# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: Jeff Hapeman: Stories from a Gem Cutter
# Abstract: Figure 1. Left: This 4.37 ct unheated bicolor sapphire from the Potentate mine in Montana features Jeff Hapeman’s signature Helena cut. Courtesy of Jeffrey R. Hapeman, Earth’s Treasury. Right: A 4.57 ct heated blue sapphire from Potentate. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.
Jeff Hapeman of Earth’s Treasury (Westtown, Pennsylvania) loves a gemstone with a good story. Whether it’s the story of a young couple buying one of his Montana sapphires for an engagement ring or the amethyst he dug out of the ground on an Amish farm in rural Pennsylvania, Hapeman feels that every gemstone needs a story. His own story starts with a boy reading old rock and mineral magazines, staring in fascination at the new find of blue-cap tourmalines coming out of Pala, California, in the early 1970s. These images were fresh in Hapeman’s mind when he took a break from his career in finance technology in Southern California to work at the Oceanview pegmatite mine. One of the miners thought he might have the talent for cutting stones and pushed him to take up faceting.
Since cutting his first gemstone in 2013, Hapeman has developed his own style, creating designs he describes as “somewhat modern and somewhat classic at the same time.” The modern elements are seen in the elegant but slightly angular and geometric appearance of many of the stones he cuts. At the same time, Hapeman claims there is a simplicity to his designs, even though “simple” is certainly not a term that comes to mind when you see his work. His designs are often born out of necessity as he fits the cut to work with a piece of rough that would not work with his previous designs. One of his more recognizable designs is the Helena cut, named in honor of Montana’s state capital. Rough Montana sapphires are often found in flattened, slightly oval shapes. Ovals are among the least rewarding stones for many lapidary artists. Even when skillfully executed, the results can be boring. And yet, through a fine balance between rigorous mathematical modeling and his own gut feeling and intuition, Hapeman has managed to produce a visually interesting oval cut that is well suited for Montana sapphires, deepening the color of these typically pastel-hued gemstones (figure 1).
Montana sapphires have become particularly important in Hapeman’s career. He became involved with the Potentate Mining operation at Rock Creek as they were developing their mine. Montana sapphires can be trickier to cut than blue sapphires from Asia and Africa. While they often have exceptional clarity, fine cutting can greatly benefit Montana sapphires due to their sometimes lighter pastel colors and pleochroism. Early on, Hapeman cut many Montana sapphires in order to demonstrate this to Potentate Mining. Since then he has become one of the most prominent cutters working with Potentate’s production, and he often collaborates with them to cut and market some of their larger and finer stones.

Figure 2. A collection of eight Montana rubies from Rock Creek, mined by Potentate, ranging in weight from 0.172 to 0.578 ct. Photo by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of Jeffrey R. Hapeman, Earth’s Treasury.
When sourcing material, Hapeman seeks out the unusual. His involvement with Potentate gave him the opportunity to cut several exceptionally rare Montana rubies from the Rock Creek deposit (figure 2). Unlike some lapidary artists, he actually likes cutting round brilliants, as he appreciates the beauty and symmetry of a perfectly executed cut. He especially seeks out materials with high luster and dispersion for his experiments with round brilliants, such as the scheelite from China in figure 3.

Figure 3. This rare faceted scheelite weighs 6.08 ct. Photo by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of Jeffrey R. Hapeman, Earth’s Treasury.
Hapeman also discussed the use of social media in the gem and jewelry industry. Social media has helped cutters like him who deal largely in nontraditional stones by allowing them to reach clients with eclectic tastes. It has profoundly reshaped the gem industry by giving more control to end consumers to purchase exactly what they want. Hapeman said that those in the gem and jewelry trade who can harness social media will gain a competitive edge. This is especially true for the younger generation of cutters and designers, who are using social media to find a market for gems and jewelry that could have been hard to move 10 or 20 years ago.

