# Publication Year: -
# Title: Consumer Confidence, Jewelry Sales, On the Rise
# Abstract: The rough diamond market has been buoyed by a strong U.S. holiday season and anticipation of improving Chinese demand. Photo courtesy of Rio Tinto

The improving economy and continued employment growth in the U.S. have Americans looking past the news of the day to go out and spend money. In Asia, the revival in the Chinese consumer market seems to be picking up as large retailers there report strong sales gains.

U.S. consumer confidence edged upward in January, though a significant percentage of Americans remain ambivalent, probably over the long-term effects of the tax bill that took effect at the beginning of the year, according to the Conference Board’s monthly Consumer Confidence Survey.

“Overall, however, consumers remain quite confident that the solid pace of growth seen in late 2017 will continue into 2018,” the board said.

Tiffany & Co, reported an overall sales gain of 8% in its holiday sales report, with same-store revenues up 6% in the U.S. and 7% in Asia, noting that some “exceptional high jewelry creations” helped sales increase. The company expects sales to continue trending upward “in the middle single digits,” but said that “evolving product offerings and customer service experience” will be necessary to sustain this growth.

In addition, LVMH, the luxury conglomerate which owns Cartier, Bulgari and a number of high-market watch brands, reported a 12% same-store sales increase in its jewelry and watch division. Sales were up strongly in every market, the company reported.

Sales of jewelry in China took a sharp upturn in December, totaling just under $5 billion, nearly $1 billion higher than each of the previous six months, according to government statistics. The major Chinese jewelry retailers reported 5% to 12% growth in same store sales during the third quarter, following nearly two years of sales declines, and are generally expected to match or exceed those results when the year-end results are announced.

De Beers’ first cycle of the year totaled $665 million, which includes sights and other sales. Typically for January, it was a large allocation that was readily absorbed into the market after a successful fall season that saw some reductions in rough and polished inventories and improved cash flow that eased pressure from banks. The total was down significantly from the January 2017 cycle of $729 million, but De Beers’ CEO Bruce Cleaver noted that last year’s numbers were boosted by the take up of goods that had been deferred because of India’s demonetization of larger denomination rupee notes.

De Beers’ diamond production increased 22% to 33.5 million carats (valued at about $5.7 billion) last year after the opening of its Gahcho Kue mine in Canada and restoration of full production at Orapa in Botswana, the company announced. De Beers’ total rough sales came to 35.1 million carats as it marketed goods that were deferred from 2016. The discrepancy between De Beers’ rough production and sales may rise this year after it announced it would auction rough diamonds consigned by other mining companies.

Alrosa remained the world’s largest diamond producer by volume, mining 39.6 million carats, though, like De Beers, it sold about 1.5 million carats it had previously stockpiled. Its output rose 6% last year, despite a disastrous flood at Mir Mine that killed eight workers and forced the closure of its operations. Mir produced higher-value diamonds and its closure will likely result in a lower average per carat price for Alrosa’s production this year. The accident also postponed Alrosa’s plans to further privatize the company, reducing the government stake from 43.9% to 29%.
TUCSON SHOW
Reports from the Tucson gem shows indicate that demand for higher quality gems, untreated in particular, and popularly priced stones was strong, with the middle market remaining weak.

Demand for ruby, sapphire and emerald was good, according to trade press reports, though prices have declined because of increasing supplies.

With the growth in the market for distinctive jewelry at affordable prices, calls for amethyst, citrine, blue topaz and other less expensive gems have increased. Additionally, the market for unusual gemstones from designers who create limited or one-of-a-kind pieces is strong.

The Centurion Show in nearby Scottsdale saw lighter traffic, but much stronger buying than last year. Exhibitors noted that retailers seemed much more confident of a good year at this show. @chapter:32 @chapter:3 @chapter:32


# Publication Year: 2013
# Title: Peridot, Pyroxene, and Plagioclase: Mantle Megacrysts from Lunar Crater Volcanic Field in Nevada
# Abstract: Megacrysts within xenoliths transported by explosive volcanic eruptions to the surface are fingerprints of the earth’s upper mantle and possible collectors’ items.

Lunar Crater is located in Nye County, Nevada. It is a Quaternary alkali basaltic field with lava flows, cinder cones, and maars covering more than 100 square miles of Nevada desert. At numerous alkali basaltic volcanic fields in the western United States, ultramafic mantle xenoliths of peridotite, dunite, lherzolite, and monomineralic xenocrysts are found in lunar craters. Olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, hornblende, and magnetite ranging from a few millimeters to centimeters are common megacrysts. These megacrysts are usually ejected from the volcanic vent as the cores of volcanic bombs. Bomb morphology can vary considerably due to different viscosities of lava. While these magacrysts can provide scientific information on the upper mantle composition, the authors are interested in their possible gemological significance. Peridot, the green variety of olivine, is reported to occur in nodules up to 50 cm. But the crystals are highly fractured, making them unfit for faceting. Plagioclase crystals from the lunar crater can be clear to translucent white and show typical feldspar twinning. Pyroxene megacrysts found in the lunar crater are usually the augite variety and apple green, bottle green, or nearly black.

Minerals in the Lunar Crater volcanic field are abundant and easily accessed. Volcanic bombs contain exotic xenocrysts of possible gem significance, making this a worthy destination for rock hunters.

Abstracted by Tao Hsu @chapter:3 @chapter:0 @chapter:3


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Buried Treasure: GIA Team Documents Cheapside Hoard
# Abstract: This enameled gold hat ornament in the form of a salamander is one of the Cheapside Hoard’s most iconic pieces. The enameling on the front shows an open mouth with tiny black flecks resembling teeth. The pin is decorated with cabochon emeralds from Colombia, and the tail contains table-cut diamonds. Courtesy of the Museum of London; photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.

GIA photographer Robert Weldon and videographer Kevin Schumacher traveled to the Museum of London to learn about the Cheapside Hoard, an extraordinary treasure that had been buried under a London tenement house for centuries.  The duo spent 10 hours interviewing, photographing and filming museum staff about the collection before it went on exhibit in October 2013.

The significance of this find is summed up best by Hazel Forsyth, the Museum of London’s senior curator of medieval and post-medieval collections, who has devoted her life to uncovering the mystery of the Cheapside Hoard:

“This collection is unique in the world. It is the largest hoard of its kind, dating from the very late
16th to the early 17th century. Part of the reason why it’s so important is that jewelry tends to be broken up, refashioned, reworked, and so therefore doesn’t survive. Because this was buried and lay undisturbed for the better part of 300 years, it survived in the condition that it has. And it covers a huge spectrum of jewelry designs and types, but also gem material from many parts of the world, which really underlines London’s role in the international gem and jewelry trade in this period.”

Weldon and Cathy Jonathan, a research librarian for GIA, share the history of the Cheapside Hoard in the Fall 2013 issue of Gems & Gemology. @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: 2022
# Title: Two Black Non-Nacreous Bead Cultured Pearls from Pinctada margaritifera
# Abstract: Figure 1. Left: Two black pearls, a 15.16 ct near-round and a 22.19 ct button, shown on the nacreous interior surface of a Pinctada margaritifera shell. Right: The pearls both had a similar vitreous luster and a non-nacreous surface. Photos by Annie Haynes.

Figure 2. The button-shaped pearl displayed two different surface appearances. The main body was composed of a non-nacreous surface with calcite cellular structure, while the circled area at the base of the pearl had a nacreous surface with an aragonite platelet structure. Photomicrograph by Artitaya Homkrajae; field of view 16.24 mm.
The laboratory in Carlsbad recently received for identification two black pearls, one near-round and one button. The near-round pearl weighed 15.16 ct, while the button weighed 22.19 ct, with dimensions of 13.17 × 13.02 mm and 14.81 × 14.52 mm, respectively. Both displayed a similar vitreous luster and a non-nacreous surface appearance (figure 1). The button-shaped pearl also exhibited a nacreous surface on a small circled area at the base (figure 2). Microscopic examination using fiber-optic illumination revealed that the non-nacreous surface was composed of a mosaic or cellular pattern, resulting from the acicular nature of the individual calcite crystals. Some fine surface lines were also present in random directions across the cellular structures (figure 3). These cellular structures resembled those commonly observed on pen pearls from the Pinnidae family (N. Sturman et al., “Observations on pearls reportedly from the Pinnidae family (pen pearls),” Fall 2014 G&G, pp. 202–215).

Figure 3. The non-nacreous surface of both pearls exhibited a similar cellular structure that could be viewed under high magnification using fiber-optic illumination. Some fine surface lines were present in random directions across the cellular structures. Photomicrograph by Artitaya Homkrajae; field of view 1.59 mm.
A Raman spectrometer with 514 nm argon-ion laser excitation was used to examine the surface composition. The non-nacreous surfaces of both pearls showed a calcite spectrum with peaks at 712 and 1085 cm–1, and aragonite peaks at 705 and 1085 cm–1 were recorded on the nacreous surface at the circular base of the button-shaped pearl. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence chemical analysis showed low levels of manganese and high strontium content, confirming the pearls formed in a saltwater environment.

