# Publication Year: 2014
# Title: Fancy Black NPD Synthetic Diamond
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 0.9 ct marquise proved to be a synthetic nano-polycrystalline diamond (NPD), the first one detected by a gemological laboratory. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao/GIA.

              As reported previously in Gems & Gemology, nano-polycrystalline diamond (NPD) growth technology is one of the most significant new developments in diamond synthesis (see E.A. Skalwold, “Nano-polycrystalline diamond sphere: A gemologist’s perspective,” Summer 2012 G&G, pp. 128–131). The material is completely transparent and comparable to natural diamond, while tougher than natural diamond or previous synthetic diamonds. NPD could pose a challenge to the natural diamond industry once these goods, particularly higher-quality transparent samples, enter the consumer market.

Recently, the New York laboratory tested a small, black marquise-cut stone for identification and color origin. At first glance, the 0.9 ct translucent specimen (figure 1) resembled a typical black diamond submitted to the lab for identification and color origin. One must be careful to separate such stones from synthetic moissanite. This marquise, however, revealed unusual properties strikingly similar to those of the NPD synthetic diamonds reported on by Skalwold, as well as other previously tested samples. These previously studied specimens were transparent with a yellow to brown range of color.

	Figure 2. Photomicrograph images of the heavily included synthetic diamond showed an abundance of graphite inclusions and a murky yellowish matrix. Fields of view (clockwise from top left): 1.5, 3.1, 1.5, and 4.1 mm. Photomicrographs by Paul Johnson.
Unlike natural diamond, the stone in question was heavily included with graphite crystals. The matrix hosting the inclusions had a murky yellowish color (figure 2). Using diffuse reflectance, we obtained a mid-infrared absorbance spectrum strikingly similar to that of the NPD synthetic diamonds reported in the aforementioned article. We observed the diagnostic diamond absorption peaks at approximately 2000 cm–1 and absorption in the one-phonon region, possibly due to nitrogen impurity. Peaks at approximately 3727 and 3611 cm–1 were also observed, as in the previously tested NPD samples (figure 3). Raman spectroscopy is a common and useful technique in identifying a gem diamond. Due to the nano-sizes of the crystals that compose the aggregated sample, a Raman shift is usually not detectable in NPD using visible-light laser excitations. The same feature was observed in this specimen.

	Figure 3. The mid-infrared spectrum of the synthetic NPD displayed peaks at approximately 3727 and 3611 cm–1.

	Figure 4. DiamondView images of the synthetic NPD exhibited a distinct fluorescence pattern. Images by Paul Johnson.
Further analysis using the DiamondView instrument revealed a fluorescence pattern and structure that was, again, very similar to earlier NPD samples (figure 4). Raman analysis showed a broad band at approximately 1350 cm–1 and a weak band at about 1580 cm–1; these are assigned as D- and G-bands, respectively (S. Odake et al., “Pulsed laser processing of nano-polycrystalline diamond: A comparative study with single crystal diamond,” Diamond and Related Materials, 2009, Vol. 18, pp. 877–880). Odake reported the two bands in NPD samples grown from high-purity graphite at a temperature of 2600K and a pressure of 15 GPa; both are caused by nanocrystalline graphite or amorphous carbon. Unlike Odake’s samples, which showed G- and D-bands of equal intensity, ours showed a strong D-band with a weak G-band. We measured Raman spectra at many different locations but did not observe the diamond Raman band at 1332 cm–1, an absence Odake also reported.

Testing and observations revealed the diamond to be an NPD synthetic diamond, the first detected by a gemological laboratory. @chapter:36 @chapter:1 @chapter:36


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Rare Double Pseudomorph Ikaite-Calcite-Opal
# Abstract: Figure 1. The Heart of Australia, a 3,510 ct double pseudomorph ikaite-calcite-opal gem specimen, is considered one of the finest ever unearthed. Courtesy of Graeme Dowton.
At the Pueblo Gem & Mineral Show, Graeme Dowton of Red Earth Opal (White Cliffs, Australia) exhibited rare double pseudomorph ikaite-calcite-opal gem specimens mined from the Naatji Nest mine at White Cliffs in New South Wales, Australia. Ikaite was initially substituted with calcite and then opalized, therefore making these double pseudomorph opals. Also called “pineapple opal” in the market due to the form of their clusters, they are found exclusively in White Cliffs and typically occur within weathering-bleached siltstones and claystones. According to Dowton, no other type of gem-quality opal was found in the same layer where the pineapple opals were mined. During mining, it was noticed that two opals had formed within a few feet of each other but with distinctly different coloration: One displayed a rich spectrum of play-of-color, while the other showed almost no coloration. The 3,510 ct Heart of Australia (figure 1) shows rich play-of-color and is considered one of the finest specimens of this type ever unearthed. In some of Dowton’s samples, the precursor calcite was not fully substituted by silica gel, and white calcite crystals can be observed (figure 2).

Figure 2. The intergrowth of opal and its precursor calcite in pineapple opal. This specimen is 12 × 10 × 8 cm and weighs 690 g. Photo by Si Athena Chen; courtesy of Graeme Dowton.
Ikaite, CaCO3•6H2O, is a rare and metastable hydrated carbonate in sedimentary rocks that has only been identified in environments ranging from –2° to 7°C in nature (M.L. Vickers et al., “The ikaite to calcite transformation: Implications for paleoclimate studies,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 334, 2022, pp. 201–216). The occurrence of ikaite suggests a period of very cold to near-freezing paleoclimate conditions in White Cliffs. At ambient temperatures (10°–30°C), ikaite transforms to more stable carbonate polymorphs such as calcite, aragonite, and/or vaterite. The ikaite and its following pseudomorphs act as paleothermometers (D. Shearman and A. Smith, “Ikaite, the parent mineral of jarrowite-type pseudomorphs,” Proceedings of the Geologists Association, Vol. 96, No. 4, 1985, pp. 305–314). When the host sedimentary rocks were weathered, they released silica into groundwater. This silica-bearing groundwater contacted with calcite, which gradually dissolved and reprecipitated to opal over time (B. Pewkliang et al., “The formation of precious opal: Clues from the opalization of bone,” Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 46, No. 1, 2008, pp. 139–149). However, the detailed formation mechanism of ikaite-calcite-opal in White Cliffs requires future investigation. @chapter:14 @chapter:0 @chapter:14


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Twelve-Rayed Star Sapphire from Thailand
# Abstract: A 12-rayed black star sapphire, weighing 3.6 ct, with one set of golden rays and another set of silver rays producing two different-colored stars. Photo by Simon Bruce-Lockhart.
The Thai city of Chanthaburi is a well-known international trading hub for colored gemstones but was once an important corundum mining center. In recent decades, mining activity in the area has decreased, but there are still several smaller-scale operations active. The 3.6 ct 12-rayed black star sapphire shown above was mined in 2017 in Bang Kha Cha (or Bang Kaja), a mining locality near Chanthaburi.
Thailand’s gemstone deposits typically produce blue, green, and yellow sapphires (and combinations of these colors). The deposits in eastern Thailand also produce a peculiar sapphire variety: black star sapphire. This variety is found in other basalt-related deposits like Australia, but they rarely match the size, quality, and abundance that the Thai stones are famous for.
The black color is due to a very high concentration of Fe-rich particles, identified as hematite and ilmenite. This high density of particles completely masks the bodycolor of the stone. When strongly illuminated from the back, glimpses of the bluish green bodycolor in this gem can be seen. If the platy, Fe-rich particles are oriented in the correct way, they result in a six-rayed star pattern. This star is often yellowish golden in color.
Another common inclusion in corundum is rutile needles. When they are abundant and correctly oriented in the crystal, this might also result in a six-rayed pattern, often with a whitish silvery color. In some cases, both of these patterns overlap, creating a 12-rayed star with one set of golden-yellow rays and one set of silver-white rays. The stone in this entry is an excellent example of this phenomenon, displaying well-centered, sharp asterism with two different-colored stars. @chapter:5 @chapter:0 @chapter:5


# Publication Year: 2003
# Title: Fall 2003 G&G Book Reviews
# Abstract: “The Eras of the Diamond”
By Jules Roger Sauer, publ. by Amsterdam Sauer, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2003, price available on request. E-mail: julessauer@amsterdamsauer.com

“Jadeite Jade, A Stone & A Culture”
By Chiu Mei Ou Yang, 184 pp., illus., publ. by the Hong Kong Institute of Gemmology, 2003. US$45.00

“Pegmatology: Pegmatite Mineralogy, Petrology and Petrogenesis”
By William “Skip” Simmons, Karen L. Webber, Alexander U. Falster, and James W. Niamoff, 176 pp., illus., publ. by Rubellite Press, New Orleans, LA, 2003. US$47.50

“At the Bench: An Illustrated Guide to Working with Gold & Silver”
By Gregg Todd and Greg Gilman, 116 pp., illus., publ. by MJSA/AJM Press, Providence, RI, 2002, US$28.50

“Auction Market Resource”
June 2003, Vol. 10, No. 1. Publ. by Gail Brett Levine, P.O. Box 7683, Rego Park, NY 11374-7683. Tel: 718-897-7305. Available by subscription: $195.00 in the U.S., $250.00 elsewhere

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17 @chapter:0 @chapter:17


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Largest Blue HPHT Synthetic Diamond
# Abstract: Figure 1. A 5.03 ct Fancy Deep blue HPHT synthetic diamond was examined by GIA (left). Faint but sharp color zoning was observed (middle, field of view 4.77 mm) along with small metallic inclusions and a cavity at the girdle (right, field of view 2.19 mm). Photos by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia (left) and Kyaw Soe Moe (center and right).
Recently, large colorless and near-colorless HPHT-grown diamonds by the Russian company NDT have been investigated, with sizes up to 5.11 ct (U. D’Haenens-Johansson et al., 2015, “Large colorless HPHT-grown synthetic gem diamonds from New Diamond Technology, Russia,” Fall 2015 G&G, pp. 260–279; Spring 2015 G&G Lab Notes, pp. 65–66). The largest faceted colorless HPHT-grown synthetic diamond reported to date is a 10.02 ct E-color, VS1-clarity specimen, reported by IGI Hong Kong in 2015. In January 2016, GIA’s New York laboratory examined a 5.03 ct fancy-color HPHT-grown type IIb synthetic diamond (figure 1, left) produced by NDT, the largest faceted blue laboratory-grown diamond studied so far.
This emerald-cut synthetic diamond was color graded as Fancy Deep blue. This is a very attractive color with no other color component, a prized rarity among natural type IIb diamonds (the Blue Moon, for instance, was graded as Fancy Vivid blue). When viewed under a microscope, faint but sharp color zoning could be seen (figure 1, center), indicative of the uneven impurity incorporation of HPHT synthetic diamonds. No strain was observed under crossed polarizers, indicating a very low dislocation density, which is also characteristic of HPHT-grown diamonds. It had VS1 clarity, with only very small metallic inclusions and a cavity observed at the girdle (figure 1, right). Fluorescence and phosphorescence images collected using a DiamondView instrument revealed the sample’s cuboctahedral growth pattern (figure 2, left), another feature of HPHT synthetics. The long-lasting chalky blue phosphorescence was further analyzed using spectroscopy, and the emission was found to originate from two broad bands centered at approximately 500 and 575 nm (figure 2, right). These bands have previously been reported in NDT’s type IIa and IIb HPHT synthetic diamonds (D’Haenens-Johansson et al., 2015).