	Jeff Hapeman Discusses His Style @chapter:38 @chapter:2 @chapter:38


# Publication Year: 1988
# Title: Amethyst Mining in Brazil
# Abstract: Brazil is currently the leader in overall production of amethyst. This article describes the author's visits to three of Brazil’s most important mining areas: Marabá, Pau d’Arco, and Rio Grande do Sul. Each represents a different geologic environment and, therefore, a variety of mining methods are used. In Marabá and Rio Grande do Sul, much of the amethyst is heat treated to become citrine. @chapter:6 @chapter:0 @chapter:6


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Embrace the Renewed Energy – and Opportunities – of the Season
# Abstract: Twelve alumni chapter leaders gathered at GIA’s World Headquarters to join the 14th Annual Sinkankas Symposium, a day of education featuring leading researchers and industry experts on this year’s theme – sapphire. From left,  alumni chapter leadership representing California – Los Angeles, Golden Gate and San Diego; Texas – Lone Star and Houston; Manhattan; and Germany chapters. Courtesy: Kate Donovan

	The first four months of each new year go by in a flash – from Tucson’s gem and mineral shows, the Hong Kong Fairs, Baselworld’s glitz and glam to many other shows, events and conferences – the industry moves ahead with renewed energy as spring dawns and fresh new ideas for design, sourcing and opportunity inspire us.

	I am especially excited when I see this same enthusiasm for education. Whether it’s new students arriving at GIA’s campuses or starting eLearning programs, our alumni registering to participate in the annual GIA Continuing Education Recognition Program, or the surge of education events and activities planned and hosted by our alumni chapters – they all are equally important. The flurry of excitement motivates me and personally reaffirms we are in the greatest industry on Earth!

	Gem and jewelry professionals are connected by a passion for knowledge, driven by nature’s beauty and design, and the common goal of a global community committed to excellence – we are privileged to share this.

	I’m often told my love for gems is palpable. If so, I hope my enthusiasm motivates you to embrace this renewed energy and opportunities. Nurture the industry relationships you have and expand your horizons, stay connected and stay informed, get involved and lead by example. Invest in yourself to cultivate your commitment to knowledge, integrity and excellence – the GIA Alumni Association can help you.

	Since our last roundup of activities was published in mid-February, you will clearly see that our chapters, members and the Alumni Association team have been busy bringing education, networking and fun to all who choose to participate.

	More than 50 events were organized by our chapters to serve and support alumni worldwide since February 2017. Opportunities to connect were plentiful and enjoyed at trade fairs in Basel, Hong Kong and Munich along with notable industry conferences, including AGS Conclave (hosted in Los Angeles this year) and the Sinkankas Symposium at GIA’s campus in Carlsbad, California.

	The GIA Alumni Association also hosted a reception at Baselworld in March at the Museum der Kulturen Basel, Switzerland for more than 150 alumni and industry friends. The event and reunion drew guests from across Europe, North and South America, Asia and the Middle East. Alumni chapter leadership representatives from Germany, London, Switzerland, and the U.S. were in attendance.

Anna Martin, GIA senior vice president of global development, welcomes attendees at the GIA reception in Basel. Photo: Edward Johnson/GIA

	Chapter Activities

	Here are some of the highlights of chapter news and events in the last three months:

		GIA speakers shared their expertise with alumni around the world. Dr. James Shigley, distinguished research fellow, provided an update on synthetic diamonds at chapters in Greater Cincinnati and Michigan. Russell Shor, senior industry analyst, highlighted an overview of “Auction Insights: Mega-Diamonds and Gemstones Shatter Records” for the Ontario – Canada chapter. Dr. Mei Mei Sit from the Hong Kong laboratory spoke on “Colored Stone Identification and Treatment” in Macau. Representatives from the New York laboratory shared a talk on “Color and Chemistry in Gemstones” in Manhattan.

		The first-ever design awards and formal dinner were held at Inhorgenta Fair in Munich. Congratulations to the Germany chapter for coordinating a GIA alumni table at this glamorous evening and inviting alumni from across Europe.

GIA Alumni Germany Chapter members and guests celebrate in style at the Inhorgenta Awards Gala dinner in Munich. Courtesy: Germany chapter

		The Arusha show brought many to Tanzania in May, providing the perfect opportunity for the Africa chapter to host a social event for local and visiting alumni, as well as show attendees.

		Multiple chapters, including Georgia, South Carolina and Washington, D.C., hosted events that provided reports of Tucson’s gem and mineral shows to discuss trends, gemstone prices and the overall business.

		Alumni, students and industry friends gathered together at Texas – Lone Star and Ontario – Canada for social gatherings.