Figure 4. RTX imaging revealed a round bead nucleus in the center of each pearl, indicating the pearls were bead cultured. Images by Stephanie Shaw.
The large size, black bodycolor, and cellular structure of the pearls looked similar to the unusual non-nacreous natural pearls reportedly from Pteria species (S. Karampelas and H. Abdulla, “Black non-nacreous natural pearls from Pteria sp.,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 35, No. 7, 2017, pp. 590–592) and a bead cultured (BC) pen pearl (Winter 2014 GNI, pp. 305–306) previously reported. Under long-wave ultraviolet radiation (365 nm), the pearls exhibited very weak yellow fluorescence that differed from the strong orangy red fluorescence observed in non-nacreous Pteria pearls. Real-time microradiography (RTX) revealed a round bead nucleus in the center of both pearls, indicating BC pearl origin (figure 4) similar to the previously reported BC pen pearl. Nevertheless, the ultraviolet/visible reflectance spectrum collected on the button pearl’s nacreous surface showed a typical reflectance feature at 700 nm, a key mollusk identification feature attributed to Pinctada margaritifera pearls (K. Wada, “Spectral characteristics of pearls,” Gemological Society of Japan, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1983, pp. 3–11, in Japanese). The reflectance features at 405 and 495 nm normally observed in naturally colored gray to black nacre of P. margaritifera shells were also present. Combining the cellular surface structures, BC origin, saltwater environment, and spectroscopic characteristics, we were able to conclude that both were non-nacreous BC pearls from the P. margaritifera mollusk.
All pearls are formed from calcium carbonate (CaCO3) polymorphs such as aragonite and calcite together with organic substances as well as water. The most common form of CaCO3 in pearls is a layered structure of aragonite platelets. This structure is the reason pearls display a nacreous surface and pearly luster. A non-nacreous surface indicates a pearl that formed from CaCO3 but not with an aragonite platelet microstructure. Conch and Melo pearls are non-nacreous pearls that possess an aragonite fibrous or lamellar structure that display flame-like surface patterns. Scallop pearls are non-nacreous pearls made of calcite in a honeycomb patchwork of cells. Pen pearls mentioned previously are another type of calcite pearls with a cellular structure.
These two special occurrences are the first non-nacreous BC pearls from P. margaritifera identified by GIA. Cultured pearls from this mollusk, both BC and non-bead cultured, typically display a nacreous surface and are often referred to as “Tahitian” pearls in the market. Genetics is probably the most important factor influencing the biomineralization of a pearl, yet many other factors can be involved such as water environment and health of the mollusk. Organic substances also play an important role in the biomineralization process (C. Jin and J. Li, “The molecular mechanism of pearl biomineralization,” Annals of Aquaculture and Research, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2017, p. 1032). In nature, many living organisms elaborately control the formation of biominerals for specialized functions such as mechanical support, protection, and mineral storage. Some mollusk species may produce different structures under certain circumstances. @chapter:11 @chapter:4 @chapter:11


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Unusual Solid Inclusions in Flame-Fusion Ruby
# Abstract: Figure 1. Numerous natural-looking dark red solid inclusions were observed in a flame-fusion laboratory-grown ruby. Photomicrograph by Ezgi Kiyak; field of view 2.9 mm.
The author recently examined unusual dark red solid inclusions in a flame-fusion laboratory-grown ruby. Standard gemological testing yielded a refractive index of 1.760–1.768, a chromium emission line in red using a handheld spectroscope, medium red fluorescence under long-wave UV, and weak red fluorescence under short-wave UV. These properties were consistent with ruby. Microscopic examination using brightfield illumination revealed numerous dark red inclusions (figure 1) that resembled crystals commonly seen within natural corundum.

Figure 2. Strong curved growth lines and numerous gas bubbles and dark solid inclusions were present in the flame-fusion ruby. Photomicrograph by Ezgi Kiyak; field of view 2.9 mm.
Furthermore, magnification showed characteristic internal features of flame-fusion ruby such as curved striae and gas bubbles. The strong curved growth lines and numerous gas bubbles (figure 2) suggested that this was an early type of flame-fusion ruby. Although flame-fusion corundum is widely available in the marketplace, it is unusual to encounter a specimen containing natural-looking dark red solid inclusions. These inclusions are possibly unmelted alumina powder, and the fact that Raman was unable to identify something other than alumina supports this (E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Volume 3, Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, 2008).
Identification of the natural or laboratory-grown origin of a stone with this type of natural-looking inclusion can be difficult. Careful observation is needed to correctly identify such a specimen’s origin. @chapter:19 @chapter:0 @chapter:19


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Sean Hill: Exquisite Jewelry Designs
# Abstract: Figure 1. The “Seven Sisters” ring in 18K gold with 17 bezel-set diamonds (0.55 carats total) and 22 sapphires ranging in size from 2.5 to 4.0 mm in blue, orange, mandarin, pink, and green (3.15 carats total). Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Sean Hill Designs.
At the GJX show, Sean Hill of Tucson presented some striking jewelry designs with masterful control of shape and line. A gold ring set with diamond, blue sapphire, and fancy-color sapphire (figure 1) drew us into his booth. Dr. Hill, a self-taught jeweler, has been active designing and handcrafting jewelry since 1998, after a previous career as a university professor in literature and philosophy. His academic and philosophical nature is immediately evident when discussing design, and his meticulous attention to space and volume becomes more apparent the longer one studies his pieces. The “Seven Sisters” ring in figure 1 raises each stone to a unique height above the flat base, filling the rectangle with an appealing placement of 17 colorless diamonds interspersed among 22 sapphires.

Figure 2. “Rose Cut” 18K white gold and diamond earrings. The faceted diamonds are 1.5–2.0 mm in diameter. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Sean Hill Designs.
A stunning pair of 18K white gold earrings featuring both diamond slices and faceted diamonds (figure 2) is a case study in filling a plain geometric shape to bring it to life. As Dr. Hill said in describing the piece, “A rectangle is a basic shape, a self-imposed constraint. It is how you choose to fill it that makes it interesting.” Adding to the design quality, the rectangles are not actually flat but gently curved so that the earrings fit seamlessly on the ear.

Figure 3. “Event Horizon” earrings in 18K gold, diamond (0.07 carats total), and orange, mandarin, pink, green, and blue sapphire (5.2 carats total). Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Sean Hill Designs.
A pair of 18K gold earrings with brilliant-cut diamonds and sapphires (figure 3) illustrates a modern and considered take on the classic chandelier earring, with squares and rectangles outlining floating round gems on delicate strings of gold. Dr. Hill explained some of his jewelry philosophy: “You can always take a stone for its beauty, color, and cut, set it into a finding, and it is all about the stone. But how do you make it into art?” @chapter:20 @chapter:2 @chapter:20


# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: Rough Diamond Crystal with an Unusual Coating of Fake Green “Radiation Stains”
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 6.49 ct rough diamond with patchy green surface color was submitted to GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory for a Colored Diamond Grading Report. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

Due to their rare occurrence and the environment required to create their color, natural green diamonds are some of the world’s most beautiful and sought-after gems. Most diamonds acquire their color from impurities or defects incorporated into the diamond lattice when the material is hundreds of kilometers deep in the earth’s mantle. But most natural green diamonds are colored by radiation damage that occurs at very shallow depths in the earth’s crust over long periods of time. Commonly accompanying this exposure to radioactive minerals and fluids are surface patches of green or brown color that gemologists call “radiation stains.” These are simply areas of extreme damage to the diamond structure caused by alpha particle radiation. Initially green, they turn brown immediately after exposure to temperatures above 500°C. These surface features indicate that a diamond has been exposed to a source of natural radiation; green stains are commonly associated with naturally colored green diamonds.

Figure 2. The diamond’s patchy green coloration is caused by interlocking platy crystals of chromium oxide, visible with magnification. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 0.72 mm.

Figure 3. The Raman spectrum (514 nm laser excitation) of the rough diamond’s green coating shows clear peaks from chromium oxide (552 and 613 cm–1) as well as the underlying diamond (1332 cm–1). The specific positions of the chromium oxide peaks suggest the coating has been annealed to ~700°C (Mohammadtaheri et al., 2018).
Recently, GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory examined an interesting attempt to imitate a natural green diamond when a 6.49 ct green crystal was submitted for a Colored Diamond Grading Report (figure 1). The surfaces of the resorbed octahedron were covered by uneven patches of green color. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed a typical type Ia diamond with abundant nitrogen and hydrogen impurities. However, the ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrum was very unusual and did not show any of the bands that are produced by radiation damage in diamond (e.g., the GR1 defect). Careful examination under magnification found that the green color was not due to radiation stains, but instead to groupings of emerald-green platy crystals, ~40 μm in size, attached to the diamond surface (figure 2). Individual platy crystals could easily be flaked off using tweezers or a pointer probe, but they remained adhered to the surface under normal gem testing situations, including wiping the diamond with a stone cloth. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis indicated high concentrations of chromium, and Raman analysis identified the green plates as chromium oxide (figure 3). The Raman peak positions correlated very well with chromium oxide powder that had been heated to ~700°C to produce a crystallized coating (M. Mohammadtaheri et al., “The effect of deposition parameters on the structure and mechanical properties of chromium oxide coatings deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering,” Coatings, Vol. 8, No. 3, 2018, Article No. 111). A small H1b defect present in the diamond’s FTIR spectrum supports this annealing temperature.
Most colored coatings encountered in the lab are on faceted stones and are pink, orange, red, or blue. The warmer hues are typically created by sputter-coating techniques involving metals and the colder hues by inks or other organic dyes. The use of chromium oxide powder to produce a green coating—along with annealing of the powder to produce crystallized plates that adhere to the rough surface to resemble radiation stains—represents a significant attempt to artificially reproduce the features seen on natural green diamonds. While the unique coating is easily discerned from natural green radiation stains under magnification, this stone is a strong reminder to carefully examine any green diamond, even rough crystals, in order to know exactly what you are buying. @chapter:22 @chapter:1 @chapter:22


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Alexandrite History and Lore
# Abstract: A 43-carat alexandrite in the collection of the British Museum.

                      Abundant alexandrite deposits were first discovered in 1830 in Russia’s Ural Mountains. Those first alexandrites were of very fine quality and displayed vivid hues and dramatic color change. The gem was named after the young Alexander II, heir apparent to the throne. It caught the country’s attention because its red and green colors mirrored the national military colors of imperial Russia.

	Alexander II was still a youngster in 1830, when a never-before-seen color-change gem
	was discovered in the Ural Mountains of Russia. - Corbis
The spectacular Ural Mountain deposits didn’t last forever, and now most alexandrite comes from Sri Lanka, East Africa, and Brazil. The newer deposits contain some fine-quality stones, but many display less-precise color change and muddier hues than the nineteenth-century Russian alexandrites. You’ll still find estate jewelry set with some of the famed Ural Mountain alexandrites. They remain the quality standard for this phenomenal gemstone. @chapter:5 @chapter:0 @chapter:5


# Publication Year: 2012
# Title: Recent Advances in CVD Synthetic Diamond Quality
# Abstract: Synthetic diamond growth was first documented in 1952 by William Eversole of the Union Carbide Corporation, but it took another two decades before GIA issued the first grading report for a laboratory-made diamond (Crowningshield, 1971). Virtually all single-crystal synthetic diamonds are made by two very different processes. High-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) synthesis mimics some of the key conditions for natural diamond formation, with pressures of 5–6 GPa and temperatures of 1400–1600ºC applied to a carbonaceous source material. The second method, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), involves growing synthetic diamond as thin-film layers at moderate temperatures and low (i.e., below atmospheric) pressures. One of the main advantages of the CVD procedure over HPHT is the superior flexibility of synthetic diamond size and geometry produced. Furthermore, intentional doping with impurity elements can be controlled by the addition of gases containing those atoms. @chapter:9 @chapter:1 @chapter:9


# Publication Year: 2024
# Title: Pink and Red Epidote in Quartz
# Abstract: Figure 1. Bright pink to red epidote crystals as “firework” sprays were a surprising discovery in rock crystal quartz. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 2.16 mm.
We recently discovered very photogenic clusters of hot pink to red crystals as “firework” sprays (figure 1) in two transparent cabochons of rock crystal quartz. The cabochons weighed 5.47 ct and 11.18 ct and measured 15.85 × 9.87 × 5.92 mm and 16.06 × 11.49 × 7.83 mm, respectively (figure 2). These cabochons, which came from Sara Crystal in Shanghai, are thought to be from Chenzhou in China’s Hunan Province.