Figure 2. DiamondView images of fluorescence (top left), and phosphorescence (bottom
left) revealed a cuboctahedral growth pattern, which is typical for HPHT-grown synthetic
diamond. Phosphorescence spectra (right) show two peaks at approximately 500 and
575 nm, contributing a chalky blue color.
Absorption spectroscopy for the mid-infrared region confirmed the sample was type IIb, with strong boron-related features at 1290, 2458, and 2800 cm–1. The average bulk boron concentration was 0.82 to 1.12 ppm, calculated according to the equation NA-ND = (1.00 ± 0.15) × H1290 ppm cm–3 , where NA is acceptor concentration, ND is donor concentration, and H1290 is peak height at 1290 cm–1 (A.T. Collins, “Determination of the boron concentration in diamond using optical spectroscopy,” Proceedings of the 61st Diamond Conference, Warwick, UK, 2010). Otherwise, this large synthetic diamond exhibited an extremely low concentration of optical defects. Photoluminescence spectroscopy was conducted at liquid nitrogen temperatures using a range of laser excitations covering the UV-visible-IR range. The PL spectra only revealed emission from a single defect species, a Ni-related emission multiplet with peaks at 483.6/483.8/484.1/484.4 nm (484 nm center) detected using 324.8 nm laser excitation (A.T. Collins, “The characterisation of point defects in diamond by luminescence spectroscopy,” Diamond and Related Materials, Vol. 1, 1992, pp. 457–469). As with previous type IIb synthetic diamonds, its visible-NIR spectrum showed a transmission window in the blue region and an absorption in the red, caused by the presence of boron, resulting in the observed blue bodycolor.

This 5.03 ct sample is the largest HPHT-grown blue synthetic diamond examined at a GIA laboratory. As the size and quality of synthetic diamonds improve, careful identification is essential. Representative HPHT synthetic diamond characteristics seen in this specimen, such as the lack of tatami strain patterns (which are typically observed in natural type IIb diamonds), faint but sharp color zoning, and small metallic inclusions from the metal-catalyst flux, can be detected using a gemological microscope, emphasizing its continued importance in gem identification. Examination of this large IIb synthetic diamond, combined with those previously reported from NDT, illustrates the rapid progress in HPHT growth technologies. This is a development that will eventually impact the jewelry industry. @chapter:9 @chapter:1 @chapter:9


# Publication Year: 1998
# Title: Fall 1998 Gems News International
# Abstract: Diamonds
            Diamonds at the International Mineralogical Association Meeting
            Update on the Ekati Project, Northwest Territories, Canada
Colored Stones
            Amethyst from Arizona
            Andradite Garnet from Yemen
            Danburite from San Diego County, California: A Potential Gem Mineral
            Application of Large-scale Mining Techniques to Colombian Emeralds
            Gem-Quality Grossular Garnet from Mali
            Pyrope-Spessartine Garnet from Madagascar
            Color-Change Pyrope-Spessartine Garnet, Also From Madagascar
            Hackmanite from Myanmar
            “Striped” Labradorite Feldspar
            Colorado Lapis Lazuli
            Pearls Highlighted at the 2nd International Jewellery Show in Kobe, Japan
            Vietnamese “Trapiche” Rubies
            “Sliders”: Rutile Inclusions in Quartz
            Sapphire from the Ural Mountains, Russia
            Sapphirine: Gems & Gemology Reader to the Rescue
Treatments
            Radioactive Rubies
Synthetics and Simulants
            Gallium Phosphide, Resembling Fancy Dark Orange Diamond
            Unusual Jade Look-Alike
            “Wild Life” Assembled Gemstone Cabochons
Announcements
            Rossmanite, a New Variety of Tourmaline

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:1 @chapter:0 @chapter:1


# Publication Year: -
# Title: GIA Opens Laboratories in Israel and Japan
# Abstract: GIA opened two new diamond grading laboratories in 2012: one in Ramat Gan, Israel and one in Tokyo, Japan. These facilities, the eighth and ninth GIA global laboratories, are the latest steps in the Institute’s efforts to expand its ability to fulfill its mission to ensure the public trust in gems. By bringing industry-leading diamond grading services directly to important gem markets, GIA is making its services more easily accessible to laboratory clients.

“Offering GIA’s diamond grading standards and research-backed lab services to these important markets serves the public interest by supporting the Israeli and Japanese gem and jewelry industries,” said Tom Moses, GIA senior vice president for laboratory and research. “Our global network of laboratories enables GIA to remain at the forefront of gemological developments and provide the best possible service to our laboratory clients.”

Both facilities offer Diamond Dossier® and Diamond Grading Report services for colorless diamonds up to 2.99 cts. Additional services may be added in the future.

A reservation system for direct submission to the Israel facility, located in the diamond center of Tel Aviv, enables clients to schedule drop-off and pick-up appointments, eliminating the need to wait on-site to submit stones for grading services. They are also able to monitor the progress of their services online. If reservations are not available, clients can submit stones through GIA LabDirect consolidators who provide take-in services. Consolidators also take in diamonds larger than 2.99 carats, fancy color diamonds, colored gemstones and pearls.

The Tokyo lab also takes in colored stones and pearls for any other GIA services. At this time, those gems will be sent to another GIA global laboratory and returned to Tokyo for pick-up. GIA plans to expand the menu of services offered by its Tokyo facility in the coming months.

GIA began its global expansion in 2008, adding diamond grading services to its Bangkok laboratory and opening new laboratory facilities in Johannesburg, South Africa; Gaborone, Botswana; and Mumbai, India. In 2010, a lab opened in Hong Kong and a ninth facility is slated to open in Japan later this year.

All gemstones submitted to GIA anywhere in the world may be sent to any GIA laboratory, ensuring the equal, unbiased and neutral examination based on the rigorous and consistent standards that characterize all of GIA’s gem identification and grading services. @chapter:35 @chapter:1 @chapter:35


# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: Euhedral Phantom Sapphire in Sapphire
# Abstract: Figure 1. A partially tapered bipyramid sapphire inclusion within a sapphire. Photomicrograph by Britni LeCroy; field of view 2.90 mm.

A phantom sapphire crystal within a host sapphire crystal was recently examined at GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory. The inclusion showed euhedral morphology as one half of a partially tapered bipyramid. The visible boundaries of the included crystal were composed of unaltered fingerprints with geometric patterns and fine linear rows. The crystal’s surface also showed moderate-order birefringence colors; these represented the shared interface between the host’s crystal lattice and the inclusion’s crystal lattice (figure 1). External local fingerprints also terminated around the crystal’s end point. Negative crystals within the inclusion showed tabular hexagonal habit (figure 2, left). When the host sapphire was exposed to temperatures below the freezing point of water, a CO2 bubble was seen within the largest negative crystal (figure 2, right). A sapphire with this inclusion combination is rarely seen.

Figure 2. Left: Negative crystals with tabular hexagonal habit within a euhedral sapphire inclusion. Right: A CO2 bubble appears within the largest negative crystal (see arrow) after the stone was exposed to temperatures below the freezing point of water. Photomicrographs by Britni LeCroy; field of view 1.76 mm. @chapter:19 @chapter:0 @chapter:19


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Pink Diamonds, Russia’s Amber Room, and More…
# Abstract: The beauty and desirability of pink diamonds is exemplified by the Winston Pink Legacy, a stunning 18.96 ct Fancy Vivid pink diamond that realized US$50 million at auction in November 2018. Such sought-after diamonds are the subject of the third installment of our colored diamonds series. GIA researchers Sally Eaton-Magaña, Troy Ardon, Karen Smit, Christopher Breeding, and James Shigley summarize the current science on natural-color pink to red diamonds and detail the cause of their color. The authors provide an unprecedented gemological and spectroscopic characterization by presenting absorption and luminescence spectra drawn from a representative sample of 1,000 diamonds from GIA’s database.

“An unprecedented characterization of naturally colored pink to red diamonds…”

Our second paper, by GIA’s Russell Shor, surveys the history of the legendary Amber Room. Originally commissioned for Prussia’s King Frederick I in the early 1700s and presented to Czar Peter I of Russia in 1716, the amber panels disappeared from St. Petersburg during the Second World War. In 1979, the Soviet Union initiated a painstaking reconstruction of this cultural treasure. Besides its rich history, the author provides firsthand accounts from those who participated in its recreation.
Next, Che Shen, a graduate student at the Gemmological Institute of China University of Geosciences in Wuhan, and Ren Lu investigate the color origin of gem-grade diaspore using LA-ICP-MS spectrometry.
A reaction rim or “corona” results from alteration of a crystal’s exterior after its formation due to changes in geological conditions. In our fourth paper, researchers led by Nguyen Ngoc Khoi, from the Hanoi University of Science, provide a study on corundum with spinel corona from northern Vietnam. The authors explain the genesis of the corona by examining its reaction textures, chemical composition, and mineral inclusions and applying thermodynamic phase equilibria calculations.
Our fifth paper offers a gemological characterization of pipi pearls from the bivalve mollusk Pinctada maculata. Authors Nanthaporn Nilpetploy, Kwanreun Lawanwong, and Promlikit Kessrapong detail the internal structures and further investigate these small, sometimes strongly colored natural pearls using microradiography and UV-Vis, Raman, and photoluminescence spectroscopy.
Our final article is a brief summary of diamond inclusions by GIA’s Nathan Renfro, John Koivula, Jonathan Muyal, Shane McClure, Kevin Schumacher, and James Shigley. A foldout wall chart with photomicrographs showcasing remarkable inclusions in natural, synthetic, and treated diamonds accompanies this article.
Besides our six articles and the chart, there’s plenty to enjoy in our regular features: Lab Notes offers analysis of three freshwater blister pearls attached to their host shells, De Beers’ Lightbox CVD-grown diamonds, and an exceptionally rare Montana ruby. Our new Diamonds from the Deep section provides an examination of how diamonds form in the deep earth. Micro-World serves up an array of internal features observed in gem materials, while Gem News International reports on sapphire treated with high pressure and high temperature, coated rough and faceted synthetic moissanite, and gemological conferences around the world.
Finally, don’t forget to check our listing of the 2018 G&G Challenge winners, and please do remember to cast your vote for the Most Valuable Article of 2018. @chapter:52 @chapter:1 @chapter:52


