorializes the bespoke mid-2016 exhibition of more than 400 pieces of Van Cleef & Arpels jewelry at the ArtScience Museum in Singapore, a collaboration with the French National Museum of Natural History.

	Covering more than a hundred years of the maison’s jewelry prowess, the book is divided into sections on artistry, influences, abstractions, couture, precious objects, nature, ballerinas and fairies, minerals and gems, and icons.

	Each section is introduced by one of the book’s nine contributors, comprising a formidable powerhouse of jewelry historians, curators, scientists, scholars, and writers. The editorial content, concisely organized using an expanded bullet-point structure, is crisp and coordinated. Each contributor illuminates the breathtaking images by providing historical context, scholarly sensitivity, and insight.

	Integrated with stylistic consistency are the impeccable photographs by Patrick Gries and other contributors, dramatically casting the jewels against a black background laced with billowing, wispy trails of gray. Images from the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, a collection that demands inclusion on every serious gemologist’s bucket list of must-see treasures, provide a geoscientific core to the book, with Earth serving as a “giant atelier.”

	An appendix offers the essential chronology of the house, tracing the 19th-century family ties that led to its Place Vendôme founding in 1906, along with photographs of trailblazing members of the multigenerational families.

	Most pages are filled with individual photographs of the maison’s jewelry in its splendor. Chosen from the collections of Van Cleef & Arpels and private collectors, the pieces glow in a peerless range of style, exoticism, and innovation. Magic, mystery, and mastery are all at work here, with clips, zip necklaces, bracelets, minaudières, vanity cases, and assorted objets d’art showcasing the house’s landmark mystery, or invisible, setting (patented in 1933); hidden watches; magic clasps; the transformable jewel known as the Passe-Partout; and novel materials such as Styptor, an alloy of pewter and silver.

	The private collection includes jewels of towering significance, provenance, and fortune, whether commissioned by South Asian maharajas or royals hailing from the Middle East to Monaco. These remarkable pieces were collected by heiresses and magnates of the early 20th century, such as Daisy Fellowes and Barbara Hutton; others later adorned mid-century style icons Elizabeth Taylor and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and artists like Maria Callas. The house also inspired another type of enduring art—ballet—as in the George Balanchine and Claude Arpels–choreographed “Jewels,” another de rigueur experience for the gem-obsessed.

	Jewelers, designers, historians, and aesthetes will treasure the mastery and magnificence of the works shown on these high-quality finely pearlized pages. Readers flocking to this book for its artistry and beauty will be amply rewarded, and the ingenuity and craftsmanship of Van Cleef & Arpels offer many happy returns, if not a degree of solace for missing the Singapore exhibit. @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: 2001
# Title: Winter 2001 Gem News International
# Abstract: Special Report
            U.S. Postal Service Irradiation Process May Affect Some Gemstones
28th International Gemmological Conference
            Update on Piteiras Emeralds, Minas Gerais, Brazil
            Update on Jadeite Mining in Myanmar
            The Structure of Opals
            Transparent Green Orthoclase Feldspar from Vietnam
            Cultured Mabe Pearls from North Queensland, Australia
            “Young” and “Old” Sapphires from Australia and Southeast Asia
            Spanish Gem Deposits
            Tsavorite from Tanzania and Elsewhere
            Advanced Spectroscopic Methods Applied to Gem Materials
            Synthetic and Enhanced Gems from Russia
            Recent Observations at CISGEM
            A Code of Ethics for Gemologists and Jewelers
            Hardness Testing of Gemstones
            Diamond Presentations at the Annual AusIMM and Australian Diamond Conferences
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            Gem Resources of Afghanistan
            Update on Amethyst, Citrine, and Ametrine from the Anahí Mine, Bolivia
            “Copal” Resin from Madagascar
            More Interesting Inclusions in Copal Resin from Madagascar
            Iolite and Corundum in Wyoming
            Green Kyanite from Bahia, Brazil
            “Ruby Rock” Cabochons
            A New Find of Tourmaline in Warner Springs, California
Synthetics and Simulants
            Synthetic Topaz Crystals
Exhibits
            A Visit to the Pearls Exhibit at AMNH
            Gems at the Bowers Museum
            GIA Museum Exhibits
Announcements
            GIA’s New Graduate Retail Management Program
            Trip to Idar-Oberstein, Germany
Conferences
            International Bead Expo 2002
            PDAC 2002
            19th Colloquium of African Geology
            Basel 2002
            Workshop on Diamond and Diamond-like Carbon
            Global Exploration 2002
            AGS Conclave
            Gemmological Association of Australia Conference
            Santa Fe Symposium
            GAC–MAC Saskatoon 2002
            16th Australian Geological Convention
            IAS2002 Congress
            8th International Conference New Diamond Science and Technology 2002

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:2 @chapter:0 @chapter:2


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Multiphase Fluid Inclusions in Blue Sapphires from the Ilmen Mountains, Southern Urals
# Abstract: Figure 1. Map showing the location of the blue sapphire occurrence within Russia.
Most gem-quality sapphires are found in placers that originate from the weathering of primary deposits. Discovering a mineral in situ, or within the host rocks, is rare. In August 2015, some of the authors visited a corundum deposit in the Ilmen Mountains in the southern Urals of Russia (figure 1) to collect the stones in situ for research. This is a primary source where blue sapphire megacrysts are found exclusively in syenite pegmatites. The occurrence is located inside the Ilmen State Reserve, and its commercial exploitation is forbidden.