Figure 2. Weighing 11.18 ct (left) and 5.47 ct (right), these two rock crystal quartz cabochons play host to very unusual pink crystal sprays. Photo by Adriana Robinson.
After performing gemological testing and optical microscopy, we thought the inclusions might be piemontite based on their behavior in polarized light and the monoclinic morphology of the individual terminated crystals. Because some of the pink crystals reached the surface of their polished hosts, we decided to analyze them using Raman microanalysis. The result was a close match for epidote, which was surprising since epidote is normally thought of as a dark brownish green mineral.
The results of chemical analysis using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry were consistent with epidote, but with one additional element present: manganese, which caused the pink to red color in these microcrystals. We concluded that the inclusions were indeed epidote instead of piemontite, but pink to red epidote was something completely new to us.
Searching the literature for piemontite and epidote uncovered the following statement from Mindat.org, which seemed to explain the existence of these pink to red epidotes:
“Piemontite” has two different uses: Piemontite (sensu stricto) is the mineral species described here, but more commonly “piemontite” refers incorrectly to deep red colored, -bearing epidotes that are really varieties of the species epidote, and not strictly speaking piemontite. “Piemontites” rarely contain more than 40% of the piemontite molecule, so many “piemontites” in collections (and pictured here in Mindat) are really Mn-rich red varieties of epidote.
To our knowledge, this pink to red epidote-quartz inclusion-host association has not previously been reported. @chapter:15 @chapter:0 @chapter:15


# Publication Year: 1993
# Title: Winter 1993 G&G Lab Notes
# Abstract: Cubic Zirconia Carved to Imitate an Ancient Buddha
Cyclotron-Treated Diamond
Fancy-Color Diamond with Unusual Radiation Stains
Unusual "Melted" Cavity in a Diamond
Faceted Yellow Synthetic Diamond
Emerald with Large Filled Etch Channels
Fracture Filled Garnets
Iridescent Orthoamphibole, "Nuummite"
Orthopyroxene, a Carved Mask
Some Pearl Observations
Synthetic Ruby: Striae Resolution Technique
Sapphire: A Difficult Identification
Diffusion Treatment in Sapphire Obscured by Mounting
Yag with Unusual Inclusions

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:43 @chapter:1 @chapter:43


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Summer 2009 Gem News International
# Abstract: Colored Stones and Organic Materials
	            Andradite from Erzincan, Eastern Turkey
	            Star Apatite: First Occurrence in the Gem World
	            A Chalcedony-Opal Cameo with Remarkable Inclusions
	            Citrine from Andongologo, Madagascar
	            “Sugarcane Emerald” from Brazil
	            Orange Kyanite from Tanzania
	            Rare Optical Phenomenon in Play-Of-Color Opal
	            Cultured Pearls from Fiji
	            Rare Necklace Made Of Natural Pearls from Different Mollusks
	            Colorless Petalite and Pollucite from Laghman, Afghanistan
	            Serpentine Cat’s-Eye
	            Zircon Mining in Cambodia
Conference Reports
	            GIT 2008
	            Sinkankas Spinel Symposium
Announcements
	            Gems Issue of Elements
	            Responsible Jewellery Council Announces Code of Practice

To view the full section, download the PDF above.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Andradite from Erzincan, Eastern Turkey - Electron Microprobe Data
	Submitted by Alethea Inns and Brendan M. Laurs
	Summer, 2009
Colorless Petalite and Pollucite from Laghman, Afghanistan - Infrared Spectra
	Submitted by Erica Emerson and Paul Johnson
	Summer, 2009
Colorless Petalite and Pollucite from Laghman, Afghanistan - Faceting Notes
	Submitted by Robert C. Buchannan
	Summer, 2009
Cambodian Zircon Mining - Supplementary Photos
	Submitted by M. H. Smith and W. A. Balmer
	Summer, 2009 @chapter:6 @chapter:0 @chapter:6


# Publication Year: 2020
# Title: Dendritic Inclusions in Nephrite from Dahua, China
# Abstract: Figure 1. The nephrite samples with dendritic inclusions from Dahua County. Photos by Zuowei Yin.
Since the 2010s, with the discovery of nephrite ore deposits in Luodian County, Guizhou Province, a significant amount of nephrite has been mined in the town of Yantan in Dahua Yao Autonomous County, located in the northwest of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (Z. Yin et al., “Nephrite jade from Guangxi Province, China,” Fall 2014 G&G, pp. 228–235). Previously we reported on the nature of the chlorite inclusions found in this nephrite, and here we identify the chlorite as penninite.
The discovery of Dahua nephrite has eased the increasingly tight nephrite supply situation in China. Owing to its large reserves, the deposit has vast potential for future development. This material is of high quality and comes in a diverse array of colors including white, gray, light green, dark green, light yellow, and black. All bodycolors have been found to contain distinctive dendritic inclusions (figure 1). Dahua nephrite is popular with consumers, thus bringing huge economic benefit to the locality.
Dahua nephrite is mainly distributed around the river near the Yantan hydropower station. The ore body occurs in the limestone formed at the Qixian stage of the Paleozoic Permian system. The magmatic rocks in the area are basic intrusive rocks, divided into diabase and gabbro. The ore bed containing the nephrite is composed of dark gray stratified limestone of low to medium thickness, interspersed with fine calcite veins (B. Wang et al., “Gemmological and mineralogical characteristics of nephrite from Guangxi,” Journal of Gems and Gemmology, Vol. 14, No. 3, 2012, pp. 6–11). The samples were tested by standard gemological methods, polarizing microscopy, environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). We conducted the tests at the National Key Lab of the China University of Geosciences in Wuhan.
The refractive index of Dahua nephrites ranged from 1.60 to 1.63. The average hydrostatic specific gravity was 2.99, and the Mohs hardness was about 6.5. These properties were very similar to those of the samples previously tested, which had a spot RI of 1.61–1.62 and a hydrostatic SG of 2.88–2.90 (Yin et al., 2014).
The Raman spectra (peaks at 225, 370, 676, 1029, and 3677 cm–1), infrared spectra, and X-ray powder diffraction (characteristic lines at 3.1189, 8.3968, 3.2702, and 2.7007 Å) were consistent with tremolite, showing that the main composition mineral of Dahua nephrite is tremolite with good crystallinity. Chemical composition analysis showed that the Mg2+/(Mg2+ + Fe2+) value of nephrite samples from Dahua was 0.973, identifying the main mineral as tremolite.
The REE distribution pattern of Dahua nephrite had an average value of ∑ REE and LREE/HREE of 5.32 and 2.60, respectively, indicating that Dahua nephrite is slightly enriched in light rare earth elements. The δCe of the samples ranged from 0.21 to 0.91, with an average value of 0.47, indicating a negative Ce anomaly. This suggests that Dahua nephrite was formed in a sedimentary metamorphic environment, with high oxygen fugacity and a single source of nephrite ore-forming fluid. The average δEu value of the samples was 0.71 in the range of 0.12–2.01, indicating a negative Eu anomaly. The negative Eu anomaly in this area may be due to the separation and crystallization during the ore-forming process of nephrite.
Most nephrite in Dahua has dendritic inclusions whose colors are mainly brownish yellow, brownish green, and black distributed in the form of branches, clumps, and the like. These “variegated” inclusions were actually determined to be penninite (belongs to the chlorite group) using modern techniques including routine gemstone testing, X-ray powder diffraction, scanning electron microscope, and EDS. According to the composition determined by EDS testing, we calculated the atomicity of Si with O20 as a reference. The results were as follows: The number of Si atoms was 6.4, and Fe2+/Fe + Mg was 0.16, indicating that the chlorite inclusion was a type of penninite (red cross in figure 2, from the chlorite classification scheme in Y. Hu et al., “Related studies on characteristic altered mineral chlorite,” West-China Exploration Engineering, No. 11, 2019, pp. 132–134).

Figure 2. EDS compositional analysis showed that the chlorite inclusion in Dahua nephrite was penninite. From the chlorite classification system in Hu et al. (2019).
The variegated chlorite inclusions in Dahua nephrite are very useful identifying characteristics. With the exception of Luodian nephrite, which contains similar inclusions, such distinctive dendritic inclusions have yet to be discovered in white nephrite deposits; therefore, it is potentially a significant tracer for origin. The Dahua nephrite contains penninite, a type of chlorite (i.e., hydrothermally metamorphosed tremolite) (Yin et al., 2014). As an inclusion unique to Dahua nephrite, penninite serves as an important reference for origin tracing. @chapter:12 @chapter:0 @chapter:12


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Romancing the Source: Pakistan
# Abstract: Pakistan

	Pakistan’s portion of the Silk Road traverses some of the highest mountains in the world, where mining benefits locals and helps them rebuild their lives.

	This series of articles and videos follows a team of GIA Field Gemologists on their travels from the mountains of Afghanistan to the jungles of Sri Lanka in search of the sources of colored gemstones and the people who pursue them. This thrilling journey will take you to remote gemstone-mining areas, where you’ll witness the extreme effort required to wrestle nature’s treasures from the earth.

	The romance of a colored gemstone arises from its beauty, the exotic qualities of its source’s location, the adventure leading to its discovery, and the stories of the people who seek it. These factors have united to create the allure of gemstones through the ages, and continue to do so even in modern times.

The northern region of Pakistan is home to some of the world’s highest mountains. In a ruby-producing area near the beautiful Hunza Valley, this miner’s wife attends a program created to educate her children and teach her to cut gemstones. Photo by Andrew Lucas.

	Pakistan yields a wealth of gemstones for jewelry and for mineral collectors. Incredible crystal specimens from the areas around Skardu, ruby from the Hunza Valley, and emerald from the Swat Valley are a few of the area’s treasures.