Lone Star Chapter members meet for brunch in Austin, Texas to welcome new board members. Courtesy: Lone Star chapter

		Pearls were the focus of presentations by author Renee Newman at California – Orange County, and industry professionals Nick Kwan in Seattle and Teresa Tkacik in Washington, D.C. The Colorado – Mile High chapter shared GIA’s Continuing Education eLearning video on pearls followed by a Q&A session led by specialist and dealer, John Dunn.

		Alan Bronstein discussed colored diamonds at “A Magical Mystery Tour” to attendees in London.

		Colored gemstones, hands-on gemology study groups and industry reports remain popular among all chapters, including Colorado – Mile High, Monterrey – Mexico, Ontario – Canada, Minnesota – Twin Cities and California’s Golden Gate and Orange County chapters.

		Adventures in mining, localities and gemstone production were presented at the Houston chapter by gem experts David Epstein on Brazil and Crystal Dorris on Colorado mines. “The Game of Stones” was presented by Sindi Schloss (president of Metro-Phoenix) to the Ohio chapter.

		Matrix, CAD and 3D printing education and knowledge sharing were the focus at a recent Michigan chapter event. Attendees saw live demonstrations, shared experiences and stretched their creative talents at this interactive learning opportunity.

		Meteorite expert Dr. Carleton Moore shared his knowledge with guests at a Metro-Phoenix event.

		Presentations on auctions and auction house tours were enjoyed by Hong Kong and Switzerland.

		Jewelry history, heirloom jewelry and famous makers were topics at the Manhattan, Metro-Phoenix, Mexico City and California’s San Diego and Golden Gate chapter meetings.

		Marketing, PR and social media tips were shared by industry professionals for Hong Kong, Michigan, Monterrey – Mexico and Vermont members and guests.

		Field trips to local museums and special exhibitions were enjoyed by alumni in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Washington, D.C. The history and treasures of Somewhere In The Rainbow, a private collection of outstanding gems and jewelry, was shared by its curator Shelley Sergent at the California – Golden Gate chapter.

The Taiwan chapter enjoyed an educational field trip to Coral Kingdom. Courtesy: Taiwan chapter

	Alumni News – Take Note

	There are a few notable upcoming events we want to share with our global alumni. Mark your calendars – we hope to see you participate in these global education and experience opportunities.

Gemological Safaris to Mexico and Brazil. The Mexico City chapter invites all alumni to its upcoming Gemological Safaris to the Pearl Farm Harvest, Sea of Cortez (Mexico) June 29-July 2 and Brazil Mine Tour (Minas Gerais, Brazil) Aug. 10-20. Space is limited for both trips. All interested parties should contact the Mexico City chapter for more information.

Second Annual CalTech Gemology Lecture. The Los Angeles chapter has confirmed the second annual CalTech gemology lecture, featuring Dr. George R. Rossman, in August. Rossman, a renowned educator and professor of mineralogy in the division of geological and planetary sciences at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech), has authored or co-authored more than 320 publications in the mineralogical and chemical sciences and is a former GIA Board of Governor. To join the mailing list for further event details, email alumni@gia.edu.

World of Gems Conference V. The World of Gems Conference V will be held on Sept. 23-24 in Rosemont, Illinois and will include a lineup of international gemological experts and attendees. GIA speakers include Nicholas Sturman, from the GIA laboratory in Thailand, and Al Gilbertson, the recent Antonio C. Bonnano Award recipient, from the GIA laboratory in Carlsbad, California. The last conference hosted more than 200 attendees from 15 countries, including seven GIA alumni chapter presidents in attendance. Visit the website for more details and registration.

GIA Session at GSA. GIA will host a session at the 129th annual meeting of the Geological Society of America (GSA) in Seattle, Washington on Oct. 22-25. “Gemological Research in the 21st Century: Characterization, Exploration and Geological Significance of Diamonds and other Gem Minerals” will include speakers and poster sessions;  GIA is accepting abstracts  for presenters.

GIA Symposium in 2018. GIA will host its sixth International Gemological Symposium in Carlsbad Oct. 7-9, 2018. Details of the two tracks – business and research – will be announced soon. This symposium will include a lineup of world-renowned researchers from the gemological community and a business track offered in conjunction with the Harvard Business School. GIA has offered annual programs with Harvard Business School since 2014.