# Publication Year: 2005
# Title: Winter 2005 G&G Book Reviews
# Abstract: “Crystals: Growth, Morphology and Perfection”
By Ichiro Sunagawa, 295 pp., illus., publ. by Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2005. US$95.00)

“The Gem Merchant: How to Be One, How to Deal with One, 2nd Edition”
By David Stanley Epstein, 158 pp., illus., publ. by Gem Market Publications, Piermont, NY, 2003, US$20.00

“Arts and Crafts to Art Deco: The Jewellery and Silver of H. G. Murphy”
By Paul Atterbury and John Benjamin, 183 pp., illus., publ. by Antique Collectors’ Club, Suffolk, United Kingdom, 2005. US$69.50

“Daniel Swarovski: A World of Beauty”
Text by Vivienne Becker, produced under the direction of Markus Langes-Swarovski, 139 pp., illus., publ. by Thames & Hudson, New York, 2005. US$75.00

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Spring 2010 G&G Lab Notes
# Abstract: Coated and Fracture-Filled Orangy Red Diamond
Diamond with Rare Green Fluorescence
Identification of Irradiated Black Diamonds
Large HPHT-Treated Type IIb Blue Diamond
Pink Diamonds Colored by Multiple Treatment Processes
Type IIa Greenish Yellow Diamond Colored by IR-Inactive Nitrogen
Red CVD Synthetic Diamond with Multiple Treatments
Exceptionally Transparent Treated Jadeite
Large Pair of Natural Freshwater Pearls
Blockage-Induced Growth Tubes in Tourmaline
Treated Green Turquoise

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:43 @chapter:1 @chapter:43


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Atypical “Beading” in the Production of Cultured Pearls from Australian Pinctada maxima
# Abstract: Eleven of the atypical “bead” cultured pearls and one “keshi” produced from the authors’ experiments. Photo by Lhapsin Nillapat.

In 2011, the authors began to see cases of low-quality natural pearls being used as unconventional “beads” for cultured nacre growth. These natural pearls had been inserted into the gonads of Pinctada maxima along with a piece of donor mantle tissue, or in some cases into the cultured pearl sacs created by initial or subsequent operations, to facilitate the growth of cultured nacre on to their surfaces.

To better understand this deceptive “beading” process, the authors conducted a total of 91 experiments on Australian Pinctada maxima. In 75 of the experiments, atypical “beads” (including natural abalone, scallop, Pteria sterna, Pinna, drilled coral, and faceted sapphire) were inserted. The other 16 tests consisted of irritating, folding, or inserting tissue into the mantle.

The results of their investigations appear in a study titled “Experiments in Using Atypical ‘Beads’ and Mantle Interference in the Production of Cultured Pearls with Australian Pinctada maxima.”

The study presents real-time X-ray (RTX) and X-ray computed tomography (µ-CT) images of the resulting cultured pearl products. Of the 91 experimental operations, 23 proved successful in cultured nacre growth over the unconventional “beads” and forming “bead” cultured pearls. In most cases, the process could be readily identified with either RTX or µ-CT analysis. @chapter:11 @chapter:4 @chapter:11


# Publication Year: 2017
# Title: Multi-Color-Zoned Quartz from Brazil
# Abstract: Cabochons of strongly zoned Brazilian quartz, measuring up to 4 cm long. The five described zones are numbered. Photo by Jaroslav Hyršl.

Quartz very often crystallizes in zones during formation, when chemical or physical conditions change. An interesting example of strong zoning caused by variable iron content came recently from Bahia State in Brazil. No rough specimens were seen by the author, but several dozen flat cabochons up to about 4 cm long (see above) were available for study.

The quartz crystallized in five stages, each with a different type of iron. If there is any Fe in the original solution, it acts as a chromophore and produces citrine or amethyst; a higher Fe content will cause separate iron minerals to form. The oldest generation (1) is represented by parallel crystals of yellow citrine with small amethyst sectors, which can be described as ametrine. Their surface was covered by a thin quartz layer (2) with tiny goethite needles. The next generation (3) was a red layer, consistently about 3 mm thick, with fine agate-like zoning. The color was probably caused by very finely dispersed hematite, an identification based on typical color and microgranular texture. The next zone (4) was rich in pyrite, which formed fibers perpendicular to the older red layer, but pyrite can also form in this layer as tiny cubic crystals. After crystallization of the pyrite, the last pale purple amethyst layer (5) was filled with bundles of brown goethite needles up to about 3 mm, which also grew perpendicular to the original surface.

The inclusions in these attractive specimens can explain their complicated formation, with iron found in quartz structure (amethyst and citrine), in sulfide (pyrite), or in oxide (goethite and hematite). @chapter:8 @chapter:0 @chapter:8


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Internal Structures of Natural Pearls from Pinctada maxima, Identification of Resin-Filled Turquoise, Spinel Inclusions Chart, and More……
# Abstract: Spring ushers in a feeling of renewal, and as we start to slowly recover from the global pandemic, it is a welcome sentiment. Join us as we investigate the inner structures of natural Pinctada maxima pearls, the technical evolution of turquoise treatments using resin filling, and a mathematical approach to predicting color in uniaxial gemstones. Even though the Tucson gem shows were canceled this February, we are able to offer more than 20 pages of captivating interviews covering how many in the trade have been weathering the situation along the entire supply chain.

“A mathematical method using visible spectroscopy to accurately predict color, the most important quality for a colored gemstone…”

Natural Pinctada maxima pearls take center stage in the lead article as Artitaya Homkrajae and fellow GIA researchers conduct a detailed analysis of 774 natural pearls collected from wild marine mollusks. These pearls were classified into six broad internal structural types based on X-ray techniques such as real-time microradiography (RTX) and X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT). The results of this work support the efforts to aid in the dependable identification of natural versus cultured pearls by gemological laboratories.

In the second article, Ling Liu and a team from the Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences in Wuhan use ultraviolet fluorescence, spectrofluorometry, and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry to characterize resin-filled turquoise. Their research addresses an urgent need to detect the prevalence and constantly evolving treatment techniques applied to turquoise sourced from China’s Hubei Province.

Next, Che Shen and coauthors provide a mathematical method using visible spectroscopy to accurately predict color, the most important quality for a colored gemstone, and guidance on cutting backed by science. This comprehensive study predicts the color of a uniaxial gem when viewed in any direction by reconstructing unpolarized spectra provided the polarized spectra and relative viewing angle to the c-axis are known.

In our last article, Nathan Renfro and coauthors present a beautiful array of inclusions in natural, treated, and synthetic spinel, as well as inclusions of spinel in other gemstones. Their colorful spinel inclusions chart is enclosed with every printed copy of this issue. Laminated versions of it, along with the five inclusion charts, are also available at store.gia.edu.

As always, interesting gemological findings abound in our regular sections. Discover natural diamonds displaying asterism and bicolor rough diamond crystals featuring distinct colorless and pink areas in Lab Notes, while Micro-World delights with a glimpse into the inner landscapes of gems: a kaleidoscopic play of interference colors seen in thin-film fluid inclusions in aquamarine and a cloud inclusion shaped like a diamond profile mimicking its diamond host. The Gem News International section features a virtual report on the pandemic’s impact and how the trade adapted their business practices to continue to flourish, as well as the headline-grabbing Cookie Monster geode and a glance back in time at hand-drilled holes in diamond briolettes. This issue also contains the annual G&G Challenge, where you can test your gemological knowledge of our 2020 issues. Finally, be sure to see our announcement of the Dr. Edward J. Gübelin Most Valuable Article Award winners.

We hope you enjoy the Spring 2021 edition of Gems & Gemology!

Duncan Pay | Editor-in-Chief | dpay@gia.edu @chapter:54 @chapter:4 @chapter:54


# Publication Year: 2007
# Title: Fluorescence Spectra of Colored Diamonds Using a Rapid, Mobile Spectrometer
# Abstract: Numerous natural-color colored diamonds from the Aurora Butterfly of Peace and other collections were studied using a new type of fluorescence spectrometer that has many advantages for gemological research, including high portability, low cost, and rapid collection times. For comparison, 10 irradiated diamonds were also studied. With only two exceptions, the natural-color diamonds could be separated into three categories—based on the peak wavelength and shape of the fluorescence spectra—that generally corresponded to their bodycolors: (1) ~450 and ~490 nm, recorded mainly for pink, yellow, and fancy white diamonds; (2) ~525 nm, mainly for green-yellow or yellow-green and brown diamonds; and (3) ~550 nm, mainly for orange, gray-green (including chameleon), and type Ia blue-gray or gray-blue diamonds. A spectrum that is anomalous for the diamond’s bodycolor may indicate that it has been treated, and in some cases, fluorescence spectroscopy can help determine diamond type.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Map of Tested Diamonds in the Aurora Butterfly Collection
Table: Summary of Phosphorescence Results
	Submitted by Sally Eaton-Magaña
	Winter, 2007 @chapter:22 @chapter:1 @chapter:22


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Aquamarine with Zigzag Growth Line Inclusions
# Abstract: Figure 1. A 55 ct cushion-cut aquamarine exhibiting a distinct light bluish green and deep blue pleochroism using a dichroscope. Photos by Kaiyin Deng; courtesy of Farrugia Gem.

Figure 2. Infrared transmission spectra (left) and UV-Vis-NIR spectrum (right) of the aquamarine sample. The spectra on the left are offset vertically for clarity.
A 55 ct cushion-cut aquamarine (figure 1, left) was recently submitted to Guild Gem Laboratories in Shenzhen for testing. This stone exhibited a very intense blue color accompanied by a subtle greenish secondary hue. A refractive index of 1.580–1.586 was obtained, together with a specific gravity of approximately of 2.71. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy confirmed its identity as beryl. The transmission FTIR spectrum exhibited distinct peaks at 2731, 2686, and 2641 cm–1 and a carbon dioxide–related signal at 2359 cm–1. Peaks at 3235, 3162, 3111, and 3021 cm–1 were assigned to the presence of water (figure 2, left). This collection of FTIR peaks has been reported in natural aquamarine, but no synthetic counterpart has been reported to show this pattern (I. Adamo et al., “Aquamarine, Maxixe-type beryl, and hydrothermal synthetic blue beryl: Analysis and identification,” Fall 2008 G&G, pp. 214–226). No organic-related peaks were found around the 2800–3200 cm–1 range, suggesting no clarity enhancement had been applied (L. Jianjun et al., “Polymer-filled aquamarine,” Fall 2009 G&G, pp. 197–199). Strong deep blue and light bluish green pleochroism (figure 1) was observed using a dichroscope. Similar beryl materials with a deep blue color have been reported in previous studies (Fall 2014 GNI, pp. 244–245; Fall 2019 GNI, pp. 437–439). The ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared spectrum (figure 2, right) showed a broad Fe2+-related band centered at around 835 nm and narrow absorption bands at 370 and 426 nm related to Fe3+ (D.S. Goldman et al., “Channel constituents in beryl,” Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1978, pp. 225–235; K. Schmetzer, “Hydrothermally grown synthetic aquamarine manufactured in Novosibirsk, USSR,” Fall 1990 G&G, pp. 206–211; Adamo et al., 2008). Using a polariscope equipped with a conoscope, the optic axis was observed parallel to the table along the long axis of the cushion shape. Further chemical analysis by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence showed a high iron content (around 13000 ppmw), which likely contributed to the saturated blue color (Y. Shang et al., “Spectroscopy and chromaticity characterization of yellow to light-blue iron-containing beryl,” Scientific Reports, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2022, article no. 10765).