Corundum syenite pegmatites in the Ilmen Mountains present an REE-rich source of transparent to translucent blue sapphire crystals measuring up to 5.9 × 4.2 cm (figure 2). But the brittle deformation throughout the gem-bearing rocks, which appears to be linked to syntectonic and post-tectonic processes that occurred at the deposit and the surrounding area, increased the amount of fissures in the corundum. As a result, the sapphires are of a lower quality and can only be faceted into small stones. Six sapphire wafers and nine petrographic thin sections of mineral from corundum-bearing rocks of this occurrence were recently examined at GIA’s Carlsbad lab.

Figure 2. Sapphire crystals in feldspar matrix of a syenite pegmatite from the Ilmen Mountains of Russia. The largest sapphire crystal measures 5.9 × 4.2 cm. From a private collection; photo by Elena S. Sorokina.
Laser ablation–inductively couple plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and electron microprobe analysis (EPMA) indicated medium-rich Fe (2470–3620 ppmw), high Ga (190–280 ppmw), and low Mg (3–9 ppmw) with Ga/Mg 29, all in the range of magmatic sapphires (see J.J. Peucat et al., “Ga/Mg ratio as a new geochemical tool to differentiate magmatic from metamorphic blue sapphires,” Lithos, Vol. 98, No. 1–4, 2007, pp. 261–274).

Ferrocolumbite, zircon, and alkali feldspar group minerals, identified by confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy, were observed as syngenetic inclusions. Epigenetic muscovite and exsolved needles (most likely ilmenite) were found as well; along with syngenetic inclusions, they are common phases in mineral assemblages of Ilmen corundum syenite pegmatites (see V. F. Zhdanov et al., “The mineralogy of corundum pegmatite pit no. 298 of the Ilmen State Reserve,” Materialy k mineralogii Yuzhnogo Urala [Materials to Mineralogy of South Urals], AS USSR, 1978, pp. 92–97, in Russian). Wafers 200–400 µm in width were prepared in order to study fluid inclusions (FI) trapped within the sapphire crystals.

Using Raman spectroscopy, solid phases in needle and thin-film form were identified as diaspore (figure 3); both vapor and liquid phases were found to be CO2, with a Fermi doublet for the liquid phase at 1282.9–1283.2 and 1387.2–1387.6 cm–1, accompanied by less intense symmetrical bands (“hot bands”; see N.B. Colthup et al., Introduction to Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy, 2nd ed., Academic Press, New York, 1975) at approximately 1264 and 1408 cm–1 and a small band at 1370 cm–1 due to 13CO2. Raman spectra in the 2000–4000 cm–1 range did not show H2O-, CH4-, or N2-related bands. The less intense apparent maxima at 418, 578, and 750 cm–1 belong to sapphire vibration modes. The distance between Fermi doublet peaks (Δ) ranged from 104.1 to 104.4 cm–1 (again, see figure 10), occurring at about 0.7 g/cm3 CO2 density (see X. Wang et al., “Raman spectroscopic measurements of CO2 density: Experimental calibration with high-pressure optical cell (HPOC) and fused silica capillary capsule (FSCC) with application to fluid inclusion observations,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 75, 2011, pp. 4080–4093). The distance was linked to the pressure at approximately 1.8 kbar for the trapping of fluid inclusions within the sapphire matrix (CO2 P-T isochores, or lines of constant density). The CO2 homogenization temperature (the temperature at which the fluid inclusion becomes a single-phase liquid or vapor) occurred in the liquid phase and measured between 30.1° and 30.7°C (figure 4), while the corundum-diaspore equilibrium was estimated at 510°–530°C (matching the previous estimation by V.A. Simonov, Usloviya mineraloobrazovaniya v granitnykh pegmatitakh [Conditions of Mineral Formation in Non-Granitic Pegmatites], Nauka, Novosibirsk, USSR, 1981, in Russian). Based on the determined pressure (around 1.8 kbar), the temperature of stability for the corundum-orthoclase-H2O system was higher than 690°C (H.S. Yoder and H.P. Eugster, “Synthetic and natural muscovites,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 8, 1955, pp. 225–280), likely linked to the multistage geological history of blue sapphire crystallization along the P-T path in the Ilmen Mountains.

Figure 3. Raman spectra at room temperature of a fluid inclusion trapped in a sapphire
from the Ilmen Mountains: 12CO2 Fermi doublet along with hot bands and 13CO2 peak
(red trace), diaspore needle (blue), and a diaspore thin film (green). For 12CO2, the
average distance between Fermi doublet peaks (Δ) was calculated as 104.25 cm–1.
Diasp = diaspore, Sph = sapphire, Ilm = ilmenite, l = liquid CO2, v = vapor CO2.
Photomicrograph by Elena S. Sorokina; polarized transmitted light, field of view 0.288 mm.

Figure 4. Homogenization of CO2 in a fluid inclusion in sapphire from the Ilmen Mountains occurs in the liquid phase between 30.1° and 30.7°C. A: Homogenization of CO2 above 30.7°C. B and C: Vaporization of CO2 with a temperature below 30.7–30.1°C. D: The multiphase FI at room temperature. l = liquid, v = vapor. Photomicrographs by Jonathan Muyal; transmitted polarized illumination, field of view 0.72 mm.
Further study of these sapphires is needed to better understand the geological history of this locality, but the information obtained can provide valuable clues about the characterization of gem corundum from secondary placers. @chapter:13 @chapter:0 @chapter:13


# Publication Year: 1998
# Title: Raman Investigations on Two Historical Objects from Basel Cathedral: The Reliquary Cross and Dorothy Monstrance
# Abstract: Two ecclesiastical objects of the late Gothic period (1350–1520) were investigated to identify the gemstones that adorn them. Both are from the treasury of Basel Cathedral (Basler Münster, Basel, Switzerland). To avoid potential damage, the identifications were conducted using only optical microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Most of the mounted materials were found to be varieties of quartz, either as polished single pieces or as doublets with evidence of what may once have been dyed cement. Glass of various colors was also identified, as were peridot, sapphire, garnet, spinel, and turquoise. @chapter:4 @chapter:0 @chapter:4