	If you’re not already attending these great alumni events, I hope one of these opportunities or activities inspires you to become more involved with your Alumni Association. It is a great way to support your passion and industry success.

	Thank you to all of the chapter leaders who work so hard to reach GIA alumni in their area to build the relationships and bonds that make our industry so special.

	I have a feeling a busy 2017 will continue! @chapter:47 @chapter:3 @chapter:47


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Padparadscha: What's in a Name?
# Abstract: For over 100 years, reference has been made to a unique sapphire, the color of a lotus blossom, the padparadscha. Yet the precise hue represented by this rare stone has been a subject of discussion, and often controversy, ever since the term was first introduced. In an effort to establish some grounds for a common understanding, the author reviews the historical references to the padparadscha sapphire, examines the modern usage of the term, and states GIA's current interpretation of the trade name padparadscha. @chapter:17 @chapter:0 @chapter:17


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Solid Laboratory-Grown Single-Crystal Diamond Ring
# Abstract: Figure 1. The 4.04 ct ring fashioned from a single-crystal CVD diamond. Photo by Towfiq Ahmed.
Carved single-crystal diamond rings are rare, with few examples to reference (see Spring 2020 Lab Notes, pp. 132–133). But with advancing technology in the laboratory-grown diamond industry, the creation of solid faceted diamond rings is now a reality. Recently submitted to the New York laboratory was a 4.04 ct single-crystal laboratory-grown diamond ring (figure 1). The 3.03 mm thick band had an inner diameter of 16.35–16.40 mm and an outer diameter of 20.32–20.40 mm. The ring was produced by Dutch Diamond Technologies in collaboration with the Belgian jewelry store Heursel, established in 1745.

Figure 2. OpenCV software was used to draw perfect circles from the center of the ring, marked by a green dot. Photo by Towfiq Ahmed.
This laboratory-grown diamond ring was cut from an 8.54 ct plate grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Laser cutting produced a near-perfect circular ring, as demonstrated using digital imaging analysis to measure its inner and outer circumferences (figure 2).
Manufacture of a solid single-crystal diamond ring is a very complex and challenging process. Once material is removed from the crystal, very fine fractures and imbalanced strain can have severe consequences and the ring can shatter. Processing can take more than six months. Creating the single-crystal laboratory-grown ring involved about 1131 hours of processing (including pre-grinding) in the Dutch town of Cuijk, followed by 751 hours of polishing in Belgium.
Spectroscopic analysis revealed it is a type IIa diamond (no detectable nitrogen), and no hydrogen-related peaks were detected at 3107 or 3123 cm–1. Photoluminescence spectroscopy revealed very interesting vacancy-related defects indicative of complex growth methods. A very strong emission from the silicon-vacancy (SiV–) defect was observed with 633 nm laser excitation; this is a very common feature used to identify CVD-grown diamond. The conclusion was that this ring had not undergone post-growth treatment; nevertheless, it was notable that the ring showed relatively low nitrogen-related defects such as NV centers and H3 along with no detectable 468 nm peak or the 596/597 nm doublet. P. Martineau et al. (“Identification of synthetic diamond grown using chemical vapor deposition (CVD),” Spring 2004 G&G, pp. 2–25) observed this doublet with a 514 nm laser. Also of note, there were no H3 or 468 nm centers observed with 457 nm laser excitation.

Figure 3. Strong birefringence observed under cross-polarized light (left) and blue fluorescence observed in the DiamondView (right). Images by Paul Johnson (left) and Madelyn Dragone (right).
Strong birefringence was observed using cross-polarized light under microscopic analysis, with an unusual radial pattern (figure 3, left) signifying unique growth conditions compared to typical CVD diamonds available in the market today. The deep ultraviolet illumination of DiamondView imaging (figure 3, right) confirmed these unusual growth features with a lack of post-growth fluorescence colors such as green produced by the H3 center.
The solid laboratory-grown diamond ring was studied by GIA and specified with a VVS2 clarity based on dark non-diamond carbon pinpoint inclusions (growth remnants typical of CVD-grown diamonds) with good polish (polishing on the interior surface of the ring precluded very good). Although the ring is a near-perfect circle (figure 2), symmetry was considered not applicable. The diamond has a high color based on GIA’s color grading scale. The ring was laser inscribed “Laboratory-Grown” on a side facet.
The quality and size of this solid diamond ring (see the video clip below) are a great example of the advancing technology in laboratory-grown diamonds and changing trends in the jewelry industry. This is the first time a GIA laboratory has examined a colorless diamond ring fashioned entirely from a laboratory-grown diamond.