Figure 3. The thin film along the basal plane of the aquamarine under fiber-optic illumination. Photomicrographs by Yizhi Zhao; fields of view 3.45 mm (left) and 1.72 mm (right).
Microscopic observation under darkfield illumination revealed fluid inclusions and minute voids. Under the table, a circular thin film with a strong light reflection was visible (figure 3). The image in figure 3 (left) was captured at an angle to the table of the aquamarine, since the thin film was easier to see under an oblique light source. Because beryl has imperfect cleavage along its basal plane {0001}, the space between the basal planes caused by initial cleavage was sufficient to form the thin film.

Figure 4. Zigzag lines were observed in the aquamarine using oblique light. Photomicrograph by Yizhi Zhao; field of view 4.52 mm.
An interesting inclusion was observed only with oblique light: a distinct series of fluids resembling dots and broken lines. Higher magnification (figure 4) revealed that these zigzag lines consisted of discrete and minute fluid inclusions. Further observation along the optic axis confirmed that the planes were parallel to the c-axis of the aquamarine.
A previous study described similar inclusions in emeralds from Colombia as resembling a DNA double helix (Summer 2019 G&G Micro-World, p. 262). The authors have also encountered this type of inclusion before. Based on our observations, these helical inclusions spiral along the optic axis of the emerald. To our knowledge, this is the first time such helical inclusions have been reported in an aquamarine. This finding will help advance our understanding of the beryl family. @chapter:24 @chapter:0 @chapter:24


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Coated Rock Crystal Imitation of Ruby
# Abstract: Figure 1. This coated rock crystal imitation of ruby has a brown skin. Photo by Nazar Ahmed Ambalathveettil, Dubai Central Laboratory.

	Recently the Dubai Central Laboratory received for identification a rough stone weighing 616.93 g and measuring approximately 114.3 × 65.8 × 53.0 mm (figure 1). Most of it was covered by a brown skin, while other parts were transparent. Viewed through one of the transparent areas, the stone showed a red color. Under oblique light, the stone appeared dark red, with some areas that were colorless (figure 2).

Figure 2. The rock crystal shows dark red under transmitted light to imitate ruby. Photo by Nazar Ahmed Ambalathveettil, Dubai Central Laboratory.

	Microscopic examination with transmitted light revealed negative crystals, fingerprints, and two-phase inclusions. Observation of the transparent and opaque areas on the surface showed red, green, and blue areas of coating that could be removed using sharp needles. These coated areas gave the stone a purplish red color overall, but some transparent areas appeared colorless under transmitted light and no coating was observed there. The stone’s specific gravity (SG) was 2.60. The coated area gave a patchy chalky blue and purple reaction under long-wave UV and was inert to short-wave UV. SG and inclusions indicated a rock crystal; this was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy.

	This was the first time the Dubai Central Laboratory had identified such a large coated rough stone imitating ruby. @chapter:26 @chapter:0 @chapter:26


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Why Didn't That 1,109 Carat Diamond Sell?
# Abstract: The 1,109 ct Lesedi La Rona diamond is the second largest gem quality diamond ever discovered, but it did not meet its reserve price at the June 29 auction at Sotheby’s London. Courtesy Lucara Diamond Corp.

	The failure of the second largest gem quality diamond ever discovered to find a buyer at a well-publicized public auction touched off a great deal of speculation this month. Lucara Diamond Corp. mined the 1,109 carat (ct) diamond in Botswana last year and named it Lesedi La Rona (“Our Light” in the Tswana language). It went up for sale at Sotheby’s London on June 29 and the price was expected to be “in excess of $70 million” − but the high bid of $61 million did not meet the reserve.

	It was one of the only rough diamonds ever offered at a public sale. The CEO of Lucara, William Lamb, in a pre-sale interview with the Antwerp newsletter “Diamond Loupe,” explained why the company took this unusual step:

	“The Lesedi is estimated at 2.5 to 3 billion years old, which means that the crystal must have started growing very early on during the creation of the Earth. You cannot replicate it by any means, not by synthetic manufacturing or anything else. It will never be exactly the same. It won’t have the same inclusions, it won’t have a little gap somewhere, it won’t have this growth plane and it won’t be that large. People simply do not understand how long it takes to grow a stone, especially one of this size, or anything that is going to be polished into 100 carats for that matter.”

	Lucara sold an 813 ct rough diamond, found late last year, for $63 million at its private auction reserved for company clients several weeks before, but the timing for the Sotheby’s sale could not have been worse.

	The Sotheby’s auction occurred just six days after Britain’s Brexit vote roiled the world currency and equity markets. The sale, conducted in U.S. dollars that increased sharply in value after the vote, meant buyers paying in other currencies would pay a premium. (Even the Chinese Yuan declined a few percentage points against the dollar).

	In addition, based on Sotheby’s video of the diamond and from comments by a dealer who had inspected it, possible internal fissures could have limited its yield; the 813 ct stone was much cleaner.

	Finally, it’s certain that a number of key rough dealers had no intention of bidding for the stone: Sotheby’s 12% buyer’s premium would have added $8.4 million to a winning bid at the probable reserve of $70 million.

	That reluctance was evident in the room. Auctioneer David Bennett opened the bidding at $50 million − and there was no rush to top it. The price advanced very slowly before stalling at $61 million.

	Other than this diamond, prices have remained quite strong for very large colorless diamonds and top fancy colors, as the results of this auction season attest.

	Since the unsuccessful auction,  The Economist , Forbes and several newspapers have used the Lesedi La Rona as an example of how the diamond business is facing difficulties from reluctant millennials and competition from synthetics.

The Economist cited a Frost & Sullivan study claiming that softening diamond prices and rising costs will cut world diamond production to less than 15 million carats within 30 years (compared to 130-plus million this year), while production of synthetic diamonds will rise to 60 million carats in that time.

	Forbes, working from a Morgan Stanley commodities report, said synthetics would be increasingly disruptive for the diamond market, especially for smaller diamonds under 0.2 carats, which are easier for manufacturers of these stones to produce.

	The report also noted that mine production of natural diamonds is on the rise again (predicting a 9% increase to 143 million carats in 2016), but that sales remain nearly stagnant, causing inventories of both rough and polished to swell again.

	ABN AMRO bank, one of the industry’s leading lenders, warned that rising inventories may lead to softening diamond prices once again. The bank said some of the improvement in the rough market has been driven by dealers who believe prices will increase as consumer demand rises. Their actions, according to the bank, however, have bloated inventories to levels that are not sustainable because retail sales have not increased as expected, thus jeopardizing the fragile recovery.

	As expected, De Beers backed away from its aggressive selling posture of the first half of the year and sold $540 million at its June 20-24 sight, now called cycle. The fact that there were few goods left on the table was taken as a sign that the company and other major producers (Alrosa, Rio Tinto) have struck a realistic balance between price, demand and supply. The July 25-29 cycle likely will stay on the conservative side. @chapter:49 @chapter:3 @chapter:49


# Publication Year: 2001
# Title: Pink to Pinkish Orange Malaya Garnets from Bekily, Madagascar
# Abstract: Malaya garnets from Bekily, Madagascar, are predominantly pink to pinkish orange, with some stones orange to red. Discovered only in the late 1990s, the majority are intermediate members of the pyrope-spessartine series with variable contents of almandine and subordinate grossular. The refractive index, specific gravity, and color of these garnets are related to their iron and manganese contents. Inclusions identified by Raman analysis are rutile needles and platelets, graphite, quartz, apatite, zircon, and sillimanite. Negative crystals were also seen. Important differences in predominant color and chemistry were noted when the Bekily garnets, only the second commercial source of malaya garnet, were compared to malaya garnets from East Africa, which have been available since the late 1970s. @chapter:12 @chapter:0 @chapter:12


# Publication Year: 1981
# Title: The Andradites of San Benito County, California
# Abstract: Discoveries in 1949 of andradite garnet in San Benito County, California, led to the formation in 1978 of a partnership to mine, cut, and market gem-quality andradite. These andradites are found in situ in serpentine outcrops and also in dry alluvial deposits. SEM microprobe analysis and X-ray powder diffraction show the chemistry and unit cell, respectively, to be nearly pure andradite. Cut stones and mineral specimens are produced in green, yellow, brown, and in combinations of these colors. Cut stones are generally under three carats and some are chatoyant. This is believed to be the only reported source of chatoyant garnet. @chapter:7 @chapter:0 @chapter:7


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Summer 2018 G&G: Diamonds Across the Spectrum, Byzantine Garnet, and Sapphires from Yogo Gulch
# Abstract: For more than 120 years, Yogo Gulch in central Montana has been one of the world’s most illustrious sapphire sources. In this issue, Nathan Renfro, Aaron Palke, and Richard Berg offer a mining history and gemological characterization of Yogo sapphires. The cover photo shows a suite of rough Yogo sapphires atop samples of the ouachatite dike rock in which they are found. The largest rough sapphire weighs 8.49 ct. Photo by Kevin Schumacher; courtesy of Don Baide (The Gem Gallery, Bozeman, Montana).