	Reaching the Gilget/Hunza valley area can involve a 17-hour drive from Islamabad, as flights are often cancelled due to weather conditions in the mountains. The drive is on the Karakoram Highway that passes through the area where three of the world’s greatest mountain ranges meet: the Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Himalaya ranges. The dramatic forces created by the collision of these mountain ranges led to geological events that formed gemstones and shaped the area’s rugged terrain. This highway is part of the old Silk Road, and traveling on it today is still an exhilarating experience.

	The Swat Valley has been called the Switzerland of Central Asia. It’s surrounded by beautiful mountains covered with snow in the winter. After a violent conflict between Pakistani military forces and Taliban militants that led to the overthrow of Taliban control, emerald mining resumed in the valley as a means to rebuild the area and people’s lives. @chapter:23 @chapter:0 @chapter:23


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Winter 2012 G&G Lab Notes
# Abstract: Artificially Irradiated Brown Diamond
Diamond with Diopside-Pyrope Contact Inclusion Pair
Treated Yellow Diamond with Unusual Spectroscopic Features
Unusual Omphacite and Pyrope-Almandine Garnet Inclusion in Diamond
Polymer-Beryl Assemblage
Bicolored Spinel
Silicon-Vacancy Defect in HPHT-Grown Type IIb Synthetic Diamond

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:22 @chapter:1 @chapter:22


# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: Book Review: Geology: A Very Short Introduction
# Abstract: By Jan Zalasiewicz, paperback, 168 pp., illus., publ. by Oxford Academic Press, Oxford, England, 2018, US$11.95.

Geology–it’s a fairly large subject to take on in a pocket-sized book. The entire 4.54-billion-year history of the earth—the ceaseless shifting of tectonic plates, the rise of multicellular organisms, the shaping of the planet that would one day be called home by us homo sapiens—all captured in a mere 168 pages. As a geologist, I approached Geology: A Very Short Introduction cautiously, hoping the topic could be faithfully represented in a book whose size doesn’t embody the enormous complexity of the subject. I was pleasantly surprised as the author wove his way through not only the history of the earth, but also the history of the study of the history of the earth, deftly moving from one geological development to the next, finding the common theme in all these stories to bring it together into a coherent narrative. The book is an approachable introduction to the earth and humankind’s endeavors to better understand its rocky abode through scientific examination. Yet the content is engaging and thorough enough that professional geologists might find themselves transported back to the airy university lecture halls of their youth where their passion for geology was once uncovered.
After a brief introductory chapter, Zalasiewicz delves into the historical underpinnings of modern geology in chapters 2 and 3. This engrossing history is neatly summarized. From the study of fossils to the development of the first geological maps, readers are given a view into the minds of the first serious thinkers who pursued the study of the earth and formed the foundation of geology as we know it. Zalasiewicz tends to favor the study of fossils and stratigraphy in his coverage, although this might be fair given the early importance of those fields in forming our understanding of earth processes.
The rest of the book focuses on more specific topics within the field of geology, from the deep earth (chapter 4) to the surface (chapter 5), from man’s search for natural resources (chapter 7) to the environmental repercussions that sometimes result (chapter 8). Zalasiewicz keeps readers’ interest by emphasizing human connection in the advancement of the study of Earth. The pages abound with stories of the scientific luminaries who uncovered many of the earth’s mysteries. Understanding the motivations and passions of these geological pioneers helps make their great scientific achievements more approachable and puts the historic progression of geological thought into perspective.
The book is a quick but interesting read, and its small size makes it a convenient travel partner. Zalasiewicz’s writing is familiar and engaging, never too technical but also never shying away from taking on important yet uncomfortable topics such as humankind’s sometimes negative impacts on the environment. The book is graced by 40 illustrations, maps, and photographs. These are generally of very high quality and complement the text even though they are printed in black and white. While Zalasiewicz’s coverage in this (very) introductory text is only skin-deep, he provides excellent suggestions for further reading for the reader who needs to dig in deeper. Ultimately, Geology: A Very Short Introduction should serve as a superb read for a wide spectrum of readers, from the most erudite professional geologists to those with almost no prior interest in geology. @chapter:21 @chapter:0 @chapter:21


# Publication Year: 1999
# Title: Russian Synthetic Ametrine
# Abstract: Gem-quality synthetic ametrine has been produced commercially in Russia since 1994, by hydrothermal growth from alkaline solutions. Faceted synthetic ametrine has many similarities to its natural counterpart from Bolivia. For the most part, however, the synthetic ametrine obtained for this study could be identified by a combination of characteristics, including growth features such as twinning and color zoning. EDXRF chemical analyses revealed higher concentrations of K, Mn, Fe, and Zn than in natural ametrine. IR spectra of the synthetic citrine portions showed more intense absorption in the 3700–2500 cm−1 range compared to natural ametrine; the synthetic amethyst zones showed a weak diagnostic peak at 3543 cm−1. @chapter:13 @chapter:0 @chapter:13


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Tucson 2018 Overview
# Abstract: Figure 1. Although traffic at the AGTA show was lighter than in some previous years, demand was brisk and most traders were satisfied with their 2018 business. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.

Every February the gem and mineral world descends on Tucson, transforming the downtown convention center and a great many of the city’s hotels into a fascinating collage of traders bearing goods from all over the planet (figures 1 and 2).

Figure 2. Customers in Tucson sought out unique goods, a trend that carried over from last year's shows. Photos by Kevin Schumacher.
Many of the exhibitors we spoke with described 2018 as the strongest year since 2008. Although traffic wasn’t especially heavy at the AGTA and GJX shows, most dealers there enjoyed brisk sales and healthy demand for high-quality goods. Some of the same trends from last year were evident. Customers still sought out one-of-a-kind pearls and colored gemstone pieces, and the secondary market in the U.S. for exceptional pieces remained highly significant. There was a continuing focus on untreated material and ethically sourced gemstones, a subject articulated for us by Jean Claude Michelou of the International Colored Gemstone Association and officials from the Responsible Jewellery Council. Market realities such as very strong price competition for newly mined gem rough were mentioned as a major challenge by many dealers and cutters.

In addition to strong demand for high-end gems, many dealers at AGTA and GJX reported a surge in more moderately priced goods. Meanwhile, dealers at other locations told us the commercial end of the market remained soft.

Pantone’s color of the year for 2018, a shade of purple called Ultra Violet, was well represented at the shows. A couple of dealers had exceptional examples of purple sillimanite. Many dealers posted strong sales of pastel-colored spinel—in pink and lavender hues—in suites and sets as customers found the scarcity and high prices of red spinel prohibitive. In a similar vein, Margit Thorndal of Madagascar Imports reported strong demand for purple-lavender spinel and purple sapphire from Madagascar, as well as teal hues of unheated Montana sapphire.

We noted that electric blues, teals, hot pinks, hot yellow greens, and pastel-colored gems were quite popular. Bill Larson of Pala International pointed to this trend and showed us a number of spectacular examples from his inventory. Fine blue zircon from Cambodia was prominent, as was attractive sphene from Zimbabwe and Madagascar.

Figure 3. Dave Bindra of B&B Gems showed us a selection of standout gems from the secondary market, including this 61.92 ct Imperial topaz. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.
Dave Bindra of B&B Fine Gems said his company was very active in scouring the secondary markets for old jewelry items and gemstones that have been out of circulation for decades. This year’s standouts were two incredible red beryls from Utah (a 3 ct emerald cut and a 4 ct round brilliant), a 61.92 ct Imperial topaz (figure 3), and a fine selection of Kashmir sapphires, which were very sought after this year. Fran Mastoloni of Mastoloni Pearls updated us on current trends in the cultured pearl market and showed examples of unique pieces.

Dealers specializing in domestic gems reported strong demand. John Woodmark of Desert Sun Mining & Gems told us the market for Oregon sunstone was the strongest he had seen since the andesine controversy challenged suppliers of the natural Oregon gem a decade ago. As a result, the company has scaled up its mining activities and built new relationships with gem cutters to improve supply to its clients.

As always, the Tucson shows were a rich source for the latest on global colored stone supply. Conversations with Luis Gabriel Angarita and Edwin Molina revealed insights on the mining and branding of Colombian emerald. Marcelo Ribeiro shared details on mining and cutting at the Belmont emerald mine in Brazil. Alexey Burlakov offered his perspective on Russian demantoid production, while Stephan Reif did the same for demantoid from the Green Dragon mine in Namibia. Miriam Kamau shared information on her Kenyan tsavorite mining operation and offered her own inspirational success story. From Jürgen Schütz of Emil Weis Opals we learned about the cutting of opal, both play-of-color and nonphenomenal, from sources around the world. Alexander Arnoldi explained Arnoldi International’s strategy in sourcing and cutting high-quality aquamarine and tourmaline. We also saw examples of gem production from unexpected sources: Indonesian opal and turquoise from the state of Arkansas.

View Gallery

Tucson is also a destination for many leading gem artists and jewelry designers. Award-winning carver Michael Dyber explained the inspiration behind some fantastic one-of-a-kind pieces bearing his signature optical disks. At the intersection of science and art, Rex Guo discussed his approach to recutting gems to optimize light performance and beauty. And designers Paula Crevoshay and Erica Courtney showed us striking and innovative new pieces with unexpected and fascinating gem combinations. @chapter:42 @chapter:3 @chapter:42


# Publication Year: -
# Title: De Beers Holds Line of Prices for Feb. What About April?
# Abstract: Rough diamond crystals. Courtesy of De Beers.

	Buoyed by encouraging retail signs in the U.S. and Asia, De Beers allocated another large sight in February ‒ an estimated $730 million ‒ but left prices at January levels.

	Premiums on De Beers’ sight boxes rose on the wave of optimism and increased prices at tender sales in January, but De Beers’ executives held the line of prices. They are probably waiting for the results of March’s Hong Kong show to gauge the true state of the market. Diamond dealers hope that rising demand will lift polished prices, which have been stagnant for most of last year. The next sight is the first week of April.

	De Beers is also making the most of these early-year sights because the application process for the next sight term is beginning soon, and one of the criteria for selection will apparently be clients’ purchase history. Some clients deferred a significant percentage of their purchases in the first half of last year, while some potential clients were strong buyers at De Beers’ rough auctions, which comprise about 10% of its sales.

ZALE CORP. SALE: The announcement of the acquisition of Zale Corp by its chief competitor, Signet Group (Kay Jewelers and Jared, The Galleria of Jewelry), caught most in the industry by surprise; not because Zale would be sold ‒ retail analysts were predicting this for several years ‒ but that another major jewelry chain would snap it up.