	Solid CVD-Grown Diamond Ring @chapter:36 @chapter:1 @chapter:36


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Paspaley: Inside an Exclusive South Sea Pearl Auction
# Abstract: View Gallery

The first stop for nearly all saltwater cultured pearls on their way to market is the producer auction. Three or four times each year, the producers of South Sea and French Polynesian black cultured pearls auction their harvests in Hong Kong. Akoyas are auctioned in Kobe, Japan.

In mid-September 2012, I visited the auction held by Paspaley, the largest producer of South Sea cultured pearls, to see exactly how these sales work. Such auctions are normally by invitation only, so it was a rare glimpse inside this part of the pearl world.

The harvest was divided into several dozen lots, based on quality factors; size, shape (roundness), luster and color. Most of the lots carried reserve prices, given in Japanese yen, total weight in momme (1 momme = 3.75 grams) and a quality designation (AAA, AA, etc.). Paspaley’s people matched some of the top-quality pieces into strands, several of which had undisclosed reserve prices.

During the one-day auction, invited dealers were given fifteen minutes to examine each lot on which they planned to bid. Those who wanted a very close look could leave a place card on the auction display and carry the lot to a back table—Paspaley’s staff was quite adamant about the fifteen-minute rule. After looking over the goods, the dealers completed bid forms, which they left in the “ballot box” at the end of the display table.

All of the bidders were pearl wholesalers from the U.S., China, Japan and Europe. The September auction, which included golden cultured pearls from producers in the Philippines, is typically the smallest of the company’s quarterly sales.

Pearl producers developed the auction system about thirty years ago because it was the most efficient way of getting goods to market and determining prices. Before then, Paspaley and others sold their production to the Japanese wholesalers who once dominated the market. @chapter:53 @chapter:4 @chapter:53


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Green Opal Displaying Aventurescence
# Abstract: Figure 1. Opal with unusual aventurescence, seen with fiber-optic lighting. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

Recently the Carlsbad laboratory received a variegated dark green and blue partially polished rough stone for identification services. The stone measured 23.64 × 20.13 × 15.52 mm and weighed 23.74 ct (figure 1). A vitreous to waxy luster and bright yellow inclusions were observed.
Standard gemological testing revealed a refractive index spot reading of 1.43 and a specific gravity of 2.15 obtained hydrostatically. These properties were consistent with opal. During microscopic analysis, fine hazy clouds and turbidity were seen within the structure, as well as a reddish brown portion with iron staining. Although no play-of-color was observed, an unusual aventurescence was seen in several areas with fiber-optic lighting while rotating the stone. This unusual phenomenon was caused by the scattering of light from the small, eye-visible yellow inclusions (figure 2). These inclusions were later confirmed by Raman spectroscopy as pyrite.

Figure 2. Scattered inclusions in the green opal were identified by Raman spectroscopy as pyrite. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 1.79 mm.
LA-ICP-MS analysis was performed on the sample to investigate which chromophore was responsible for its green color. The results showed that the stone contained approximately 3540 ppma Fe. No other chromophoric trace elements were measured in significant quantities, indicating that iron was most likely the cause of the green color. UV-Vis-NIR spectra were collected and used to quantitatively calculate the color of this material (figures 3 and 4, table 1). In figure 3, a broad absorption band centered at about 741 nm produces the green color of the opal. This absorption band is likely related to octahedral Fe2+. Previous publications have shown that iron can produce green color in quartz due to an absorption band centered at 741 nm relating to interstitial Fe2+ (L.B. Hebert and G.R. Rossman, “Greenish quartz from the Thunder Bay amethyst mine panorama (TBAMP), Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada,” Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 46, No. 1, 2008, pp. 111–124). Octahedral Fe2+ can strongly absorb red, orange, and some portion of yellow light of the visible spectrum to produce a transmission window in the yellowish green region. In this case, a transmission window around 570 nm results in the green color in the iron opal (solid line in figure 3). The presence of some additional Fe3+ cannot be ruled out and may contribute to the rise in absorption at shorter wavelengths into the UV region.