Thanks to notable diamonds such as the Hope and the Blue Moon of Josephine, there is greater public awareness of blue diamonds than any other fancy color. The lead article of the Summer 2018 Gems & Gemology reviews the characteristics of the more than 15,000 blue, gray, and violet diamonds examined at GIA’s labs over the past decade, while another article investigates the color origin of Fancy Dark brown-black diamonds from Marange, Zimbabwe. Other diamond-related content includes a synthetic diamonds chart and a new column about the value of natural diamonds to our understanding of the Earth. The issue also features a study of Japanese bead-cultured pearls from Lake Kasumigaura, traces the origins of an engraved Early Byzantine almandine garnet, and examines the characteristics of sapphires from Yogo Gulch, Montana.
NATURAL-COLOR BLUE, GRAY, AND VIOLET DIAMONDS: ALLURE OF THE DEEP

A few recently discovered blue diamonds are displayed alongside some legendary gems within the blue/gray/violet color range. Clockwise from upper left: the 30.62 ct Blue Heart diamond, photo by Chip Clark, © Smithsonian Institution; a 0.77 ct Fancy Dark gray-violet shield cut, photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; a 1.23 ct Fancy Dark gray diamond, GIA photo; the 45.52 ct Fancy Deep grayish blue Hope diamond and Fancy Deep blue 31.06 ct Wittelsbach-Graff diamond, photo by Robert Weldon/GIA, courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution.
Almost all fancy-color diamonds in the blue/gray/violet range attribute their hue to four main causes, which include structural defects and the presence of inclusions. The Summer issue’s lead article, by Sally Eaton-Magaña, Christopher M. Breeding, and James E. Shigley, reports on these color-causing mechanisms. The authors delve into the gemological characteristics and spectral properties of the 15,000+ natural, untreated blue/gray/violet diamonds examined at GIA’s labs over the past decade.
BLACK DIAMONDS FROM MARANGE (ZIMBABWE): A RESULT OF NATURAL IRRADIATION AND GRAPHITE INCLUSIONS

DiamondView and visible light images of two diamonds that show radiation stains within fractures in the diamond. Non-luminescent regions in the DiamondView images are associated with extensive radiation damage along fractures in the diamonds. Photos and images by Karen Smit.
Graphite-containing diamonds from the alluvial deposits in Marange, Zimbabwe, may be heat treated to yield gem-quality material, but this may create difficulty in distinguishing these specimens from naturally occurring black diamonds. Karen Smit and her coauthors examine the characteristics of a suite of 40 Fancy Dark brown-black diamonds from Marange in order to document the characteristics that would separate them from treated material. The authors uncover various causes of color in these diamonds.
AN EARLY BYZANTINE ENGRAVED ALMANDINE FROM THE GARIBPET DEPOSIT, TELANGANA STATE, INDIA: EVIDENCE FOR GARNET TRADE ALONG THE ANCIENT MARITIME SILK ROAD

Comparison of inclusions in the Early Byzantine engraved gem (left) with garnets from the Garibpet deposit (right). A and B: Inclusion-rich core and inclusion-poor rim with sillimanite fibers at the boundary. C and D: Irregularly shaped ilmenite. E and F: Subrounded quartz crystals. G and H: Large long-prismatic apatite crystal (a) with characteristic graphite inclusions, along with short-prismatic zircon (z) and monazite (m) crystals. Photomicrographs by H.A. Gilg.
An almandine garnet engraved with a Christian stepped-cross motif popular on Byzantine coinage is the focus of this study by H. Albert Gilg, Karl Schmetzer, and Ulrich Schüssler. Nondestructive analytical methods indicate that the almandine is most likely from India’s Garibpet deposit, giving credence to garnet trade between the eastern coast of India to the Byzantine Empire during the early Middle Ages.
CULTURED PEARLS FROM LAKE KASUMIGAURA: PRODUCTION AND GEMOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The Chinese freshwater nucleated cultured pearls in this strand from Lake Taihu, also cultured by the Hyriopsis schlegelii × Hyriopsis cumingii hybrid, are 10 mm in diameter and show a color range and luster similar to Kasumiga pearls. Photo by Ahmadjan Abduriyim.
Freshwater pearl culturing began in pre-World War II Japan and reached its peak between 1970 and 1980, only to be overtaken by Chinese production. Current Japanese production at Lake Kasumigaura—Japan’s second-largest lake—is comparatively low, but these cultured pearls have become quite popular in the United States and Europe. Ahmadjan Abduriyim relates the history of Japanese freshwater bead-nucleated pearls, as well as the current state of production and the characteristics of the many-colored specimens.
GEMOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SAPPHIRES FROM YOGO GULCH, MONTANA

This suite contains more than 36 carats of Yogo sapphires. Courtesy of RareSource. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
Yogo sapphires are renowned for their clarity and vibrant blue color, and their unique characteristics make them easily recognizable to experienced gemologists. However, mining interests have long found it difficult to maintain long-term activity at this source. In this article, Nathan Renfro, Aaron Palke, and Richard Berg offer a comprehensive look at the history, gemological properties, and trace-element chemistry of the corundum yielded from this important gem deposit in the United States.
SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS CHART

The Summer 2018 G&G contains a foldout wall chart showing the characteristics of synthetic diamonds.
Our newest wall chart, coordinated by Sally Eaton-Magaña and Christopher M. Breeding, presents a visual guide to the growth processes and major gemological spectroscopic features of synthetic diamonds grown by the high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods. Additional resources for further study are also provided.
LAB NOTES

Diagram showing the proposed model of the beryl and glass assemblage. Final faceting is shown for simplicity. A: The first glass segment (green) is attached to the beryl core (gray). B: Both the core and the first segment are cut to make a flat surface for the second segment. C: The second segment (teal) is attached. D: The segments are again cut. E: The third segment (blue) is attached. F: The assemblage is shown rotated 180° for clarity. All current pieces are cut to create the surface for the final piece. G: The fourth and final segment (purple) is attached. H: Omitted for simplicity, the assembled pavilion would likely be polished flat to make room for the crown. Lastly, the crown (pink) is attached. The diagram was generated using Onshape CAD software.
GIA’s labs report on an emerald imitation created from a beryl and glass assemblage, one natural melee diamond found among a batch of 1,092 HPHT synthetic melee, and a large pinkish orange CVD synthetic diamond.
DIAMONDS FROM THE DEEP

Ringwoodite is the high-pressure form of the mineral olivine (Mg2SiO4) that occurs between 520 and 660 km below the surface of the earth in the transition zone. The first terrestrial observation of this mineral was in a diamond from Juína, Brazil (top left). Water content in this 30 µm inclusion (bottom left) is around 1.4 wt.%, indicating that the global transition zone could contain at least 2.5 times the amount of water as Earth’s oceans. The majority of diamonds come from the cratonic lithosphere (indicated here as yellow diamonds). Superdeep diamonds (indicated here as white and blue diamonds) are rarer and originate from greater depths, often from the transition zone, which extends between 410 and 660 km.
G&G’s newest section highlights the importance of diamond in understanding our planet’s geological formation. This issue’s column focuses on the role diamonds play in understanding the depths at which water is found in the deep earth.
MICRO-WORLD

This copal from Mexico contained a remarkably well-preserved eye-visible mushroom inclusion. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 9.59 mm.
A mushroom encased in copal, tanzanite with whisker-like merelaniite inclusions, and a star spinel with four and six rays are among the specimens featured in our photomicrography and inclusions section.
GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

Left: Three rough garnets (left to right, stones 2, 3, and 4) and one faceted garnet photographed in an LED light source with 6000K color temperature (a daylight-equivalent light simulator). Right: The same stones photographed in an LED light source with 3100K color temperature (an incandescent light simulator). The 2.705 ct faceted stone measures 8.08 × 7.18 × 5.49 mm. Photos by Kevin Schumacher.
Notes from the around the world highlight color-change grossular garnets from Ethiopia, a Mozambican green-blue Maxixe-type beryl, the Gemstones and Sustainable Development Knowledge Hub, and the separation of glass-filled rubies using the DiamondView instrument. @chapter:27 @chapter:0 @chapter:27


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Exhibition Review: Bent, Cast & Forged: The Jewelry of Harry Bertoia
# Abstract: Figure 1. Bertoia created this articulated brass necklace with forged elements and rivets circa 1942-1943. From the collection of Cranbrook Art Museum, gift of Dorothy Dunitz in memory of Saul Dunitz. Photo by R. H. Hensleigh.

	Harry Bertoia (1915–1978) was not like most jewelry designers. He did not find inspiration through cherished memories of a mother’s or grandmother’s jewelry. He credited his passion for metalwork to gypsies who came to his hometown of San Lorenzo, Italy to repair and fabricate kitchen equipment. The shining metal and pounding left a “deep and delightful” impression that influenced his work, some of which is currently on display at New York City’s Museum of Arts and Design in Bent, Cast & Forged: The Jewelry of Harry Bertoia (figure 1).

	Bertoia’s jewelry is only a small representation of his work. He immigrated to Detroit from Italy in 1930 and attended the Cass Technical School, where he studied art and design and learned how to make jewelry. In 1936 he began his studies at the Art School of the Detroit Society of Arts and Crafts, entering the Cranbrook Academy of Art the following year on a teaching scholarship to study painting and drawing. At the time, the relatively young academy was a melting pot of creativity, attracting many famous artists, designers, and architects such as Walter Gropius, Ray and Charles Eames, and Florence Knoll. After finishing his program, Bertoia was asked to stay on in 1939 to re-open Cranbrook’s metalworking shop. Beginning in 1941, metals were being funneled into manufacturing for WWII, and Bertoia’s work was confined to small ornaments and jewelry. He scavenged scraps from metal shops and scoured flea markets for tableware to find brass and silver. When even these sources became scarce, he taught graphic design. The exhibition includes jewelry pieces from Cranbrook, from both his student days and from his most prolific period in the 1940s.

	Starting at Cranbrook, Bertoia also created drawings and monotypes as a way to harness his creative visions, allowing him to investigate structure and line with freedom and spontaneity. Bertoia produced more than 4000 monotypes throughout his career. The media served as a launching point for his exploration into the abstract, helping him to develop relationships between shapes and lines with organic volumetric forms that resulted in expressions of kinetics and latent vitality. Most of the monotypes in the exhibit were created in the same time period as the jewelry.

	Bertoia moved to California in 1943 to work for designers (and former classmates) Charles and Ray Eames. Throughout the 1940s, Bertoia continued to make and sell jewelry and monotypes, his style becoming more gestural and biomorphic. His work was in several exhibitions of contemporary jewelry, including one at New York’s Museum of Modern Art in, 1946, and was on the crest of the studio jewelry movement that emphasized design over materials.

	The earliest piece in MAD’s exhibition, a pendant from 1935 made from sterling silver and unidentified gemstones, echoes Art Deco geometry and shows skill for handmaking chain and setting gemstones, but it is evident that it is a student piece as it does not yet show the distinct design voice that Bertoia would soon develop. A spherical hatpin is distinctive for its airiness. It is composed of three textured ceramic beads orbiting on silver wire. It was reportedly made as a response to Cranbrook’s visiting Bauhaus architect Walter Gropius’s challenge to design objects in space. There are several monotypes displayed that are very reminiscent of the piece, exhibiting concentric and overlapping orbits.

	The 1940s-era fish spine brooch (figure 2, left) was made during the metal shortage; it and retains the sterling silver hallmark that belies its source as recycled silverware. This piece has articulations, which would come to be a trademark of Bertoia’s brooches and necklaces. The brooch is accompanied by a monotype that is evocative of its repeated forms (figure 2, right).