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Very Large Type Ib Natural Diamond
# Abstract: Figure 1. The yellow color of this gem-quality 13.09 ct type Ib natural diamond rough is due to the presence of isolated nitrogen (C centers). Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

Nitrogen is the main impurity in diamond and during growth it is initially incorporated in the diamond lattice as isolated nitrogen atoms (C centers). Diamonds where the majority of nitrogen occurs in C centers are known as type Ib. While C centers are common in lab-grown HPHT diamonds, the occurrence of C centers in natural cratonic diamonds is extremely rare (<1% of all natural diamonds). Natural diamonds form deep in Earth’s mantle, where high temperatures result in nitrogen aggregating to form A centers (NS) and B centers (N4V).

GIA’s New York laboratory recently tested a large 13.09 ct gem-quality natural type Ib rough diamond. The diamond measured 13.51 × 11.56 × 10.18 mm, with rounded dodecahedral morphology and clear dissolution pits on some faces in a symmetrical pattern (figure 1). The diamond had a highly saturated, slightly orangy yellow color evenly distributed throughout the whole crystal. The diamond contained two tiny sulfide inclusions with their associated graphitic rosette fracture systems.

The infrared absorption spectrum revealed typical features of natural type Ib diamonds: a sharp peak at 1344 cm–1 and a broad band at 1130 cm–1. The absorption attributed to the A center (1280 cm–1) was rather weak. Spectral fitting showed that 75% of the nitrogen existed as C centers and 8% as A centers. This diamond did not contain any amber centers, which is consistent with the lack of plastic deformation lines or brownish hue.

The UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum, collected at liquid nitrogen temperature, showed a smooth and gradual increase in absorption from the near-infrared region to about 560 nm, and then a sharp increase to the high-energy side. C centers were the only color-introducing defect in this large diamond.

Photoluminescence (PL) spectra were collected at liquid nitrogen temperature with various laser excitations. Under 514 nm laser excitation, [N-V]0 at 574.9 nm and [N-V]– at 637.0 nm were detected. Many sharp emissions with unknown assignments were also observed (figure 2). With 830 nm laser excitation, weak emissions at 882/884 nm from Ni-related defects were observed.

Figure 2. The diamond’s PL spectrum, collected at liquid nitrogen temperature with 514 nm
laser excitation, showed emissions related to N-V centers along with many sharp peaks
of unknown assignment.
Large type Ib diamonds with intense yellow color are rarely seen. GIA continues to study these rare diamonds to understand the geological processes that allow isolated nitrogen to be preserved in some natural diamonds. Preservation of C centers in these natural diamonds is typically attributed to very young formation ages or to storage of these diamonds at cooler temperatures in Earth’s mantle than most other diamonds. Ongoing isotopic age dating of sulfide inclusions, combined with temperature constraints, will provide the opportunity to evaluate how these enigmatic type Ib diamonds are preserved in natural cratonic settings. @chapter:22 @chapter:1 @chapter:22


# Publication Year: 2013
# Title: Perles de Culture de la Mer de Cortez: Les Belles Inconnues [Unknown Beauties: Cultured Pearls from the Cortez Sea]
# Abstract: The first part of the article gives a historical survey of pearls from the Sea of Cortez (Gulf of California), followed by an account of the actual situation. Black pearls and nacre have been known since pre-Columbian times and were much coveted in Europe after the Spanish conquest. In the 16th century, the coastal city of La Paz became the main commercial center for nacre and pearls. The most famous pearl from this source is “La Peregrina,” a 203.8-grain gem last owned by Elizabeth Taylor, and John Steinbeck’s story “The Pearl” also takes place there.

While nacre production was predominant in the first half of the 19th century, black pearls were very much in fashion in the middle of the century. From 1893 to 1914, José Gourieux was the first to cultivate Pteria mazatlanica black-lipped oysters from La Paz for their nacre. He produced about five million oysters per year, of which 10% contained natural pearls. Although these were only a by-product, they led to a sharp decline in pearl diving. In 1914, the plant farm was destroyed during the Mexican revolution. The appearance of artificial substitutes for nacre, overfishing of the oyster banks, and a mysterious infection of the oyster larvae in 1939 finally led to the prohibition of all pearl diving a year later.

After attempts to renew pearl cultivation in the 1960s and 1970s, which failed largely because of political influences and the commercial success of black Tahitian pearls, three students of the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Superior Studies set up a small farm on the campus at Bacochicampo Bay in Guaymas. Their intent was not the industrial production of pearls but the development of environmentally sound and “oyster-friendly” methods of cultivation, which is why the oysters are implanted only once and harvests are small. The 2011 harvest consisted of 1,783 pearls, or 1.7 kg, as compared to 50 tons of Akoya pearls, 11 tons of South Sea pearls, 12 tons of Tahiti pearls, and 1,800 tons of Chinese freshwater pearls.

The other pearl-producing oyster of those waters, the rainbow-lipped Pteria sternia, yields black pearls with many different overtones. The young oysters are all harvested in the sea. Before the implantation of nuclei, the oysters are X-rayed. Some 3% contain natural pearls, and these oysters are not implanted. The pearls are sold as “natural,” though purists would dispute this description. The oysters with nuclei are cultivated for 18–24 months. The diameter of the cultured pearls ranges from 8–12 mm (3.2–4.8 inches), the thickness of the nacre from 0.8 mm–2 mm (0.3–0.8 inches). The pearls are black and very iridescent and show various strong overtones, including red (“cranberry”). Their luster is somewhat more silky than that of the Tahitian pearls. Unlike most other cultured pearls, they are not treated in any manner, except for rinsing with water. They show a pink to red UV fluorescence, which is characteristic of pearls from the Sea of Cortez.