Figure 3. The spectra of the two types of opal were measured and renormalized for comparison with each other with similar lightness (see corresponding color panels in table 1). The solid line represents iron opal. The broad absorption band centered at 741 nm is likely caused by interstitial Fe2+. The dashed line represents chromium opal. The smaller absorption band centered at around 600 nm is caused mainly by Cr3+.
Another type of green opal colored by Cr3+ (Winter 2020 Lab Notes, pp. 520–521) was compared with the iron-colored opal (solid line in figure 3). Cr3+ produces a smaller absorption band centered at about 600 nm, leading to a transmission window in the green region around 540 nm that causes a less yellow and more pure green color (figure 3).
The two color panels calculated from the two spectra were also plotted in the CIE L*a*b* 1976 color circle seen in figure 4. This allows for a more accurate comparison between the two color panels using quantitative colorimetric data. In the plot, the hue angle of the iron opal is smaller than chromium opal, resulting in a more yellowish green hue. The chroma of the iron opal is larger than that of a chromium opal with similar lightness, resulting in a more saturated color.

Figure 4. Color panels corresponding to the two spectra were plotted in the CIE L*a*b* 1976 color circle. The color of the iron opal, looking more yellowish and saturated, has a smaller hue angle and larger chroma than the color of the more greenish and less saturated chromium opal. Both calculated color panels have similar lightness for comparison (table 1).

This green common opal is a clear example of iron contributing to the yellowish green color, in contrast to the more pure green color due to the chromium in the opal previously documented with a slightly grayish green color. Both the yellowish green color and pyrite inclusions are consistent with an iron-rich environment. The pyrite inclusions also add a unique display of aventurescence not typically seen in common opal. @chapter:48 @chapter:0 @chapter:48


# Publication Year: 2014
# Title: Books: The Art of Bulgari:La Dolce Vita and Beyond, 1950–1990
# Abstract: By Martin Chapman and Amanda Triossi, 174 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by The Arts Museums of San Francisco/Delmonico Books/Prestel, 2013, $34.95.

              For those who associate Bulgari with vivid colored stone cabochons or antique Roman coins mounted in gold jewelry, Chapman and Triossi’s book is an eye-opener. The Art of Bulgari served as the catalog for the exhibition of the same name at the de Young Museum in San Francisco, intended to chronicle the succession of glamorous celebrities who have worn Bulgari from the dolce vita years of Italian cultural creativity through today. The authors also aim to trace the development of Bulgari’s creative aesthetic through compelling and sometimes surprising examples of its work. In both respects, they succeed.

The jewelry and luxury goods firm is so strongly associated with Rome that it may surprise readers to know that the founder, Sortirio Bulgari, opened his first shop in his native Greece. He later relocated to Naples, and finally to Rome in 1881, where the flagship store, opened in 1905, still stands at 10 Via Condotti.

Prior to World War II, the company operated as a traditional goldsmith shop, but thanks to Sortirio’s forward-thinking sons Costantino and Giorgio, Bulgari began to take a more contemporary direction. Jewelry inspired by Greco-Roman classicism, the Italian Renaissance, and the 19th-century Roman school of goldsmiths took hold, as Bulgari acquired important gemstones and created exclusive luxury pieces, including an emerald and diamond necklace commissioned by American socialite Brooke Astor.

In the post-war 1950s and ’60s, American movies were often filmed in Italy, where production costs were advantageous. As a result, many Hollywood stars fell in love with Bulgari’s bold new style, which featured large pieces set with colored gemstones. Most notable of these was Elizabeth Taylor, although Audrey Hepburn, Ingrid Bergman, Ava Gardner, and Gina Lollobrigida were also steady customers. Wealthy and influential socialites, including Barbara Hutton and Diana Vreeland, also became collectors.

Beginning with the 1950s, Chapman and Triossi show us the evolution, decade by decade, of Bulgari’s distinctive style. The use of color in so many Bulgari pieces stands out, but some gold and diamond jewels featured in this book, such as the Fireworks necklace and the Parentese parure, both from the Heritage Collection, are likewise dazzling.