	Signet has fared well in recent years, holding its own through the worst economy this generation has known, in an increasingly competitive retail arena. Zale, however, has struggled to reposition itself in an environment that has changed drastically in the past decade. The company made some progress in retooling itself during the past two years, which probably made it a more attractive acquisition, especially for a price of $1.4 billion (all figures in U.S. dollars).

	Zale earned $10 million on sales of $1.9 billion in fiscal 2013, but showed losses of $26.9 million on sales of $1.86 billion in 2012 and $112 million on sales of $1.74 billion in 2011.

	The question now is what will happen with a retail chain that is nearly 3,600 stores strong, especially since many of those stores operate in the same shopping malls as the company that bought it. Shifting an operation of Zale’s size to Signet’s vastly different business model will take years, even if it seems likely that a number of the Zale and Gordon’s stores will close.

	Integrating the two companies on such a large scale will have its challenges. Signet never lost sight of the fact that it is a jewelry seller and has combined a strong sales associate training program with a very highly targeted merchandising plan. Additionally, its advertising always stressed the romantic side of the product.  Zale’s incorporated a department store approach with little variation in its product mix between regions or store brands and its advertising tended to be more price-oriented.

DIAMONDS: The  29.62 carat blue diamond mined recently by Petra Diamond Ltd., brought a top bid of $25.5 million ($862,780 per carat), an astounding price for a rough diamond, from Cora International of New York.

	In recent years, top fancy colored diamonds have been fetching record prices at the world’s leading auction houses. Last November, a New York diamond dealer paid $85 million for a GIA-graded 59.6 carat Fancy Vivid pink diamond sold by Sotheby’s at its Geneva auction. This stone nearly doubled the previous record for the highest price ever paid for any gem at auction, the 24.78 carat Fancy Vivid pink diamond that sold for $46 million in 2010. (Update: According to media reports, Sotheby’s cancelled the sale of the Pink Star several months after the auction when the the winning bidder was unable to complete the transaction.) The highest price per-carat ever paid for a blue diamond was $1.8 million for the 5.30 carat Bulgari Blue diamond which GIA graded Fancy Deep blue. It was sold by Bonham’s in London in November of last year.

	The large blue diamond was found in the Cullinan Mine which, since its opening in 1903, has yielded an unparalleled treasure trove of legendary diamonds, starting with the 3,106 carat Cullinan, which was polished into the 530 carat pear-shaped diamond that is the centerpiece of Britain’s crown jewels and eight other significant stones. The mine also yielded the 240.8 carat Taylor-Burton diamond, the 353.9 carat Premier Rose, the 755.5 carat Golden Jubilee and the 599.1 carat Centenary diamond, among others. Last year, a 25.5 carat blue diamond that sold for $17 million, or $663,000 per carat, was found there.

COLORED STONES: The Myanmar military has reportedly moved in to secure the jade mining area around Hpakant, in the southern part of the nation, after a miner discovered a 37-ton jade boulder in mid-February. According to local press reports, the jade rock measured 13 feet high. Local authorities reportedly halted all informal mining in the region until the boulder could be relocated to a secure facility. @chapter:37 @chapter:3 @chapter:37


# Publication Year: 2012
# Title: Color Origin of Lavender Jadeite: An Alternative Approach
# Abstract: The market value of jadeite has risen dramatically in recent decades, often rivaling that of fine ruby and sapphire. Understanding the color origin of jadeite and reliably determining treatments have become increasingly important in the trade. This study uses single-crystalline analogs in conjunction with polycrystalline jadeite to examine the color origin of lavender jadeite through quantitative spectroscopy and modern trace-element analytical techniques. Several previously proposed chromophores are assessed for their possible contribution to jadeite coloration. Quantitative analysis confirms that green and lavender colorations are caused by chromium and manganese, respectively. The relative significance of these two chromophores is compared to determine their impact on observable coloration. The findings on color origin are applied to the identification of treated material on the current market. @chapter:46 @chapter:4 @chapter:46


# Publication Year: 2008
# Title: Identification of Melee-Size Synthetic Yellow Diamonds in Jewelry
# Abstract: Melee-size yellow synthetic diamonds have recently been seen in the gem market, mostly as loose stones but sometimes set in jewelry. The material identified to date is synthesized by the high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) process. Randomly occurring pinpoint or flux-metal inclusions are diagnostic identification clues. However, some synthetic diamonds require advanced laboratory methods. This report describes the effectiveness of a technique new to gemology, infrared microspectroscopy, in combination with cathodoluminescence imaging for the rapid and accurate separation of melee-size natural and synthetic diamonds based on their characteristic mid-infrared absorption spectra and growth structures, respectively. With these techniques, the GAAJ-Zenhokyo Laboratory in Tokyo determined that approximately 10% of loose—and dozens of mounted—yellow melee diamonds submitted over a four-month period were synthetic. @chapter:36 @chapter:1 @chapter:36


# Publication Year: -
# Title: M.D. Hohenstine’s Gem Displays: The Process of Creating Popular Window Art with Loose Gemstones
# Abstract: M.D. Hohenstine frequently paid homage to the local theater and dance scene in his gemstone displays. This 1974 design honors the VaudVillities, a still-active Columbus group that bills itself as “the longest-running music and dance spectacular in the nation.” Photo by M.D. Hohenstine/Courtesy of Judith Allen Hall

Editor’s Note: Jeweler M.D. Hohenstine’s spectacular window displays  were a beloved tradition in downtown Columbus, Ohio from the 1920s until his death in 1976. The displays, consisting of hundreds of loose, natural gemstones arranged into a variety of shapes, patterns and figures, were changed every other week. Hohenstine photographed each of the 2,000-plus displays and turned them into slides that he used to educate fellow jewelers and gemologists. He gifted dozens of the slides to former employee and longtime family friend Judith Allen Hall when she began teaching. Hall donated the slides to GIA’s Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center in 2016.

Here, she remembers the remarkable process Hohenstine followed to create fresh window art for his store for decades.

Mr. Hohenstine made a dozen opaque glass plates with matte surfaces and gilded wood frames. Each was about 10-12 inches in diameter. Some were round, others square; some were white, others were pale green. A couple of them had a small hole drilled in the plate. Under the plate was some sort of a small motor, and on top of the plate was a post that held the 10-ct. diamond upright so that it rotated and glittered.

He would begin by drawing the design on the plate with a soft pencil, and then open the desk drawer full of loose gemstones. With tweezers and an optivisor, he would painstakingly start putting the gems in place. The tables of brilliant cuts would be turned in certain directions to give the illusion of depth. All of the gems were simply laid on the plate – there was nothing to secure them.

It took six or more hours to complete the design, depending on its complexity. Customers could look in the curved window in front of the diamond room window to watch him work.

Hohenstine’s displays – including this bird’s nest scene with 202 diamonds, 238 garnets, 286 hessonites, 92 rubies, 11 pearls and one onyx – were a marvel of craftsmanship and logistics. None of the hundreds of gems on each design was secured to the display boards. Photo by M.D. Hohenstine/Courtesy of Judith Allen Hall
He was very inventive and created a way to photograph every design. A camera was mounted facing downward in a cabinet behind his desk in the diamond room, and it was exactly the right height to put the completed gem design in focus. All you had to do was slide the glass plate on the shelf, push the camera button, and it was done. Each slide contained the number of the design and the number and type of gems included in the design.

Once the design was completed and photographed, it was ready for Tuesday night window trim after the store closed. The left front window was about 90 to 100 feet from the diamond room, which seemed like a mile if you were carrying the plate – which was ever-so-slightly tilted, with the unsecured gems in place.

The left window had one-inch thick, bulletproof glass and a huge I-beam under it, so that street and foot traffic would not jar the design. The back glass lifted up when unlocked to give access to the window. The old design was very, very carefully removed and put on the showcase behind the window. Care was taken so that if there was any calamity getting the new one in place, the old one could be put back in the window.

When the new design was in place, Mr. Hohenstine would put on his optivisor and pick up tweezers and move any gem that might have been displaced. Then the frame was put in place, along with a little typed sign that would read something like: “This is the 1543rd design and contains 200 rubies and 56 emeralds.”

The old design was then carefully carried back to the diamond room, and the next day he would take it apart and put all the little gems back in their respective envelopes. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: 2024
# Title: Phenomenal Emeralds from Chitral, Pakistan
# Abstract: Cat’s-eye emerald (11.31 ct) and star emerald (4.99 ct) from Chitral, Pakistan. Photo by Lhapsin Nillapat; courtesy of Mohammed Ayub (Pretty Little Gem Co, Ltd, Bangkok).
In November 2023, GIA researchers had the chance to study a parcel of emeralds reportedly from Chitral in Pakistan. All of the stones matched previously documented characteristics of emeralds from Chitral (C.S. Hanser et al., “Comparison of emeralds from the Chitral District, Pakistan, with other Pakistani and Afghan emeralds,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 38, No. 6, 2023, pp. 582–599).
Among the stones were two cabochons that showed unusual phenomena: chatoyancy and asterism (see above). Both had a refractive index of 1.57 (spot reading) and a yellowish green to green color, which identified them as emerald.
Cat’s-eye emeralds are found in a number of locations, most notably Brazil and Colombia. The effect is caused by large concentrations of fine parallel tubes. Proper orientation of these linear features during cutting can result in a sharp, centered cat’s-eye when the tubes reflect light.
Star emeralds are even rarer, with most originating from Brazil and Madagascar. The effect is usually caused by very small thin films that reflect light. The proper orientation of the cabochon dome with respect to tiny platelets can result in a six-rayed star that moves across the curved surface of the stone. In this emerald, some of the platelets that create the lower left arm are highlighted by iridescent reflective colors.
To our knowledge, these are the first phenomenal emeralds from Chitral, and they offer prime examples of lesser-known phenomenal emeralds. @chapter:10 @chapter:0 @chapter:10


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Very Small Akoya Cultured Pearls
# Abstract: Figure 1. The graduated strand of small akoya bead-cultured pearls with nine tiny shell bead nuclei and loose akoya NBC pearls next to a Pinctada fucata (martensii) akoya shell. Photo by Nuttapol Kitdee.

Akoya cultured pearls are produced by the Pinctada genus, specifically Pinctada fucata (martensii). The mollusk and closely related species are found in the seas off Japan, China, South Korea, and Australia, as well as in the Mediterranean and Arabian Gulf and in the waters of other countries between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn such as Vietnam and India.