The future is uncertain, however. The volume of larvae has dropped significantly because of global warming effects, damage to the oyster cages from fishing boats, and the fragility and sensitivity of Pteria sternia.

Abstracted by Rolf Tatje @chapter:53 @chapter:4 @chapter:53


# Publication Year: -
# Title: The Creation and Business of Beads
# Abstract: National Facets specializes in manufacturing gemstone beads of different varieties and styles. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	Creation and Business of Beads

	Let a GIA field team take you into one of the largest bead manufacturers in the world to see the creation of all styles of beads from all types of gemstones. Enter the world of beads and hear about one manufacturer’s firsthand experience in the global bead industry.

	Popular all over the world in a wide range of jewelry market sectors, beads are one of the most versatile jewelry items. Beads can be made out of transparent to translucent material like ruby, sapphire, quartz, and tourmaline, or phenomenal and translucent to opaque material like opal, moonstone, turquoise, and lapis lazuli. Almost every gemstone material can be fashioned into beads.

	This multi-strand necklace of yellow sapphire beads will be impressive when worn. Bead strands can be very eye-catching high-end jewelry. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

View Gallery

	Creating Beads Gallery

	Beads are great for adding color by just putting on a strand. They can be used with pendants and enhancers to create a variety of looks. Multiple strands of beads can provide a rich look and a multitude of colors. From casual to formal, simple to complex, and inexpensive to high-end, bead jewelry has a long history of fitting all styles of adornment.

Tourmaline provides all the colors of the rainbow for a multi-strand necklace. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	National Facets manufactures beads and cabochons fashioned from all types of gemstones and sells them throughout the jewelry industry. They create multicolored multi-strand suites of sapphire, beryl, and tourmaline, encompassing all the colors of the rainbow. Jaipur is a major bead manufacturing center along with China. National Facets is one of the most versatile bead manufacturers, producing beads of all styles and types of gemstones. For over three decades Rajesh Dhamani has been the guiding force behind the company and its position in the bead industry. In the spirit of Jaipur family businesses, he is now assisted by his son Yash Dhamani, a GIA Alumni member and part of the new generation of Jaipur entrepreneurs. During the GIA team’s visit, we were able to film and document the entire production process, as well as interview one of the partners and gain in-depth insight into this specialized and fascinating segment of the jewelry industry.

Fashioning beads and cabochons is a hand-manufacturing process. The cutters use their experience, eyes, and sense of touch to create the final product. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: 2023 Sinkankas Symposium
# Abstract: Brendan Laurs, Meg Berry, and Aaron Celestian at the Sinkankas Symposium. Photos by Judy Colbert.
The Nineteenth Annual Sinkankas Symposium was held at GIA in Carlsbad, California, on April 22. Cohosted by GIA and the Geo-Literary Society, the event’s theme was “San Diego County Gems and Minerals.” Pink tourmaline, kunzite, spessartine garnet, and aquamarine were the focus of 11 presentations (see above).
Emcee Robert Weldon (GIA, Carlsbad) welcomed the capacity crowd to the first in-person Sinkankas Symposium since 2019. Dr. Raquel Alonso-Perez (Mineralogical and Geological Museum, Harvard University) recounted the history of the Pala Chief mine starting in the nineteenth century. Bill Larson and son Will Larson (Pala International, Fallbrook, California) examined the tourmalines of the Pala Gem Mining District and the Himalaya mine, respectively. Brendan Laurs (Journal of Gemmology) overviewed the geology of San Diego County pegmatites. Nathan Renfro (GIA, Carlsbad) showed fascinating inclusion features of various gem minerals from the county. Dr. Skip Simmons (Maine Mineral and Gem Museum, Bethel, Maine) detailed the tourmaline mineral group’s compositional variation, crystal structure, and classification.
Cal Graeber (Fallbrook, California) shared insights based on more than 50 years of experience mining and collecting San Diego County minerals. Lapidary artist Meg Berry (Megagem, Fallbrook, California) shared her decades of experience cutting locally mined tourmalines and showed several of her award-winning creations. By video, Paula Crevoshay (Albuquerque, New Mexico) looked back on her love affair with the gems of Southern California, which have often been incorporated into her acclaimed jewelry designs. Dr. Aaron Celestian (Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County) spoke on the use of gems to illuminate art and science. Using the museum’s special exhibit of Crevoshay jewelry as an example, he explained its integration with social media and traditional print media to communicate scientific content. Dr. George Rossman (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena) joined Dr. Aaron Palke (GIA, Carlsbad) in examining the range of colors and color-causing elements in San Diego County gem minerals.
The next Sinkankas Symposium, scheduled for May 2024 in Carlsbad, will be on Burmese gems from Mogok. @chapter:4 @chapter:0 @chapter:4


# Publication Year: 1994
# Title: Fall 1994 Gem News International
# Abstract: Diamonds
            Update on Botswana Diamond Mining
            West African Diamond Mining
            Diamond Mining in Namibia
            South African Diamond Mining
            Update on Australian Diamond Mining
            Update on Diamond Production in the Former USSR
            Unusual Diamond Crystal
Colored Stones
            "Caymanite" from the Grand Cayman Islands, Caribbean
            Chrysoprase Chalcedony Matrix Carving
            Demantoid Garnet from Mexico
            News from Nepal
            Horse Conch "Pearls"
            Notable Round Black Cultured Pearl
            Peridot from Pakistan
            Yukon Rhodonite
            "Samotsvetov" Colored Stones Museum in Moscow
            "Trapiche" Purple-Pink Sapphire
            Gem-Inlaid Shell Jewelry
            Tourmaline with Atypical R.I. Reading
            Gem Production in the U.S
            Green Cat's-eye Zoisite
Enhancements
            Coated Jadeite
Synthetics and Simulants
            Synthetic Phenakite from Russia
            New Production Facility Inaugurated in Siberia
Instrumentation
            Russian Equipment for Diamond Sorting and Identification
Miscellaneous
            Sinkankas Book Honored

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:21 @chapter:0 @chapter:21


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Golden Coral Imitated by Plastic
# Abstract: Figure 1. These photos compare the appearance of golden coral (left) and a plastic imitation (right). Photo by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.