The book devotes a chapter to pieces from Elizabeth Taylor’s Bulgari collection. Taylor is quoted as saying, “Undeniably, one of the biggest advantages of working on Cleopatra in Rome was [the Bulgari store].” It is clear how dearly she loved this jewelry, wearing her Heritage Collection platinum necklace with emeralds and diamonds to receive an Academy Award in 1966 and again when she was introduced to Queen Elizabeth II of England.

The Art of Bulgari also showcases whimsical pieces  that are relatively unknown. Such items include a gold measuring stick (1970), a silver-and-gold St. Moritz cigarette case (1977), a silver-and-gold tennis ball canister (1980), and a wonderful boat paperweight (1974) fashioned of sterling and gilded silver to look like a boat of folded paper. An exotic gold table clock with onyx, mother-of-pearl, and diamond (1980) is set off by two antique Chinese jade belt hooks.

The text is enhanced by excellent photography, with many jewels displayed in full-page plates. Original sketches of jewelry designs also add visual interest and insight, and photos of famous clientele wearing their Bulgari jewels abound. From magnificent bib necklaces and snake bracelet watches, to the whimsical Star-Spangled Banner series and ice cream cone brooches, this is a stunning look at Bulgari.

Chapman is a curator at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, and Triossi, a jewelry historian and consultant, is curator of the Bulgari Heritage Collection. Together, the authors do an admirable job of presenting Bulgari’s history and cultural impact. @chapter:20 @chapter:2 @chapter:20


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Pink Pyrope Garnet
# Abstract: A 7.26 ct modified round brilliant identified as pink pyrope garnet. Photo by Towfiq Ahmed; courtesy of Bill Vance.
The Carlsbad laboratory received a 7.26 ct pink modified round brilliant (see above) for a colored stone identification report. Standard gemological testing revealed that the stone was singly refractive with a refractive index (RI) of 1.741 and a hydrostatic specific gravity (SG) of 3.77, properties consistent with garnet. Internally the stone was quite clean, with microscopic examination revealing scattered short needles.
The garnet group is composed of more than 20 species, all of them sharing the basic chemical formula X3Y2(SiO4)3. Five of these species are common within the jewelry industry: almandine, andradite, grossular, pyrope, and spessartine. Andradite and grossular are ugrandite garnets; they have calcium in the X site of their chemical formula. Almandine, pyrope, and spessartine are all pyralspite garnets containing aluminum in the Y site. Isomorphous replacement, in which one chemical element substitutes for another in a mineral’s crystal structure, makes it possible for garnets to be a chemical mixture of two or more garnet species. GIA gemologists use a garnet’s gemological properties and chemistry to categorize the stone into its particular species.
Chemical analysis revealed that the 7.26 ct stone was a pyralspite garnet due to the high aluminum concentration (values expressed in wt.%: MgO 18.50%, Al2O3 23.05%, SiO2 41.32%, CaO 1.89%, TiO2 0.05%, V2O3 0.02%, Cr2O3 0.04%, MnO 11.93%, Fe2O3 3.17%). The composition of this garnet and its gemological properties were consistent with pyrope, which has an RI of 1.73–1.75, an SG of 3.78 (+0.009/–0.016), and magnesium dominating the X site and minor amounts of manganese and iron. Pyrope garnet, though, has a color range of red to reddish orange and colorless. Pink pyrope garnet is incredibly rare, especially in stones of this size.
Pyrope-spessartine can have a bodycolor similar to pyrope but has an RI range of 1.75 to over the limit and an SG of 3.78, both higher than the values documented for this pink garnet. The fact that garnet can be a mixture of species can make the identification of these stones challenging. This example is an important reminder to carefully analyze a garnet’s gemological properties to accurately identify it and how the laboratory can use chemical analyses as validation. @chapter:13 @chapter:0 @chapter:13


# Publication Year: -
# Title: On the Trail of Africa’s Hidden Gems with GIA’s Field Gemologists
# Abstract: Seeking Africa’s Hidden Gems

	On the trail of Africa’s hidden gems with GIA’s field gemologists

	Join GIA’s field gemologists as they trek through the gem mining areas of Madagascar, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, and Mozambique. This short video reveals the diverse character of colored gemstone mining in East Africa, running the gamut from small-scale artisanal workings to big mechanized mines run by multinational companies.