Figure 2. Left: “Fishbone” Pendant, circa 1940s, of forged and riveted sterling silver. Photo by Richard Goodbody, courtesy of Leah Gordon Antiques. Right: Untitled Monotype (Non-Objective Polychrome Block Print), c. 1943, ink on Japanese-style paper.  From the collection of Cranbrook Art Museum, gift of Dr. and Mrs. Irving F. Burton. Photo by R. H. Hensleigh.

	One of the few pieces in gold, a necklace for his wife, exemplifies his fascination with biomorphic shapes and movement in the early 1940s (figure 3). It is comprised of hammered and forged leaf-like components; this articulation through riveted and linked construction also appears in a brass leaf necklace and a 19.5” ornamental centipede.

Figure 3. Bertoia made this forged and fabricated gold necklace for his wife, Brigitta Valentiner. From the collection of Kim and Al Eiber. Photo by Tim Thayer and R. H. Hensleigh.

	As the decade progressed, Bertoia’s work became more abstract. It exhibited less literal interpretations of gestural form and movement, typified by a deceptively simple zigzag motif brooch (figure 4). A bracelet from the late 1940s used a more rectilinear design, foreshadowing some of the large-scale brass and copper screens that would grace public and corporate spaces in the future.

Figure 4. This brooch, forged and fabricated in sterling silver (c. 1945), is an example of the abstract jewelry Bertoia produced in the 1940s. From the collection of Kim and Al Eiber, photo courtesy of Wright Auction House.

	Bertoia moved to Pennsylvania in 1950 to work with Hans and Florence Knoll. He designed a five piece furniture collection, including the famous “Diamond” chair that is still in production. The income from the successful furniture collection enabled Bertoia to flourish as an independent sculptor in the next decade, with over 50 commissioned pieces that showed an artistic journey in the variety of method and form.  He did not make any jewelry in that decade.

	In the 1960s, Bertoia experimented with what he called “tonal” sculptures, made with tall vertical rods on flat bases ranging from a few inches to 20 ft, and large gong sculptures. He renovated an old barn and put in about 100 of his favorite "Sonambient" sculptures. Bertoia returned briefly to jewelry, producing a small collection of pendants and brooches based on his large gong sculptures (figure 5). The jewelry pieces are monumental at 4 to 5 inches across.

Figure 5. The forged sterling silver “Gong” pendant is reminiscent of the larger sculptures of Bertoia’s later years. Photo by Richard Goodbody, courtesy of Leah Gordon Antiques.

	While viewing the jewelry exhibit, one can hear the evocative lingering sounds emanating from the co-exhibition Atmosphere for Enjoyment: Harry Bertoia’s Environment for Sound, featuring recordings made in the barn.  Appreciation of Bertoia’s breadth of work and inspiration is completed as the exhibition ends with examples of his furniture designs and a video featuring Bertoia “playing” his Sonambient sculptures while narrating reflections on his design philosophy.

	One cannot walk away from these exhibits without being affected, feeling that one has encountered greatness. Bertoia was an artist who truly experienced and witnessed his surroundings through his senses. He used many mediums to translate life, movement, space, air, and sound, creating atmosphere through objects. The two exhibits will inspire designers, jewelry professionals, art aficionados, and philosophers to find their muses and their voices.

Bent, Cast & Forged: The Jewelry of Harry Bertoia runs until Sunday, September 25, 2016. The recommended admission is $16 for adults, $14 for seniors, and $12 for students. MAD is open Tuesday to Sunday from 10:00 am to 6:00 pm, and Thursdays and Fridays from 10:00 am to 9:00 pm. The museum is closed Mondays and major holidays. Shown in tandem with Atmosphere for Enjoyment: Harry Bertoia’s Environment for Sound. @chapter:20 @chapter:2 @chapter:20


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Mourning Jewelry: A Somber Remembrance
# Abstract: A selection on mourning jewelry from a display at the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library at GIA in Carlsbad. Curated by librarians Chris Rogers and Cathy Jonathan. Photo by Emily Lane/GIA

                      Mourning jewelry is worn to memorialize a lost loved one and is usually black or dark-colored and reflects a somber tone. Although the practice began in the Middle Ages, it is most frequently associated with the Victorian Era, when it was common to wear mourning jewelry after a death.

A display case created by GIA librarians includes three strands of mourning jewelry made out of faceted onyx beads, magnesite and bone carved into skulls, in addition to library books and an article on the subject:

		“Fashionable Mourning Jewelry, Clothing & Customs” by Mary Brett

		“Mourning Art & Jewelry” by Maureen Delorme

		“Mourning and Memory: Queen Victoria's Jewellery in the ‘Albert Room’” by Helen Ritchie, Jewellery History Today Winter (2014)

The Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library in Carlsbad is home to thousands of books, journals, videos and images on gems and jewelry. GIA librarians often use those resources to create displays on a specific theme to encourage students, staff and visitors to learn more about the topic. @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: -
# Title: A Synthetic Diamond Overgrowth on a Natural Diamond
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 0.33 ct Fancy blue diamond was confirmed to be a composite of CVD synthetic type IIb diamond overgrowth on a natural type Ia substrate. Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia.

	Nitrogen is the most abundant defect in natural diamonds. It can be observed as single substitutional atoms or in aggregated forms. Boron, on the other hand, is a rare impurity in natural diamonds. It is very unusual to see both nitrogen and boron defects in a single diamond. GIA’s New York laboratory recently encountered this in a 0.33 ct diamond graded Fancy blue (figure 1).

	The infrared spectrum revealed something very unusual: a mixed type Ia and IIb diamond (figure 2). It also showed a platelet peak at 1367 cm–1 and a hydrogen peak at 3107 cm–1. Mixed type Ia and IIb diamond occurs very rarely in nature; one was previously reported in Gems & Gemology (Spring 2009 Lab Notes, pp. 55–57). Nitrogen aggregation in this diamond was much higher, however. DiamondView images showed yellowish green fluorescence in the face-up view and blue fluorescence in the face-down view (figure 2). Detailed analysis using the DiamondView revealed a yellowish green fluorescence zone at the top of the crown with a sharp boundary in the crown facets (figure 3). Photoluminescence spectra collected from the table and at the boundary in the crown facets showed emissions from SiV– defects at 736.3 and 736.9 nm.

	Figure 2. The mid-IR spectrum on the left revealed peaks for nitrogen aggregates and boron defects, along with a platelet peak at 1367 cm–1 and hydrogen peak at 3107 cm–1. DiamondView imaging showed yellowish green fluorescence for the face-up view (top right) and blue fluorescence for the face-down view (bottom right). DiamondView images by Kyaw Soe Moe.

	Although SiV– defects can be observed in a natural diamond, the combination of SiV– defects, a sharp boundary, yellowish green fluorescence, and phosphorescence suggested that the top layer was CVD synthetic diamond. The bottom diamond showed blue fluorescence but no phosphorescence in the DiamondView, consistent with natural type Ia diamond. A distinct boundary line could be observed along the interface layer on the crown facets (figure 3). A distinct interface was visible through the pavilion in reflected light using a fiber-optic light source. A cloud-like inclusion, trapped at the interface layer, was also observed, as well as a dark needle located at or near the interface (figure 3). A small stress halo and a natural surface could be observed in the bottom diamond. The strain pattern throughout the pavilion was consistent with natural type Ia diamond.

	Figure 3. Left: The yellowish green fluorescent top layer was observed in the DiamondView image. Center: A distinct boundary line indicating an interface (marked with arrows) was seen under the microscope. A dark needle inclusion is located at or near the interface (near the center of the image). Right: The thickness of the CVD synthetic layer is approximately 80 microns. DiamondView image and photomicrograph by Kyaw Soe Moe.

	The quality of a CVD synthetic depends on the crystallographic orientation and temperature of the seed crystal or substrate during growth. CVD synthetic diamond films have been grown on natural diamond substrates since the early 1960s (W.G. Eversole, U.S. patents 3030187 and 3030188, 1962). Methane and other carbon-containing gases were used, but graphite was deposited along with the CVD synthetic layers. In 1993, CVD synthetic layers were successfully grown on natural type IIa and Ia diamond substrates (see B.G. Yacobi et al., “Preferential incorporation of defects in monocrystalline diamond films,” Diamond and Related Materials, Vol. 2, No. 2-4, 1993, pp. 92–99). They applied a mixture of CH4 and H2 at 80 torr in a microwave plasma-assisted CVD system. Reaction between CH4 and H2 produced H atoms, which maintained an sp3-bonded surface and prevented graphitization. The temperature applied to the natural diamond substrate during the CVD growth process of the sample we studied was relatively low, as suggested by the absence of single substitutional nitrogen atoms (Ns0). It is also in agreement with Yacobi (1993), who applied temperatures of 880°C for CVD growth on type Ia {100} diamond substrates and 1200°C for type Ia {111} diamond substrates.

	Based on the growth pattern of the natural diamond, it is clear that the type IIb CVD diamond was produced in or very close to {100} orientation. The natural diamond substrate showed no observable inclusions except for a very small stress halo. The thickness of the CVD overgrowth layer was approximately 80 microns (figure 3). FTIR spectroscopy is a bulk analysis, making it very hard to measure and separate IR spectra between a thin CVD layer on top and a thick diamond substrate. However, the fluorescence and phosphorescence reactions suggest that the top synthetic layer contained boron (e.g., boron-doped CVD synthetic) and the bottom diamond contained nitrogen aggregates. The thin layer of type IIb CVD synthetic diamond on the top of this stone effectively introduced Fancy blue color when viewed from its table.

	This synthetic overgrowth on a natural diamond with a Fancy color grade is the first GIA has seen. Identification of colored diamonds should be performed very carefully by looking for unusual characteristics, such as a straight boundary line associated with an interface plane, and fluorescence zones with sharp edges in DiamondView images. Examination of this fancy-colored composite diamond indicated that similar challenges could exist for colorless and near-colorless diamonds.

	Read this article in Simplified Chinese or Japanese. @chapter:9 @chapter:1 @chapter:9


# Publication Year: -
# Title: National Retail Federation Predicts a Cheery Holiday
# Abstract: This regal diamond brooch/hair ornament ripples like a lacy diamond ribbon and centers on a ruby and diamond cluster (6.89 carats). It was made by Bachruch, of Budapest, circa 1900 and was given by Archduke Frédéric of Austria to his daughter, Archduchess Marie Anne of Austria, Princess Elie de Bourbon Parme, for the birth of her son, Charles, in 1905. It will be offered at a Nov. 12 Sotheby's auction. Courtesy of Sotheby's

The National Retail Federation (NRF) says that all of the building blocks are in place for a strong 2018 holiday season in the U.S. – it is predicting an increase of 4.3% to 4.8% over last year.