As one of the seven Buddhist treasures, coral is a symbol of importance in Chinese culture. Golden-colored coral is considered “sublime,” since both red and gold represent prosperity and prestige. Golden coral, which is usually treated black coral, can be identified by its appearance and structure, with concentric growth layers and a pitted texture (figure 1, left). Imitations lack these characteristic features, which is of relevance to those deal with coral.

The Lai Tai-An Gem Laboratory in Taipei recently received a bracelet for identification; the client claimed the material was golden coral. The bracelet was composed of several evenly sized bright gold to deep brown beads, strung together with thread, that exhibited a waxy luster and an interesting “swirl” pattern (figure 1, right). Identical spot RIs of 1.55 were obtained from each bead, and there was no reaction under LW or SWUV light. The material did not exhibit the characteristic pitted texture of golden coral. Further analysis by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy identified the beads as plastic (resin). Peaks at 2934, 2862, 1731, 1285, 1128, 1072, 745, and 703 cm–1 in the infrared spectrum (figure 2) and peaks at 619, 649, 1000, 1038, 1448, 1578, 1599, and 1725 cm–1 in the Raman spectrum (figure 3) were indicative of plastic. Further inspection at 60× magnification with high-intensity fiber-optic illumination showed that these translucent beads had the same swirl texture extending to the center from the surface, indicating that they were composed of plastic. The aforementioned natural characteristics were not seen at all in this material.

Figure 2. FTIR analysis reveals the difference between the spectra for a tested coral
sample (red line, peaks at 3277, 2936, 1657, and 1543 cm–1) and plastic (blue line, peaks
at 2934, 2862, 1731, 1285, 1128, 1072, 745, and 703 cm–1).

Figure 3. Raman analysis (excitation wavelength of 785 nm) confirmed the beads’ identity
as plastic.
Golden coral may possess a degree of instability, so some material is coated with resin to strengthen the structure. In this case, however, each bead was entirely formed of plastic made to imitate golden coral. Plastics, along with glass, are among the most adaptable materials and can be fabricated to imitate virtually any natural material imaginable. Some imitations are more difficult to identify than others, but in this example identification was fairly simple owing to the structural differences of the two materials, observed with either a microscope or a loupe. @chapter:54 @chapter:4 @chapter:54


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Update on Sapphire Mining in Ilakaka-Sakaraha, Madagascar
# Abstract: A parcel of sapphire and chrysoberyl from the Ilakaka-Sakaraha deposit in southern Madagascar. Photo by Vincent Pardieu, © GIA.

Introduction
In July-August 2010 and August 2012, this contributor visited southern Madagascar to collect reference samples from the Ilakaka-Sakaraha deposit, probably the world’s largest sapphire producer over the past 13 years. This update presents a map of the mining areas. Note that all the sapphire-producing localities are associated with sandstone areas.

The first discovery happened in 1998, near Ilakaka Be. Because the village was near Route Nationale 7 (RN7), the main road linking the capital city Antananarivo to the port of Toliara, the locals quickly found a thriving market with Thai and Malagasy merchants. Within months, miners from around the island settled near the bridge on the Ilakaka River, and a boomtown was born. Ilakaka is a much quieter place today. Tourists regularly stop there, while Sri Lankan, Thai, and Malagasy gem traders still conduct business.

A map of the Ilakaka-Sakaraha mining areas of southern Madagascar.
Many gemologists and traders are surprised by the extent of the deposit. Discoveries occurred beyond the Ilakaka area on the Malio and Fiherenana River basins in the north and on the Benahy, Taheza, Imaloto, and Onilahy River basins to the south and west of Ilakaka (basins are separated by yellow dots on the map). As the map shows, the deposit extends about 120 km east from Anena (on the Onilahy River) to Anakondro (on the Imaloto), and nearly 100 km north from Anena to Antaralava (on the Fiherenana) and Anakondro to Ankaboka Malio (on the Malio).

While sapphires were also reported north of Antaralava near Fotilovo and Murarano and in the Malio Valley north of Ankaboka Malio, this contributor has not explored these remote areas.

Ilakaka River Basin: The discovery near Ilakaka Be fell short of its early promise, and within months activity moved upstream to Ambarazy, which was briefly an important trading center, and the famous Banque Suisse mining site, one of the largest pits ever dug by hand in Madagascar. Mining also occurred north of RN7 on the western side of the Ilakaka River, up to the village of Bepeha. Mining was not allowed on the eastern side of the river, which is part of Isalo National Park. While small groups were still active at Banque Suisse in 2012, mining had nearly stopped elsewhere in the basin. Besides a few groups working around the town, a small Thai mechanized operation is still at Amabrazy. Overall, some 300 people were still mining in the Ilakaka River basin, a fraction of the estimated 60,000 there in 1999.