Akoya pearl farming was first established in the Mie Prefecture in Japan by Kokichi Mikimoto more than a century ago and still exists there to this day. Other suitable locations in Japan such as the waters off the islands of Shikoku and Kyushu, as well as pearl farms in other parts of the world such as Bai Tu Long and Ha Long Bays in the north of Vietnam and in the waters along the southern coast of China from Leizhou peninsula to the border of Vietnam also produce cultured akoya pearls. The round nuclei are commonly fashioned from freshwater shell imported from the USA (T. Hsu et al., “Freshwater pearling in Tennessee,” 2016). The technicians who insert the nuclei usually surgically maneuver one or two bead nuclei, ranging from 1.5 to 1.7 mm, into position within the gonad using a piece of mantle tissue from a donor mollusk to produce the bead-cultured pearls. Akoya mollusks are typically left in the water for 10 to 14 months. The best harvesting time is in the winter season, when cooler temperatures ensure the mollusks produce nacre slowly and more tightly, yielding the highest luster possible in akoya pearls before any processing is applied. Akoya bead-cultured pearls are typically round and range from 2 to 11 mm in diameter, with the most common sizes between 6 and 8 mm.

During the formation of bead-cultured pearls, the accidental formation of some non-bead cultured pearls (NBC), sometimes referred to as “keshi” pearls, may also take place. Those produced by the akoya mollusk are generally very small (the word “keshi” translates in Japanese to “poppy seed”).

GIA’s Bangkok laboratory examined a short strand of what were supposedly the smallest commercially produced akoya bead-cultured pearls available today, together with a selection of randomly picked NBC pearls from the same origin (figure 1), all loaned by Orient Pearl Company. The pearls and the shell reportedly came from Vietnam, and the author was informed that the shell used to culture the pearls was Pinctada fucata (martensii). The graduated strand, consisting of 42 very small bead-cultured pearls, weighed 4.68 ct total, and the pearls ranged from 1.90 to 3.17 mm. Also examined were nine tiny shell bead nuclei between 1.59 and 1.74 mm and weighing 0.30 carats total, as well as 67 loose akoya NBC pearls, ranging from 0.80 mm in diameter to 2.82 × 1.91 × 1.75 mm and weighing 2.31 carats total. The akoya bead-cultured pearls in the strand were round and near-round with a predominantly cream color. The NBC pearls were mostly baroque and predominantly white, with some cream and light gray samples.

Figure 2. RTX analysis revealed the round shell bead nuclei used in the production of the bead-cultured pearls in the strand. A typical-size (7.70 mm) akoya bead-cultured pearl is shown in the center for comparison. Image by Promlikit Kessrapong.
Although observation down the drill holes with a loupe indicated bead-cultured pearls, real-time X-ray microradiography (RTX) proved this beyond any doubt. A clear bead nucleus was visible in each pearl (figure 2). Characteristic small voids and/or organic features seen in many bead-cultured pearls were present in some cases between the shell bead nucleus and nacre overgrowth. Banded structure within the beads and/or differences in radio-opacity between the shell bead nuclei and nacre were other characteristic features of bead-cultured pearls noted when the pearls were examined at higher magnification. Measurements of five randomly selected pearls revealed nacre thicknesses from 0.20 to 0.41 mm, within the usual commercially accepted range (0.15–0.50 mm) expected for akoya bead-cultured pearls. The majority of the larger pearls showed very good nacre thickness, and none of them were below the minimum standard that might lead to durability concerns.

RTX analysis of the loose NBC pearls revealed typical void-like structures expected for akoya NBC pearls in most of the samples (H.A. Hänni, “A short review of the use of ‘keshi’ as a term to describe pearls.” Journal of Gemmology, 2006, Vol. 30, pp. 51–58; N. Sturman, “The microradiographic structures of non-bead cultured pearls,” 2009). Those with less-defined structures needed further RTX analysis in additional directions to find sufficient evidence of their claimed origin (figure 3).

Figure 3. RTX analysis of tiny loose akoya NBC pearls revealed void-like structures in most of them. Image by Promlikit Kessrapong.

Figure 4. RTX analysis of some of the smallest pearls, claimed to be NBC, revealed structures more consistent with natural pearls. Image by Kwanreun Lawanwong.
After additional RTX analysis in other directions, some of the more questionable structures showed features that were clear enough to consider as NBC. Most of the smallest pearls from the group revealed structures that were not consistent with those commonly seen in NBC pearls. Their “meaty” structures, central rounded dark organic features, and/or boundary or fold lines (seen in multi-nuclei/part pearls such as twins or aggregates) are in fact more typical of natural saltwater pearls (figure 4). Advanced analysis such as X-ray computed microtomography (µ-CT) may be required in these difficult cases, but owing to their very small sizes, obtaining clearer imagery is impractical. In this case, the lab gemologists did not find enough evidence to identify these pearls as non-bead cultured. Since most pearls are submitted without any information and laboratory gemologists have to go by what they see, such pearls would likely be considered natural, even if they are not such by definition. This clearly shows the challenges faced by gemologists carrying out pearl identification on some client-submitted items. @chapter:11 @chapter:4 @chapter:11


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Somewhere in the Rainbow Finds a Home at the Alfie Norville Gem and Mineral Museum
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 203 × 254 mm azurite mineral specimen from Bisbee, Arizona, is emblematic of the strong mineral representation of the Southwest at the Alfie Norville Gem and Mineral Museum. Photo by Jeff Scovil; courtesy of the Alfie Norville Gem and Mineral Museum.

A decade ago, a private gemstone collection was established to celebrate their beauty and stimulate curiosity and gemological education. Today, the Somewhere in the Rainbow collection has found a prominent new home.

Somewhere in the Rainbow joins the University of Arizona’s renowned mineral collection consisting of 20,000 global specimens, which is also noted for its strength in minerals from the southwestern United States and Mexico. Together with the Somewhere in the Rainbow collection (a large part of it exhibited under a five-year agreement), 6,000 of the finest mineral specimens will be on exhibit (figure 1) at the new Alfie Norville Gem and Mineral Museum, located at the historic Pima County Courthouse in downtown Tucson (figure 2). The museum is on the verge of reopening in 2021, says manager Eric Fritz. Its location in Tucson is apt, given that the city is a global destination for gemstones, minerals, and the visitors who trade in them.

Figure 2. The Alfie Norville Gem and Mineral Museum will be housed at Tucson’s recently refurbished Pima County Courthouse. The building renovation cost over US$30 million. Courtesy of the Alfie Norville Gem and Mineral Museum.

The museum is named after the wife of noted Tucson real estate developer Allan Norville. In the 1990s, the couple founded the Gem and Jewelry Exchange (GJX), which remains a major force among the many shows that come to Tucson every year. To date, more than 40 gem and mineral shows exhibit across the town every January and February. The Norvilles are major patrons of the new museum.

At 1,600 pieces and counting, the Somewhere in the Rainbow collection consists mainly of finished gem material complementing the mineral displays (see below). Its strength lies in gem carvings, loose gemstones, and jewelry. This collection has traveled across the United States in recent years, visiting AGS Guild stores and other high-end retailers. Its mission is “to bring hands-on education and enjoyment of fine colored gems to museums, galleries, gemologists, and facilities dedicated to preserving the rarity, history, and beauty of the gems and articles of jewelry.”

Shelly Sergent, the Somewhere in the Rainbow collection’s manager, is credited with building it at the behest of unnamed patrons. She says that it offers the public, students, scientists, and educators a distinct snapshot of the gemstone supply chain. “Mother Nature gives us rocks. Cutters and carvers give us gemstones, and jewelry designers give us heirlooms,” Sergent explains.

View Gallery

The collection provides enthusiasts with a better understanding of the beauty and rarity—as well as the unique collaboration between nature and artists. “I realize truly that our mission is not only about education—it’s about community,” says Ms. Sergent. “In that regard, we have brought together more than 127 different people that have worked with us in some capacity on this collection, whether that be miners, stone chasers, lapidary artists, designers, jewelers, and the heads of different laboratories.”

Ahead of the Alfie Norville Gem and Mineral Museum’s 2021 reopening, GIA had the opportunity to visit with Sergent to examine, handle, and photograph some of the collection’s significant pieces. The accompanying photo gallery offers just some of the highlights. @chapter:17 @chapter:0 @chapter:17


# Publication Year: -
# Title: A Visit to the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
# Abstract: The Gems of California pedestal in the F.C. Hixon Gem Vault serves as the centerpiece of the museum’s gem and mineral gallery. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA, courtesy Gem & Mineral Department, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.

                      In 2014, a team from GIA visited the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (NHMLAC) to document its gem and mineral collection. It’s thought to be the second-largest such collection in the United States, behind the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC.

This report documents the museum’s remarkable reference collection as well as its active research programs. You’ll explore its Mineral Hall and get an insider’s view of its collections area, including the normally off-limits “goodie room” with its standout specimens. The museum’s expert curators will also explain their research into new minerals and the causes of diamond color.

Our group was guided by the Mineral Sciences staff: associate curator Eloïse Gaillou, collections manager Alyssa Morgan, and curator emeritus Anthony Kampf. All have advanced degrees in their fields. Eloïse has a master’s degree in geology and a Ph.D. in materials science. Alyssa has bachelor’s and master’s degrees in geological sciences. And Anthony’s Ph.D. is in mineralogy and crystallography.

The NHMLAC’s Mineral Sciences staff consists of associate curator Eloïse Gaillou, curator emeritus Anthony Kampf, and collections manager Alyssa Morgan. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA, courtesy Gem & Mineral Department, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.

	Museum Origin and History
The site now occupied by the Natural History Museum was once known as Agricultural Park. Established in the 1870s, it is described by the museum’s website as “a lawless area with horse racing, gambling, and prostitution.” That all changed when the site was renamed Exposition Park in 1910 and construction of the museum began. The Los Angeles Museum of History, Science, and Art opened its doors on November 5, 1913. Its first mineral collection consisted of just five boxes of specimens—a donation from Los Angeles capitalist General Charles Forman.

The collection grew steadily through a series of small donations. Then, in 1920, a major donation came from the Los Angeles Chamber of Mines and Oil. The collection was rich in fine specimens of copper-bearing minerals from Bisbee, Arizona.