The NRF said the strong economy, wage growth and rising consumer confidence should offset concerns of rising prices from escalating trade tensions to bring consumers to stores and online marketplaces. One caveat – the survey was completed before the mid-October stock market volatility.

Online sales continue to take a bigger slice of the retail market, but many traditional retailers are adapting to the cyber market to claim their share. Retail sales will be done increasingly across multiple “channels” (online, mobile and in-store), according to top retail executives who spoke at GIA’s October International Gemological Symposium.

Jason Goldberger, CEO of Blue Nile, noted that in the future “nobody will be talking about retail channels” because they will blend into an overall shopping experience. Gina Drosos, CEO of Signet, the parent company of Kay Jewelers, Zale Corp and Jared the Galleria of Jewelry, said this is already the case because many sales begin online and end in the store.

The Conference Board’s Consumer Confidence Index hit its highest point in 18 years last month with a solid majority seeing the U.S. economy continuing to improve for the remainder of the year. Consumers surveyed also noted a strong job market as the main reason for their optimism.
DIAMONDS
De Beers’ October cycle (sight) sales totaled $475 million – a sharp rise from the same period last year. De Beers’ Group CEO Bruce Cleaver said the Indian rupee/U.S. dollar exchange rate (the rupee has fallen 15% against the dollar this year) “impacted demand for lower value categories” but that the rough market remains strong from U.S. demand.

In China, the on-going trade war with the U.S. has created a lot of uncertainty among retailers there, so they are taking a very cautious approach. (See September 2018 Industry Analysis).

The declining rupee affects smaller Indian diamond manufacturers who deal on the local market more than larger, international firms. The large India-based diamond firms have U.S. dollar accounts so their costs actually have declined a bit in recent months as prices have softened. Smaller companies, who have to pay in rupees, have seen rough prices rise as their currency declines.

Increased recovery and sales of larger diamonds helped Alrosa report a 9% year-on-year increase in rough sales to $331.6 million. Russia’s diamond producer noted the decline in demand for smaller goods as well, but said increased sales of 2 carat-plus rough and “specials” over 10.8 carats have increased.

This 18.96-carat Fancy Vivid Pink diamond will be offered in the Magnificent Jewels auction Nov. 13 at Christie’s in Geneva. Courtesy of Christie’s

AUCTIONS
Sotheby’s Geneva is set to auction an array of royal jewels that belonged to Marie Antoinette and others in mid-November. The Royal Jewels from the Bourbon Parma Family sale on Nov. 12 will feature important pieces that belonged to the French queen, as well as other rulers from the Habsburg and Bourbon families. The jewels had been kept under wraps for nearly 200 years before resurfacing this year.

Christie’s is trying to capture some of the auction attention by offering the 18.96 ct Pink Legacy, a GIA-graded Fancy Vivid pink diamond that is property of the Oppenheimer family on Nov. 13. De Beers’ is hoping the diamond will shatter the world record price for a pink diamond, which stands at $46 million. @chapter:32 @chapter:3 @chapter:32


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Pseudo-Icosahedral Pyrite in Colombian Emerald
# Abstract: A pseudo-icosahedral crystal of pyrite in a 2.88 ct Colombian emerald. Photomicrograph by Taku Okada; field of view 1.01 mm.
The author recently examined a 2.88 ct emerald containing a beautiful metallic yellow pseudo-icosahedral pyrite crystal with truncated edges (see above). The emerald was identified as Colombian based on its jagged three-phase inclusions and trace element analysis using X-ray fluorescence. The included crystal’s color, luster, and shape were characteristic of pyrite, which is sometimes found in emeralds from various countries (S. Saeseaw et al., “Geographic origin determination of emerald,” Winter 2019 G&G, pp. 614–646). Pyrite, also known as “fool’s gold,” belongs to the isometric crystal system and has an ideal chemical composition of FeS2.
Like other isometric or cubic minerals, including diamonds and garnets, pyrites exhibit various morphologies depending on growth parameters such as temperature and/or degree of supersaturation (J.B. Murowchick and H.L. Barnes, “Effects of temperature and supersaturation on pyrite morphology,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 72, 1987, pp. 1241–1250). A regular icosahedron is one of the five classic Platonic solids, but it cannot exist in a crystal because it contradicts Haüy’s law of rational indices, which states that the intercepts of any crystal face along the crystallographic axes are either equal to the lattice constant lengths or some simple whole number multiples of them. Goniometric studies by Romé de L’Isle from 1783 showed that a pseudo-icosahedral form, often found in pyrite, is a combination of a regular octahedron and an irregular pentagonal dodecahedron known as a pyritohedron.
This pyrite crystal in Colombian emerald would be a welcome sight for any gemologist. @chapter:3 @chapter:0 @chapter:3


# Publication Year: 1985
# Title: Gem Pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil: The Tourmalines of the Araçuaí Districts
# Abstract: The first article in this series discussed the history of gem mining in Minas Gerais from the colonial period to the present, the nature of granitic pegmatites and derived deposits yielding gemstones, and the important deposits of aquamarine and other gem beryls. The present article describes the major tourmaline deposits in the Araçuaí-Itinga and Araçuaí-Salinas districts of Minas Gerais, focusing on the Virgem da Lapa mines, the Salinas mine, and the Ouro Fino mine. Some of the finest green, blue, red and multicolored tourmalines ever produced originated from these mines. @chapter:6 @chapter:0 @chapter:6


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Parisite Crystals in a Colombian Emerald
# Abstract: Parisite crystals in an emerald from Colombia, shown under oblique fiber-optic illumination. Photomicrograph by Kyaw Thu; field of view 0.125 mm.

The author recently examined a 1.21 ct transparent faceted emerald. Gemological observation and chemical and spectroscopic analysis indicated that this natural emerald originated from Colombia. Moreover, microscopic examination with a combination of oblique fiber-optic and darkfield illumination presented the classic jigsaw pattern with a three-phase inclusion; this type of primary fluid inclusion is relatively common in Colombian emeralds. Interestingly, oblique fiber-optic illumination detected some colorless transparent crystal inclusions surrounded by fluid, as seen in the above figure.
Raman microspectrometry analysis of the well-formed prismatic crystals indicated that the unusual fluorocarbonate minerals were parisite. These very rare parisite mineral inclusions have been found only in emeralds from the Muzo mine (Winter 1982 Lab Notes, p. 230; E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vols. 1–3). @chapter:13 @chapter:0 @chapter:13


# Publication Year: 2013
# Title: Splendour and Science of Pearls
# Abstract: The book delivers a broad overview of the world of natural and cultured pearls. The well-researched and lavishly illustrated presentation covers the history of pearls, world localities, classification, treatments, identification, fashion, and the future of the industry. One chapter focuses on the story of pearls in India, while another includes results from a GIA research study on natural pearls from the Arabian Gulf
But as a general reference, the book serves its purpose well. The appendices alone are useful, covering a wide range of subjects and providing charts on birthstones, ring sizes, hallmarks, and more. Overall, this volume would make a nice addition to any gemological library if cost is not an issue.
Reviewed by GIA Library Staff
Carlsbad, California @chapter:53 @chapter:4 @chapter:53


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Small Freshwater Bead Cultured Pearls
# Abstract: Figure 1. Strands of freshwater bead cultured pearls acquired at the Hong Kong show (top) and freshwater BC pearls submitted for identification (middle) are shown with a strand of 6.60 mm akoya bead cultured pearls (bottom) for comparison. Photo by Adriana Robinson.

Figure 2. Left: Multiple blue color concentrations under the surface of one pearl; field of view 19.27 mm. Right: Blue dye concentration inside a fracture; field of view 2.34 mm. Photomicrographs by Artitaya Homkrajae.
Recently, the Carlsbad laboratory received a strand of 78 light bluish gray near-round pearls for identification. The strand (figure 1, middle) weighed 16.75 g (gross), and the pearls measured approximately 5.45 mm in diameter. Upon first impression, they looked like akoya bead cultured (BC) pearls due to their small size and shell bead nuclei observed down the drill holes with a 10× loupe. Their light bluish gray bodycolor also resembled the unprocessed and untreated akoya BC pearls that have become more popular in the market. However, microscopic observation revealed light blue color concentrations under the surface of many pearls (figure 2, left) and blue dye around a surface-reaching feature on one sample (figure 2, right), suggesting that the colors had been artificially modified.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence chemical analysis showed high levels of manganese, indicating a freshwater origin, as opposed to the saltwater origin of akoya. In 2023, at the AGTA GemFair in Tucson and the Hong Kong International Jewellery show, we saw small near-round to round Chinese freshwater BC pearls around 2–4 mm gaining popularity in the market (Spring 2023 Gem News International, pp. 109–110). These Chinese cultured pearls were available in various colors that were either natural or modified. A strand consisting of 126 small light gray freshwater BC pearls approximately 3.50 mm in diameter (figure 1, top) was acquired at the Hong Kong show to study the internal structures. The light gray bodycolor, likely caused by irradiation considering the dark gray bead nuclei seen in the drill holes, was atypical for natural colored freshwater pearls.

Figure 3. RTX image of freshwater BC pearls. The top strand, submitted for identification, has an average nacre thickness of 1 mm and an average bead diameter of 3.5 mm. The bottom strand, from the Hong Kong show, has an average nacre thickness of 0.8 mm and an average bead diameter of 2.7 mm. Image by Joyce Wing Yan Ho.
Real-time microradiography (RTX) revealed a distinct bead nucleus in each pearl in both the strands submitted for identification (figure 3, top) and the strand obtained from the Hong Kong show (figure 3, bottom), confirming they were bead cultured. All the pearls displayed relatively thick nacre, averaging about 1 mm for the larger strand and 0.8 mm for the smaller strand. The bead nuclei measured approximately 3.5 mm and 2.7 mm in diameter, respectively.
Although this type of small freshwater BC pearl is generally smaller than typical akoya BC pearls, there are also very small akoya BC pearls below 3 mm in the market (Spring 2018 Gem News International, pp. 103–105). Due to the popularity of very small round BC pearls, the size range of these types of freshwater and akoya pearls can be very similar. It could be difficult to separate them through visual inspection, and more advanced methods are likely needed to verify the environmental origin. The slightly flat surface feature previously encountered on white freshwater BC pearls was not present on the samples studied here (Spring 2023 Gem News International, pp. 109–110). Moreover, our freshwater BC pearl samples showed thicker nacre compared with the very small akoya pearls previously reported, with a nacre that was above the usual commercially accepted range (0.15–0.50 mm) for akoya.
Chinese freshwater cultured pearls are widely available in various sizes, shapes, colors, and qualities and have become a major part of the global market. This was GIA’s first examination of such small freshwater BC pearls, demonstrating the versatility of Chinese freshwater culturing methods in adapting to consumer demands. @chapter:11 @chapter:4 @chapter:11


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Emerging Designer Wins Grant to Create Ethical Brand
# Abstract: “I’m really inspired by and drawn to the contrasts in our world,” says Niki Grandics, GIA Graduate Jeweler. Grandics, here working with a point shape found in several of her designs, grew up noticing the many visual and cultural contrasts between her native Hungary and her family’s adopted home of Southern California. Courtesy of Niki Grandics. Photo by Hajnalka Stiblane

	The daughter of Hungarian immigrants, designer Niki Grandics’ early life was a study in cultural and visual contrasts.