Eastern Boundary and Imaloto River Basin: Very few sapphires have been found beyond the eastern limit of the sandstone-related rocks. The only exceptions are the secondary deposits along the Imaloto, near Lovokadabo, Ampasimamitaka, Sakabe, Ambotzove, and Ankondro, where sapphires were trapped in river sediments, probably transported from sandstone-covered regions by the Ilakaka and Benahy Rivers. In 2012, the area along the Imaloto seemed to be producing again after several relatively quiet years. Gems were also found in several areas closer to Sakalama. A rush occurred in 2004 at Ampasimamitaka, where the sapphire-rich Benaha River joins the Imaloto. A parcel of mostly milky blue sapphires mined there were later found to contain natural beryllium. In 2008, it was difficult to find miners anywhere except Sakabe. Returning in 2012, the contributor witnessed a rush near Sakalama, with about 200 people at two large pits. Nearby at Mahavily, another 100 were reportedly mining on the Benahy River. At Ampasimamitaka, about 50 people were mining on the Imaloto. Other groups were reportedly working upstream to Lovokadabo, but also far downstream. At Ankondro, 50 km downstream near Benenitra, about 50 people were digging for pink and blue sapphires. Another 200 were said to be near Ambotzove. In 2012, we estimated 500 to 1,000 miners on the eastern side of the region, mostly along the Imaloto.

View Gallery

Western Boundary, Sakaraha to Bezaha: The western boundary links Sakaraha, south of the Fiherenana River, and Bezaha, on the Onilahy River. West of that the geology is dominated by limestone-, basalt-, and gabbro-rich areas where gems are found in two areas, carried by the rivers from the sapphire-rich sandstone-covered region between Sakaraha and Ilakaka.

In the northwest near Antaralava, at the intersection with the sapphire-rich Fiherenana River, a narrow sandstone-rich area extends north to south between two regions containing limestone. Mining started in 2000, and in 2012 about 50 people were there.

In the southwest near Anena, on the Onilahy River, a minor rush occurred in 2005, and five years later about 100 miners were believed to be at the site. Anena is the only known deposit south of the Onilahy, a deep, powerful river not currently mined for gems. The discovery at Anena and the fact that the sapphire-rich Ilamoto and Taheza Rivers flow into the Onilahy suggest that this river is abundant with sapphires. Yet the area is too remote to attract the mechanized mining needed to work the deep sands.

Benahy River Basin: Mining along the Benahy started in 1999. The village of Vohimena soon became famous, and several mechanized operations were there from 2000 to 2011. In March 2005 an important discovery happened near Sakameloka, an area that became known for pink sapphires. Several other mechanized operations followed until late 2007, when prices for small pink rough in the Ilakaka market reportedly dropped 90% from the year before.

Other mining villages lower on the Benahy, such as Morafena, were too remote to explore. Visiting the area from Sakameloka down to Vohimena Mahafala in 2012, the contributor observed fewer than 500 miners along that portion of the Benahy. The mechanized operations seen there from 2005 to 2010 had ceased.

	Sapphire miners pose with their hand tools at a site on the Benahy River near Sakameloka. Photo by Vincent Pardieu, © GIA.
Malio and Fiherenana River Basins: In late 1999, mining started north of RN7 in the Fiherenana and Malio River basins near Ankaboka Malio, Analamahavelona, Betikely, Maromiandra, Ankaboka Ambinany, Andralanova, Bevilany, and Antaralava. Several Thai companies were operating machinery near Ankaboka Ambinany and the bridge at Bevilany. After the 2003 discovery of significant deposits near Manombo Be, Sri Lankan buyers opened offices there to intercept the sapphires before they reached the Thai buyers in Ilakaka.

By 2005, Manombo rivaled Ilakaka, but most of the evening activity now happens at nearby Sakaveero, the trading center built circa 2007. Activity north of RN7 was reportedly weak in 2010, but in August 2012 about 1,000–1,500 locals using hand tools were scattered north of the road, including areas of the Zombitze-Vohibasia National Park. About 400 miners were south of Manombo Be at Manombo, Misereno, and Anduharano. Near Analamahavelona, the discovery of fine blue and pink stones in May 2012 attracted some 400 miners. Near Ankaboka Ambinany, a few hundred people were working different deposits around the villages north of the Bevilany Bridge, where a Thai mechanized operation used two excavators and a washing plant. Another few hundred were reportedly at Ankaboka Malio and other remote areas of the Malio River.

Taheza River Basin: Since about 2000, sapphires have been mined along the lower Taheza north of Bezaha and in the upper valley. Mining villages sprang up at Analasoa, Analalava, Mahasoa, and Ambalavihy, where tens of thousands were reportedly working. Mining rights were soon acquired by large Sri Lankan companies. After attempting to mechanize, they decided to buy stones from locals instead, supporting them with food and tools. This model became very successful in the Taheza basin, and by 2008 it was probably the main sapphire region in the whole deposit. While activity in the upper basin has declined, it has increased near Antsoa, where about 5,000 people were mining and washing gravels in 2011 and 2012. In 2011 the main mining area was Mangatoka, but the next summer it was Ankaranduha, where more than 1,000 were working. In the Taheza basin the sapphire-rich gravels are usually about 30 meters deep, but some artisanal miners used a 50-meter vertical shaft to reach the gravels, which were mined by digging narrow horizontal tunnels. For the digger to breathe, air had to be sent underground using large plastic bags and tubes. The gravels were extracted and taken to the river for washing.

	A sapphire miner works with hand tools in the Taheza River at Analalava. Photo by Vincent Pardieu, © GIA.
Due to the lack of roads, activity could not be observed on the Taheza south of Ambatomainty, where there were remnants of Sri Lankan operations. From Bezaha up to Ankilivaly, the contributor explored the lower Taheza basin in 2010 and 2012 and saw mining near Ankilitelo, Ambarinakoho, and Ankilivaly. A gem rush occurred at Ambalmasai in late 2011, and the following year about 500 people were still mining that remote area. Some activity was also reported at Sarouval, about 5 km north of Ambalmasai on the other side of the Taheza. At each site, Sri Lankan companies supplied the miners with loading trucks, tools, and food.