In 1946, the museum established Mineralogy and Geology as a separate department. In 1952, the Mineral Hall was installed in the museum’s original rotunda. A series of donations over the next decade from Los Angeles jeweler William E. Phillips initiated the gem collection.

Many important donations followed, and in 1959, the museum began a campaign to build its mineral and gem collections through both donations and purchases. The source of many of the purchases was Martin Ehrmann, an important dealer in museum-quality minerals. He also sold many specimens to museum supporters, who later donated them.

View Gallery

	The museum’s collection features crystal specimens from all over the world, with an emphasis on gems of California.
In 1971, the museum began construction on a new north wing to house its Hall of Gems and Minerals, which opened in 1978. The hall was enhanced by an important series of donations from San Antonio plutocrat Frederick C. Hixon, who donated his gem collection between 1971 and 1977, and from Jean Bandy, who donated a collection rich in Bolivian mineral specimens between 1977 and 1980. In 1985, the Ben Chromy mineral collection arrived, along with more than $100,000 for museum activities.

1985 marked the opening of additional gallery space known as the Deutsch Gallery: Gemstones and Their Origins. It was funded by Alex Deutsch, a pioneer in the aerospace industry, and by the Weingart Foundation. The gallery exhibits focused on explaining how gemstones form and where they are found.

Retired lawyer John Jago Trelawney donated his gem collection to the museum in 1988 and bequeathed around $450,000 to support research projects upon his death in 2001. In 2005, the exceptional Weber-Perloff collection was donated to the museum. Consisting of about 50,000 small specimens, called micromounts, it was one of the largest collections of its kind in the world. In 2010, NHMLAC received the extraordinary collection of Hyman and Beverly Savinar, which is especially rich in gem-quality crystals. In 2011, the museum received the collection of Mel and Lois Hindin, which consisted of many remarkable minerals and gems.

Today, the museum is a living, vibrant institution, filled with the chatter of schoolchildren as they press their noses against the display cases. But there’s much more to the museum than its public face. The off-display areas house one of the most significant mineral and gem collections in the United States.

View Gallery

	Among its treasures, the museum boasts a dazzling collection of fashioned gems.

	An Overview
The museum’s gem and mineral collection consists of approximately 150,000 specimens representing about half of the world’s known mineral species. Of that number, there are about 143,000 minerals, 3,000 rocks (mineral aggregates), 3,000 gems, and 50 meteorites.

The specimens come from purchases, donations, and exchanges with other institutions. The museum has specimens from around the world, including the largest and most extensive collection of California gems and minerals.

There are more than 2,000 specimens on display in the 6,000-square-foot Gem and Mineral Hall. Yet this number is dwarfed by the total of specimens available behind the scenes for research or future display. One of the major storage areas is the Collections Room.

	The Collections Room
The vast majority of the museum’s mineral specimens are housed in the Collections Room. Most of them are not worthy of display, but they are invaluable to geologists and other scientists as research subjects.

As collections manager for the museum, Alyssa Morgan works among rows of mineral-filled cabinets, stacked almost floor to ceiling. Her job is to maintain the collection and the database and catalog.

Users of the collection—mostly geologists and material scientists in research institutions—can request specimens related to their studies of minerals from a certain area, or of rare or unusual minerals. Samples are broken off from larger specimens and mailed to the requesting parties.

View Gallery

	The collections are carefully organized and catalogued to make searches easier.
The museum’s staff works to obtain rare or unusual items to make the collections complete. When a specimen comes in, it gets a catalog number. The number is glued to the mineral and recorded on the box it’s stored in for tracking purposes. The mineral is weighed and sometimes measured, and its information—source, how it was obtained, and other important details—is entered into the database.

Specimens in the Collections Room are organized into several sub-collections. The general reference minerals are arranged systematically by chemical class (elements, sulfides, oxides, etc.). California specimens are arranged by locality. Small micromounts and thumbnails are arranged alphabetically by species.

	Maintaining the Collection

	In this series of videos, Alyssa Morgan and Eloïse Gaillou discuss the mechanics of establishing and maintaining the main collection.

	Micromounts and Thumbnails
Micromounts and thumbnails are popular with an important segment of the mineral collecting world, and they are often excellent candidates for scientific research. Through large donations, especially the exceptional Weber-Perloff collection, the museum has amassed more than 100,000 micromounts—the largest such collection in the world. It includes many gold specimens, mostly from California, and more than 2,000 diamond crystals.

The thumbnail collection is also quite large, consisting of about 10,000 specimens that came mostly from a single donor, Jessie Hardman, in the year 2000. Because Mrs. Hardman was determined to have a piece of everything, the collection includes many rare minerals representing a variety of rarely represented localities.

Small plastic boxes provide some protection from the environment, humidity, and other factors. Although the specimens are small, they’re valuable because of their diversity. They also require little storage space and, because of their uniform sizes, are easily organized.

	Organizing by Size

	Minerals in the collection are organized in part by their size.
The micromounts and thumbnails come from sources around the world and are arranged alphabetically by location. The staff is working to catalog the entire micromount and thumbnail collections.

	The “Goodie Room”
The museum’s “goodie room” is the staging area for specimens in fine, unbroken condition. Of the approximately 4,500 mineral specimens and gemstones in this room, some are not quite worthy of display and some are simply duplicates of items already on display. Some have good enough color and transparency to be suitable for faceting. For the most part, these specimens are not available to researchers for sampling.

View Gallery

	Some of the museum’s finest specimens not on display are stored in the goodie room.
Most of the goodie room’s collection comes from donors. One example is the extraordinary Savinar collection, which is full of fine-quality crystals from all over the world, along with many faceted gems.

	The Goodie Room

	Specimens in the museum’s goodie room are all fine quality. Most come from donors.

	Standout Specimens

	Anthony Kampf and Eloïse Gaillou introduce some of their favorite specimens and describe the characteristics that make them so special. Anthony then describes the museum’s acquisition process, which sometimes results in beautiful surprises.

	Researchers and Their Research
The core of any major natural history museum is the research that takes place behind the scenes. Current projects at NHMLAC include Anthony Kampf’s research into new minerals and Eloïse Gaillou’s studies on colored diamonds.

Curator emeritus Dr. Anthony (Tony) Kampf joined the museum in January 1977, and helped create the world-renowned Hall of Gems and Minerals. Tony played an important role in soliciting acquisitions and arranging the galleries. He has overseen the growth of the museum’s mineral and gem collection from about 20,000 to more than 150,000 specimens.

Dr. Kampf’s bulletin board is full of diagrams that show crystal structures of minerals he’s worked on. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA, courtesy Gem & Mineral Department, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.
Now retired, he still comes in every day to engage in research that focuses on discovering and characterizing new minerals. He uses sophisticated instrumentation to identify minerals and study their internal structure.

	Research Projects

	In these videos, Drs. Kampf and Gaillou discuss their research projects on behalf of the museum.
Associate curator Dr. Eloïse Gaillou came to the museum in 2012 after holding a combined postdoctoral research fellowship with the Smithsonian and Carnegie Institutions. Eloïse’s work at NHMLAC focuses on diamonds, especially colored ones in the pink and purple ranges. Her goal is to determine the elusive cause of the pink color. Another of her research interests is the geology of diamond formation.

View Gallery

	This slideshow takes you on a tour of the Gem and Mineral Hall, where the public can view a portion of the museum’s massive collection.
For more information about the museum and its mineral exhibits, visit the NHMLAC Mineral Sciences website at http://www.nhm.org/site/research-collections/mineral-sciences. @chapter:17 @chapter:0 @chapter:17


# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: Pyrope-Almandine Garnet in Sapphire Host
# Abstract: A protogenetic crystal of pyrope-almandine garnet with reflective needles in a greenish blue sapphire. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng-Pooresatien; field of view 2.70 mm.

In gemology, garnet occurs in a wide variety of colors, including red, orange, yellow, and green. Garnet is also found as inclusions in diamond, quartz, topaz, aquamarine, and zircon (E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 1, ABC Edition, Zurich, 1986, pp. 158–160).
GIA’s Bangkok laboratory recently received a 3.97 ct transparent greenish blue sapphire for a colored stone identification report. Standard gemological testing and advanced analysis revealed properties consistent with natural sapphire. Interestingly, microscopic examination with a combination of darkfield and oblique fiber-optic illumination revealed a well-formed brownish orange crystal cluster with reflective needles (see above). The crystal was singly refractive, and Raman spectrometry matched it with pyrope-almandine garnet. Sapphires with garnet inclusions are rarely seen in laboratory examination, although they are occasionally found in samples from Tanzania and the state of Montana (E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 3, Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, 2008, pp. 228–242). @chapter:13 @chapter:0 @chapter:13


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Romancing the Source: Cruzeiro Mine, Brazil
# Abstract: Brazil

	Tons of tourmalines are mined in Brazil, with much of the production destined for China.

	This series of articles and videos follows a team of GIA Field Gemologists on their travels from the mountains of Afghanistan to the jungles of Sri Lanka in search of the sources of colored gemstones and the people who pursue them. This thrilling journey will take you to remote gemstone-mining areas, where you’ll witness the extreme effort required to wrestle nature’s treasures from the earth.

	The romance of a colored gemstone arises from its beauty, the exotic qualities of its source’s location, the adventure leading to its discovery, and the stories of the people who seek it. These factors have united to create the allure of gemstones through the ages, and continue to do so even in modern times.

Beatrice Neves examines two tourmaline crystals taken from the family mine’s tunnel walls. The Neves family pulled together after great loss, and through their strength, developed the Cruzeiro mine into a source reliable enough to meet China’s insatiable demand for tourmaline. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	Brazil is blessed with a wide variety of gemstones, and the country is a major source of tourmaline. One of the country’s most productive states is Minas Gerais, which means “general mines.” This is where the Cruzeiro tourmaline mine is found. All colors of tourmaline are mined here, including the coveted reddish rubellite variety. The mine produces eight tons of tourmaline a year. Twenty percent of that is rubellite. Still, this massive amount finds an equally massive market in China.

	The Cruzeiro mine is also a story of tragedy, perseverance, and triumph. When two brothers were killed in a plane crash, the widow and son of one of the brothers and a son of the second brother took over the mine and developed it into an overwhelming success in the global market supply chain. @chapter:31 @chapter:2 @chapter:31


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Will Auction Records Continue to Shatter in 2014?
# Abstract: The Orange, a 14.82 ct Fancy Vivid orange diamond, fetched a record $2.4 million per carat. It was the centerpiece of Christie’s Nov. 12 sale in Geneva, which brought the highest auction total ever—$125.4 million. Photo by Christie’s Images Ltd. 2013, courtesy of Denis Hayoun Diode SA Geneva.