	Her family’s frequent world travels laid a foundation of creative experimentation, design inspiration and social responsibility for Grandics, whose forward-thinking designs and ethical business plan were recently recognized with a Halstead Grant. The award, given by the company to new silver jewelry designers, recognizes excellence in design and business strategy and encourages winners to “establish clear goals and measureable steps toward” running self-sufficient businesses.

	“I come from a family of immigrants and scientists and it impacts the way I design and view the world around me,” says Grandics, a GIA Graduate Jeweler based in San Diego. “I see the contrasts and the differences in the places I’ve lived and traveled – how it’s all part of a larger whole – and I design like a scientist in that everything is an experiment.”

	Her “experiments,” including necklaces, bracelets, earrings and rings handmade with recycled and sustainable silver when possible, and bridal jewelry created using recycled or Fairmined gold and diamonds, are available exclusively online and at artisanal markets. She plans to move into what she calls more “traditional” retail routes this year with her business, ENJI Studio Jewelry.

	“My design philosophy can best be described as minimal with a raw edge,” she says. “I work with a lot of raw stones or slices rather than faceted gems, and combine them with more geometric and angular details in metal.”

	Grandics’ young life, particularly the travel between Southern California and Hungary, informs every piece. As a child, she noticed the way that contrasts played out in her two home countries. “It was like they were different worlds, visually and culturally,” she says.

	As a designer, Grandics often explores the idea of contrast in the different types of materials she uses.

	“In my sculptural work and jewelry designs, I explore these contrasts through the materiality of the components, such as raw stones and precious material,” she says. “Working with glass and stone is almost the polar opposite of working with metals – glass and stone are not particularly forgiving materials and are often quite fragile, while gold and silver can be more easily persuaded to take on different forms. The play between these materials is where this inspiration comes to life in my designs.”

Niki Grandics, pictured here in a glassblowing workshop at North Carolina’s Penland School of Crafts, won the Windgate Fellowship to study glassblowing and jewelry in the Netherlands after her graduation from San Diego State University. Courtesy of Niki Grandics. Photo by Hajnalka Stiblane

	Grandics attended San Diego State University (SDSU), and in 2014 earned degrees in Applied Design (with an emphasis in jewelry) and Marketing.

	“My parents wanted me to follow in their footsteps and go to medical school or pursue a scientific career, but I was always drawn to design,” she says. “I’ve been drawing since I was old enough to pick up a pencil, but stumbled into jewelry.”

	Although she was convinced that a graphic design degree was the only way to make a living as an artist, Grandics quickly found that it wasn’t a good fit and began to take sculpture and glassblowing classes.

	“I started working on a series of wearable sculptures in glass and took a jewelry and metalsmithing course so I could learn techniques to make these pieces,” she says. “Once I sat down at the bench, I knew I was in the right place.”

	Grandics changed her major and when she graduated, won the Windgate Fellowship, which sent her to study glassblowing and jewelry in the Netherlands. An internship at the Galerie Marzee there cemented Grandics’ determination to be a jeweler.

	Grandics secured a job as a biotech marketing analyst when she got back to the States, but she was considering how to make her next career move into jewelry. She remembered attending a GIA Career Fair as an SDSU undergraduate, so she decided to apply for a GIA education scholarship.

	“At Career Fair, I was blown away by the facilities and the GIA museum pieces on display, but what stood out to me the most was how passionate everyone I talked to was,” she says. “It was really inspiring to be in that kind of setting, and I knew I wanted to continue my studies there.”

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	Grandics was awarded a scholarship for the Graduate Jeweler (GJ) program and quit her marketing job to attend GIA in Carlsbad. Though she had bench experience, she found there was still a lot to learn.

	“I learned so much about stone setting and new techniques like laser welding,” says Grandics, who graduated in 2016. “And I would tell incoming students – the GJ program is going to be challenging, especially if you go into the program with some previous bench experience, like I did. You can’t underestimate it. You have to learn and embrace new ways of doing things. I now have more knowledge, technical skills and a great network of people I was able to meet through GIA.”

“Once I sat down at the bench, I knew I was in the right place,” says GIA Graduate Jeweler Niki Grandics of discovering her vocation. Grandics was awarded the 11th Annual Halstead Grant after her graduation from GIA in 2016. Grandics, here holding a newly made, rough diamond ring, frequently uses raw materials and Fairmined diamonds in her ENJI Studio Jewelry Designs. Courtesy of Niki Grandics. Photo by Hajnalka Stiblane

	Grandics wanted to learn from someone more experienced once she graduated from GIA, so she worked briefly for another San Diego-area designer. After being awarded the Halstead Grant, which included $8,500 in cash and supplies, Grandics is focusing on building ENJI Studio Jewelry full-time.

	“Niki took the dream route to prepare for life as a studio artist,” says Hilary Halstead Scott, president of Halstead. “She has a marketing education, a metals degree and a GIA Graduate Jeweler certification. She has all the right tools − plus a distinct gift for design.”

	Grandics, who feels “incredibly blessed” to have won the award, says she feels a great responsibility to “give back to the community, and pay it forward” with her business and career.

	In addition to her personal volunteer work with a nonprofit that supports young victims of domestic violence, sexual assault and human trafficking by exposing them to opportunities in higher education and STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics) fields, Grandics aims to build a business that betters the world.

	“I hope to build a lasting brand that prides itself on unique, clean design and ethical practice,” she says. “More businesses in jewelry and fashion are moving away from ‘fast fashion’ and adopting more ethical, sustainable models and I’m proud to be a part of that. I hope to influence more designers and consumer to consider where our materials and pieces come from, and to consider how we can create positive change moving forward.” @chapter:45 @chapter:2 @chapter:45


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Fancy Colors, History Ruled 2018 Auctions
# Abstract: Demand for top fancy colored diamonds was strong in 2018. This 8.08 ct cushion cut Fancy Vivid blue diamond ring by Bulgari sold for $18.3 million ($2.27 million per carat) at Christie’s December Hong Kong auction. Photo courtesy of Christie’s.

World-class fancy colored diamonds and truly historic jewels highlighted the 2018 auctions, but behind the headlines, total jewelry sales at auction were down an estimated 15% from 2017.

The total of fine jewelry sales from all Christie’s and Sotheby’s auctions in 2018 was an estimated $900 million, down from about $1.1 billion the year before.

Christie’s announced 2018 jewelry sales of $492.3 million; $484.5 million from in-room sales and $7.8 million from online auctions. In 2017, its jewelry sales were $565.6 million, including $9 million from online sales.

Sotheby’s does not announce its fine jewelry sales, but estimates were about $420 million as several large buy-ins reduced the total.

The GIA-graded 18.96 ct Pink Legacy, renamed the Winston Pink, achieved a record per-carat price for a pink diamond when it sold for $50.4 million ($2.65 million per carat) at Christie’s November Geneva auction. Photo courtesy of Christie’s.
The year’s highlights came in mid-November.

Sotheby’s Geneva auction of Royal Jewels from the Bourbon-Parma Family included 10 pieces that belonged to ill-fated French queen Marie Antoinette. The collection brought $53 million against a pre-sale estimate of $7 million.

This monogrammed diamond ring contains a woven lock of Marie Antoinette’s hair and brought more than $447,000. Photo courtesy of Sotheby’s
The day before, Christie’s Geneva auction achieved a record per-carat price for a pink diamond, selling the GIA-graded 18.96 ct Pink Legacy for $50.4 million ($2.65 million per carat). The buyer, Harry Winston, Inc., renamed the diamond the Winston Pink. That same sale saw an anonymous buyer pay a record price of $15 million for the Peacock Necklace, which contains 23 Kashmir sapphires totaling 109.08 carats and 21 cushion cut diamonds.

Historic gems and jewelry like the Moon of Baroda, a 24.04 ct Fancy yellow diamond, achieved top prices at auction in 2018. The diamond, found in India centuries ago and part of the collection of Marie Therese of Vienna, sold for $1.3 million at Christie’s November Hong Kong auction. Photo courtesy of Christie’s.
Other auction highlights from 2018 include:

A 24.7 ct Burmese ruby for $11 million, Sotheby’s April Hong Kong
A 3.47 ct Fancy Vivid blue diamond for $6.7 million; nearly $2 million per carat at Sotheby’s April New York
A 3.09 ct Fancy Intense blue diamond for $5.38 million at Christie’s April New York
An 8.01 ct Fancy Vivid blue diamond by Moussaieff for $20.5 million ($2.55 million per carat) at Christie’s May Hong Kong
A 5 ct Fancy Vivid blue diamond for $13.8 million ($2.8 million per carat) at Sotheby’s October Hong Kong
The 24.04 ct Fancy Yellow Moon of Baroda, owned by empress Marie Therese of Austria and worn by Marilyn Monroe in the 1950s to promote her film, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, which sold for $1.3 million at Christie’s November Hong Kong
A 10.04 ct Burmese ruby for $7.23 million ($720,481 per carat) at Christie’s November Hong Kong
A 21.19 ct Fancy Light pink diamond for $7.4 million at Sotheby’s November Geneva
An 8.08 ct Fancy Vivid blue diamond by Bulgari for $18.3 million at Christie’s December Hong Kong
A 15.56 ct Fancy Intense pink diamond pendant for $9.37 million at Christie’s December New York

Christie’s November Hong Kong auction included a 10.04 ct Burmese ruby and diamond ring that sold for $7.23 million ($720,481 per carat). Photo courtesy of Christie’s
While demand for historic jewels and most top fancy colored diamonds was strong, buyers were more cautious in their bidding for other high value pieces, especially in Hong Kong, where only 65% to 70% of the lots offered found buyers.

Sotheby’s Hong Kong auction totals were set back by the failure of several major pieces to find buyers. These include a 10.62 Fancy Vivid blue diamond that failed to achieve the $20 million to $30 million pre-sale estimate in November; a jadeite bangle that fell short of its $12.8 million estimate in April; and a 14.18 ct Fancy blue diamond that did not reach its $7 million estimate. Several other million-dollar-plus jadeite pieces also did not find buyers at that Hong Kong auction.

Exceptional diamonds and colored gems, however, still lag behind fine art. The year’s highlight was a Modigliani work that sold for more than $157 million – a price considered lackluster by some art experts.

Updated on Jan. 4, 2019 to reflect auction sales estimates. @chapter:32 @chapter:3 @chapter:32