In 2012, most of the production from western Ilakaka-Sakaraha was along the Taheza, in the area south of Manombo, near Vohimena, and in a few spots north of RN7. Sapphire trading followed the same trend. Ilakaka was quiet except for the morning gem market and late at night when people offered the stones they were unable to sell at Sakaveero, the popular new trading spot.

Overall, mining and trading around Ilakaka is down from previous years. But with 10,000–20,000 miners and several hundred buyers, Ilakaka-Sakaraha probably still surpasses Ratnapura and Elahera in Sri Lanka as the world’s main source for blue and pink sapphires. From April to July 2012, many of the buyers and miners left Ilakaka to work in the jungle near Didy and Ambatondrazaka, where fine rubies and sapphires were discovered in March 2012. Most of them returned to Ilakaka in July when the new site (located in a protected area) was closed by the authorities, and by August business was mostly back to normal. @chapter:51 @chapter:0 @chapter:51


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Ceramic Ring Donation: A Teaching Tool for Students
# Abstract: Etienne Perret’s black concave Saturn ring shows how the designer uses ceramic as a cost-effective alternative to metals. The ring will soon be part of the GIA Museum collection. Photo by Ron Saltiel.

	Designer Etienne Perret, GG, known for his colored diamond jewelry, is a pioneer in the use of ceramic as a cost-effective design alternative to platinum, gold and other precious metals. Perret’s innovative work will soon shine at GIA with the addition of a black concave Saturn ring from his Ceramique collection to the GIA museum – and eventually the Institute’s classrooms – this fall.

	The 12mm-wide ring features an 18K yellow gold band that has been welded onto the ceramic and set with 36 heat-treated sapphires in a variety of colors. It is the first ceramic piece to be featured in the museum and the second donation from Perret, who earned his GG in his spare time through correspondence classes in the 1970s and 80s while working as a jewelry store owner and manager.

	A desire to have ceramic jewelry represented at GIA made Perret decide to donate the ring. “I believe strongly in the GIA Museum,” he said. “I’ve gone to Carlsbad and spent time there and in the library. They’re fantastic for the jewelry world and the general public as well, and go far beyond benefiting the students.”

	Perret’s work with ceramic extends the boundaries of what can be done with new materials and technology, according to Mark Maxwell, manager of the jewelry manufacturing arts program.

	“He’s the most prominent name not only in the use of ceramic, but also in the contemporary metals field. This piece in platinum or gold would be double or triple the price,” Maxwell said. “In turning to ceramic, Perret is making fashion more affordable for today’s more cost-conscious times.”

	Perret’s career spans decades and is marked by a number of accolades, including two Diamonds of Distinction awards, but it is his Ceramique collection that has been making waves in the jewelry industry in recent years. He perfected the art of working with the extremely hard gem-like substance using gem cutting tools to create ceramic designs in a variety of colors, although he prefers traditional black.

	Perret uses zirconia ceramic, which is mined in an ecologically friendly manner and originates in the zircon sands of Australia. First developed for aerospace and other high-tech industries, it is used in everything from kitchen knives to dental and joint implants. With a rating of 8.7 on the Mohs scale, zirconia ceramic has a hardness that is nearly equal to that of sapphire, which gives it high durability and protects it from scratches and other damage.

	“For our students, this donation is an incredible gift, and the plan is for the piece – like others before it – to eventually work its way into the classroom,” Maxwell said. “There’s no other educational institution in the world that gives its students the chance to not only see, but to also physically hold, creations such as this.”

	It’s important for students to understand the history and innovations of the past and to also explore the new frontier that designers such as Perret represent, Maxwell added.  “We’re thrilled to have the ring on display and available for our students to study.” @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: 2024
# Title: An Exceptional Cat’s-Eye Emerald
# Abstract: Double cabochon cat’s-eye emerald weighing 5.11 ct and measuring 10.77 × 8.95 × 7.39 mm, from Goiás State, Brazil. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Douglas M. Liebman Estate Jeweler.
Those in the gem trade often recall a memorable experience, gemstone, or business connection. A Brazilian cat’s-eye emerald (see above) presented at the AGTA show by estate dealer Doug Liebman (Scottsdale, Arizona) conjured all three.
Liebman shared the story of how in 1983, early in his career, he forged a long-term relationship with Albert Sabbagh, cofounder of Ben Sabbagh Bros. in Brazil. Liebman’s early buying trips to Brazil revealed a wide variety of gemstone offers at all price points, including the magnificent cat’s-eye emerald.
Emeralds have been mined sporadically and in small quantities in the Brazilian state of Goiás for more than 100 years. In 1981, the deposits were found to produce emerald of a desirable quality. This prompted more steady mining, which has been continuous ever since. The emeralds occur in a talc schist as stubby crystals usually less than 1 cm long. Their color ranges from pale to dark green, often with a bluish overtone. The best faceted stones are rarely over one carat.
Last year, at GJX 2023, Liebman visited the Ben Sabbagh Bros. booth and spoke with Albert’s sons Samuel and Clement. They showed him a cat’s-eye emerald from Goiás that had been part of their late father’s private collection. Liebman recalled the emerald from his early days with Sabbagh. While impressed by the stone, he left the booth without buying.
After some reflection, Liebman returned to GJX first thing the next morning. He said yes to the emerald before they even told him the price.
The 5.11 ct cat’s-eye emerald is extraordinary for its color, clarity, legacy, and allure, with no additional light source needed to display the centerline cat’s-eye effect. What goes around often does come back around, at the right time, in the right place: Tucson, Arizona. @chapter:4 @chapter:0 @chapter:4


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: “Decorated” Jadeite Jade in the Chinese Market
# Abstract: Figure 1. A light-colored off-white jadeite pendant decorated with small green and brown jadeite attachments. Photo by Fen Liu.