Update: According to media reports, Sotheby’s cancelled the sale of the Pink Star several months after the auction when the winning bidder was unable to complete the transaction.

The world’s two leading auction houses are gearing up for another extraordinary year.

In 2013, Christie’s and Sotheby’s posted record jewelry sales of $678 million and $600 million, respectively, through auctions of mega diamonds, rare colored gems and classic period jewels. Economists predict the demand for ultra-luxury items that drove these auction numbers should be even stronger in 2014.

Three landmark diamonds in 2013 contributed to the record-breaking sales:

		The highest price ever paid for a gemstone: Sotheby’s estimated a price tag of $61 million for the Pink Star diamond offered at its Nov. 13 Geneva sale, but the GIA-graded 59.6 ct Fancy Vivid pink sold for $83.02 million, nearly doubling the 2010 record price of $46 million, also for a pink diamond. The buyer, New York diamond dealer Isaac Wolf, promptly renamed the stone the Pink Dream.

		The highest per-carat price ever paid: the Orange, a GIA-graded 14.82 ct Fancy Vivid orange diamond, was sold by Christie’s to an anonymous buyer for $35.54 million, or $2.4 million per carat.

		The record total for a single jewelry auction: Sotheby’s Nov. 13 auction in Geneva, which featured the Pink Dream, had a dozen lots sell for more than $1 million each, and seven that went for more than $6 million each—for a total of $199.5 million.

	Sotheby’s November sale in Geneva saw the highest price ever paid for a gemstone at auction: $83.02 million for the Pink Star, a 59.6 ct Fancy Vivid pink diamond. Courtesy of Sotheby’s.
The record setting began in May at Christie’s Geneva, when Harry Winston paid $26.7 million for a 101.73 ct D-Flawless diamond it named the “Winston Legacy.” Another highlight from that sale was the 19.88 ct Star of Kashmir sapphire, which sold for $3.48 million, a record $175,202 per carat.

	This 101.73 ct D-Flawless pear shape, the Winston Legacy, sold for $26.7 million at Christie’s May 2013 sale in Geneva. Photo by Christie’s Images Ltd. 2013.
Sotheby’s Oct. 7 Hong Kong sale saw the highest price ever paid at auction for a colorless diamond: a GIA-graded 118.28 ct oval D-Flawless, cut from a 299 ct piece of rough, sold for $30.6 million to an Asian buyer. Despite the record amount, the final price was on the lower end of the pre-sale estimate.

The surge really gained momentum a month later, when  Christie’s Nov. 12 Geneva sale broke the record for the highest jewelry sale total—$125.4 million—with the Orange as its centerpiece. The sale also had a record 22 lots top $1 million, including a Cartier emerald and diamond necklace that generated $9.9 million; a seven-strand natural pearl necklace that topped $9 million; and a brooch by designer Anna Hu, featuring a 58.29 ct Burmese sapphire, that sold for $4.5 million. Hu’s brooch set a record price for a contemporary designer at auction.

Sotheby’s Geneva auction the next night was, according to David Bennett, Sotheby’s chairman for jewelry in Europe and the Middle East, “charged with energy … everything seemed to be selling for more than their estimates. The night could not have conceivably gone better.”

Four records were broken:

		The highest price ever paid—both total price and per carat—for sapphire jewels: $8.45 million ($175,821 per carat, breaking the record set in Geneva in May) for the Richelieu Sapphires, a pair of Kashmir sapphires, weighing 20.88 and 26.66 ct.

		A record price for a Burmese sapphire: a 114.73 ct gem that sold for $7.14 million, or $62,214 per carat.

		The most expensive piece of jewelry ever sold at auction by Sotheby’s: a Van Cleef & Arpels brooch, featuring a GIA-graded 96.62 ct Fancy Vivid Yellow briolette-cut diamond, that went for $10.55 million.

François Curiel, chairman of Christie’s Asia, explained that the growing wealth in that region is one reason for the sharp rise in prices for rare stones and jewels.

“In 1994, we sold two lots above $5 million, with a 19.66 ct pink as the top lot for $7.3 million ($375,000 per carat). This was the year we inaugurated our Hong Kong auctions, which brought 11% of our $190 million annual total,” Curiel said. “In 2013, we sold 14 lots above $5 million, with the 34.65 ct Fancy Intense pink Princie diamond fetching $39.5 million ($1.1 million per carat). Hong Kong last year contributed 29% of our $675 million annual total. We have just started selling in Shanghai.”

	Asian wealth was a major force behind the surging prices for rare gems and jewels in 2013. At Christie’s Hong Kong, the 34.65 ct Fancy Intense pink Princie diamond brought $1.1 million per carat. Photo by Christie’s Images Ltd. 2013.
Will 2014 see more records fall? Economist say the boom isn’t over, and that the ultra-wealthy are still seeking outlets for their excess cash.

Curiel believes there will be more rare gems on the market, because the rarest items tend to be offered for the first time—or come up for sale again—when people know they may get top prices.

“There is an extreme shortage of rare diamonds, jewels, colored stones and pearls; the same items are fetching many times more than their first time on the auction block,” Curiel said. “These new prices are bringing more rarities to the market than ever before—and promise another exciting year for the jewelry industry worldwide.” @chapter:37 @chapter:3 @chapter:37


# Publication Year: 2020
# Title: New Blue Sapphire from Rakwana, Sri Lanka
# Abstract: A 49.99 ct rough sapphire crystal (5.8 cm in length) and a 33.16 ct cut stone with exceptional color from the 2019 Rakwana find. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
The town of Rakwana, in southern Sri Lanka, has been known for decades as a premier source of royal blue sapphires. Often, a simple mention that a gemstone is from Rakwana will immediately explain the price and quality. In August 2019 a small pocket yielding numerous large sapphire crystals was discovered in the nearby Sinharaja Forest area of the Ratnapura District, Sabaragamuwa Province. What was unique about this find was the quality and size of the lustrous crystals. The 49.99 ct rough crystal in the figure above, measuring 5.8 cm in length and 1.6 cm at its widest point, was one of about 60 found in August 2019. It was also the largest complete crystal found. The beautiful 33.16 ct gem beside it was cut from a 207 ct piece of rough, the end of a large portion of a crystal. This crystal and cut gem rival the famous ones from Kataragama found four years ago. @chapter:30 @chapter:0 @chapter:30


# Publication Year: 1988
# Title: Fall 1988 G&G Book Reviews
# Abstract: “Gems and Jewelry Appraising”
By Anna M. Miller, 198 pp., illus., publ. by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1988. US$29.95

“Dictionary of Gemmology,” 2nd Edition
By Peter G. Read, 266 pp., illus., publ. by Butterworths, London, 1988. US$49.95

“Modern Jeweler's Gem Profile, the First 60”
By David Federman and Tino Hammid, 129 pp., illus., publ. by Vance Publishing Corp., Lincolnshire, Illinois, 1988. US$39.95

“The History of Beads”
By Lois Sherr Dubin, 364 pp., illus., publ. by Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1987. US$60.00

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: The history of gemstones in Chanthaburi_21
# Abstract: If we rewind, there is evidence, walking and kicking stones up in various colors. This clearly shows the origins of having raw materials. Later, there were traders in the town who could take those stones and trade with them. @chapter:40 @chapter:2 @chapter:40


# Publication Year: 2022
# Title: The Grass Is Always Greener…
# Abstract: Figure 1. Blade-like green radiation stains. Also indicated is the boundary of the close-up view of the green stains in figure 2. Photomicrograph by Michaela Stephan; field of view 2.9 mm.
The Carlsbad laboratory recently examined a 0.97 ct Fancy grayish green diamond submitted for colored diamond grading service. Microscopic examination revealed a colorless diamond with green radiation stains scattered across the pavilion (figure 1).
These radiation stains were particularly unusual due to their linear appearance and resembled blades of grass in their morphology and color. These stains were prevalent along intentionally preserved rough natural diamond surfaces on the pavilion. Faceted surfaces along the pavilion were polished with particular effort to retain some of the green radiation stains. The resultant internal reflection of green light to the table created a uniform green bodycolor in this rare and beautiful diamond.

Figure 2. Radiation stains on the rough diamond’s surface also penetrate to a polished side (left). Viewed with reflected light, the surface shows acicular indentations coincident with green stains (right). Photomicrographs by Michaela Stephan and Roy Bassoo.
Surface photomicrographs revealed long, linear, and acicular indentations concentrated near the center of the radiation stains (figure 2). Indentations crosscut flat-bottomed trigons, suggesting they post-dated diamond dissolution in the earth’s mantle (e.g., R. Tappert and M. Tappert, Diamonds in Nature: A Guide to Rough Diamonds, Springer, Heidelberg, 2011). The green stains along the polished surface indicate that the radiation stains penetrated some depth into the diamond. These features have been observed previously at GIA (e.g., Spring 2021 G&G Micro-World, pp. 66–67; Spring 2022 G&G Micro-World, pp. 64–65) and may result from acicular to tabular radioactive minerals precipitating directly on the diamond surface in a paleoplacer to recent alluvial environment (e.g., R. Lauf, Mineralogy of Uranium and Thorium, Schiffer Publishing, Ltd., Atglen, Pennsylvania, 2016). Radiation damage created vacancies in the diamond lattice, which absorb red light and reflect green light, resulting in the green color of the radiation stains. Uncharged or neutral vacancies produce a photoluminescence response near the 741 nm zero phonon line called the GR1 defect (e.g., J.E. Shigley and C.M. Breeding, “Optical defects in diamond: A quick reference chart,” Summer 2013 G&G, pp. 107–111). The GR1 defect area from photoluminescence spectra can be measured and mapped to indicate the spatial distribution of this defect coincident with the radiation stains (figure 3).

Figure 3. Left: Map of the integrated area beneath the GR1 defect peak of the radiation stains on the diamond surface, derived from photoluminescence spectroscopy. Right: Reflected light image of the surface showing radiation stains (outlined in red) coincident with acicular indentations. The measurements were taken with a 532 nm laser at 1 mW power, 25 μm confocal spot size, 5 μm step size, and 100 Hz.
It is unusual to see green radiation stains of this shape that correspond with indentations on a diamond surface. These features could be a commonly overlooked characteristic of green diamonds. @chapter:39 @chapter:1 @chapter:39