Jadeite jade has long been popular in China, where it has profound cultural connotations. Fine-quality jadeite has the highest market value, especially the colorful and near-transparent pieces. Bright color zoning on a piece of jadeite will enhance its value; therefore, color-enhanced jadeite is available in the market. Filling and dyeing have been used for decades to modify jadeite’s color, but these methods can damage the texture of jadeite and reduce its value. A new method, cementing small colored jadeite attachments on the surface of jadeite ornaments, recently appeared in the Chinese jade market. Because the method does little or no damage to the main jadeite’s texture, we consider this an assembled stone.

Figure 1 shows three jadeite pendants decorated with small green and brown jadeite plates. These pendants were submitted to the Gem Testing Center of China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) for identification of species and treatment. They were tested by observation under microscope and ultraviolet lamp, infrared (IR) spectroscopy, and ultraviolet/visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectroscopy.

The background color and texture quality of the small plate attachments was similar to those of the main jadeite body, creating a harmonious overall appearance (again, see figure 1). The green color appeared to be floating on the surface and seemed to be detached from the base (figure 2, left), whereas the natural color zone of jadeite always changes gradually. Resin with accompanying bubbles was found in the space between the green attachments and the jadeite body (figure 2, right). Under the long-wave UV lamp, the resin in the contact region emitted strong blue-white fluorescence while the body did not fluoresce (figure 3).

Figure 2. Left: The green color on this jadeite appears to float on the surface and has a clear boundary. Field of view 5.50 mm. Right: Resin with bubbles fills the space in the contact area. Field of view 16.8 mm. Photomicrographs by Shufang Nie.

Figure 3. The resin in the contact region emits strong blue-white fluorescence under a
long-wave ultraviolet lamp. Photo by Fen Liu.

The IR reflection spectra of the green attachments showed typical jadeite features (figure 4, left). However, the IR transmission spectrum of the contact zone revealed peaks at 3058 and 3037 cm–1, indicating the stretching vibration of the benzene ring in resin (figure 4, right), which was used to attach the decoration. The blue trace in figure 4 is typical for jadeite without any treatment.

Figure 4. Left: The IR reflection spectrum of the jadeite decorations matches the typical spectrum for jadeite. Right: IR transmission spectra of the jadeite body (blue trace) and the green attachment zone (red trace). The blue trace is typical for natural jadeite without filling, while the 3058 and 3037 cm–1 peaks on the red trace are characteristic for resin, which was used to attach the colored jadeite plates.

The attachments all had a typical fibrous-granulous crystalloblastic texture without loosening or slagging. This implied they were natural jadeite that had not been subjected to acid washing or filling. The green color of the attachments was also natural, as shown by the UV-Vis absorption spectrum, which showed the 690 and 660 nm peaks induced by Cr3+. @chapter:46 @chapter:4 @chapter:46


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Glassy Melt Inclusions in Sapphires from Montana
# Abstract: Left: A two-phase glassy melt and gas inclusion and a glass-filled discoid fracture in a sapphire from the Rock Creek deposit in Montana. Center: A two-phase glassy melt and gas inclusion and a glass-filled discoid fracture in a sapphire from the Rock Creek deposit. Right: A two-phase glassy melt and gas inclusion, in a sapphire also from the Missouri River, showing the surrounding discoid fracture. This fracture presumably filled with a silicate liquid and partially healed, leaving an impression in some places of the corundum host’s trigonal crystallographic orientation. Photomicrographs by Aaron Palke; field of view 1.24 mm (left) and 0.62 mm (center and right).

	Two-phase inclusions are common in many sapphires. Physical and chemical analysis of the gas and liquid phases present in these inclusions can shed light on the formation conditions of alluvial sapphires, even in the absence of evidence of source rock lithology. We report here some initial observations of a different type of two-phase inclusion, seen in alluvial sapphires from the Rock Creek and Missouri River deposits in the state of Montana.

	At first glance, these inclusions appeared to be ordinary gas-liquid inclusions (left image); however, polishing through the inclusions demonstrated that the “liquid” component was actually a glassy solid. The identification of the solid as a glass rested with the phase’s optically isotropic nature and the lack of an identifiable Raman spectroscopic signal attributable to any crystalline phase. Glassy melt inclusions in Montana sapphires were previously documented by John Koivula (R.W. Hughes, Ruby & Sapphire, RWH Publishing, Boulder, Colorado, 2007, pp. 468–469). Electron microprobe analysis (EPMA) of glass inclusions from several samples showed them to be dacitic to trachydacitic in composition. In this sense the inclusions are ordinary two-phase inclusions in which the original liquid phase was a silicic magma that quenched to form a silicate glass. The gas phase is presumed to have originally been dissolved in the silicate magma. Later exsolution produced a separate gas phase as volatile solubility in the magma decreased due to falling pressure and/or temperature. Volatile exsolution likely also led to the discoid fractures commonly seen around melt inclusions, which are filled with silicate liquid and/or the volatiles themselves (again, see left image). The center image captures a snapshot of the process of volatile exsolution and the “bursting” of the two-phase inclusions, in which multiple gas bubbles seem to have precipitated instantaneously as the inclusion exploded out into the surrounding corundum. Due to the high relief of the silicate glass, these discoid fractures often have a “flux”-like appearance. In some cases, the fractures seem to have partially healed, leaving hexagonal geometric patterns as evidence of the crystallographic orientation of the sapphire host (right image). Further work is being carried out to characterize these inclusions and to decipher the story they have to tell about the genesis of alluvial Montana sapphires. @chapter:24 @chapter:0 @chapter:24