	On one end of the scale, you’ll catch a glimpse of the independent miners’ tough working conditions in Madagascar, Kenya, and Tanzania, and perhaps witness a little of their irrepressible spirit as well. “We come here to give the Devil a hard time,” says Peter, a Kenyan miner laboring in the dust of an underground tunnel. “So we tell him to release the stones now…they don’t belong to him anymore.”

	“They all live in darkness until they’re taken out into the light…,” he continues with a smile.

	At the other extreme is Zambia’s KAGEM emerald mine, with its heavy machinery and geological surveying, backed by the multinational corporation, Gemfields. “It’s all about economics…your revenue per carat versus cost per carat,” says Gemfields geologist Robert Gessner.

	Finally you’ll stop off in Mozambique with the GIA team for a brief visit to the Montepuez ruby mine, another Gemfields operation.

	These GIA Field Expeditions (FE39 and FE55) took place in 2012 and 2014 respectively. Along with Vincent Pardieu and cameraman Didier Gruel, expedition participants included GIA gemologist Jonathan Muyal, researcher Boris Chauviré of the Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique de Nantes, France, and Dr. Gaston Giuliani, Director of Research at the Institute of Research for Development (IRD) in Nancy, France. @chapter:23 @chapter:2 @chapter:23


# Publication Year: 1981
# Title: Nonfading Maxixe-Type Beryl?
# Abstract: It is sometimes stated that there exists some Maxixe-type deep blue beryl (occasionally misnamed "aquamarine") that does not fade. All specimens ever reported in the literature did fade, typically to almost colorless in one to two weeks in bright sunlight or over a somewhat longer period under less intense illumination. A "nonfading" specimen recently examined proved to be typical fading Maxixe-type beryl. A possible reason why such a stone might give the impression that it is nonfading is discussed. With the exception of some brown topaz and some kunzite, no significant gemstone material fades on the same time scale as does Maxixe-type beryl. @chapter:10 @chapter:0 @chapter:10


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Spring 2011 G&G Lab Notes
# Abstract: Large HPHT-Treated Cape Diamond
A Very Large Colorless HPHT-Treated Diamond
Thermoluminescence from Type IaB Diamonds
Two Diamonds Cut to Exhibit Inclusions
Halite Submitted for Identification
Three Similar-Appearing Green Stones: Jadeite, Omphacite, and Hydrogrossular
Beryllium- and Tungsten-Bearing Sapphires from Afghanistan
Aggregate of Black Synthetic Moissanite and Crystalline Silicon
Synthetic Star Spinel Imitation of Moonstone

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:43 @chapter:1 @chapter:43


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Agate Inclusion in Quartz from Brazil
# Abstract: Two faceted quartz with agate inclusions from Brazil, weighing 66.61 ct and 12.28 ct (shown in two positions and in short-wave UV). Photos by Jaroslav Hyršl.
Agates are undoubtedly one of the most common precious stones from Brazil. They come from basalts in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the border with Uruguay. This region is probably also the source of several unusual faceted quartz samples, purchased by the author in Brazil in 2019. These stones are up to 35 mm long and, except for abundant two-phase inclusions, contain flat, irregularly shaped inclusions. On two stones (see above), these inclusions reach the surface and show a typical agate structure, with several black, gray, and light brown layers. Their identity was proved by very weak quartz peaks in the Raman spectrum. Unexpected was their strong fluorescence in UV light, which is much stronger in short-wave UV. This fluorescence is concentrated in gray layers and is very likely caused by a trace presence of uranium, quite common in many agates and opals. @chapter:8 @chapter:0 @chapter:8


# Publication Year: 2007
# Title: Spring 2007 Gem News International
# Abstract: Tucson 2007
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            “Emerald” Green Fluorite from India
            Cat’s-Eye Leifite from Mont Saint-Hilaire, Canada
            Play-of-Color Opal from Piauí, Brazil
            Prehnite from Merelani, Tanzania
            Colorado Rhodochrosite Near End of Availability
            Serpentinite from Argentina, Marketed as “Andes Jade"
            New Variscite Production from Western Australia
Instruments and Techniques
            Portable Raman Spectrometer and the Crystal Sleuth Software
GNI Regular Features
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            Amethyst from the Democratic Republic of the Congo
            Color-Zoned Andradite from Iran, with Calcite Inclusions
            Emerald with Unusual Growth Features
            Grossular and Clinozoisite from San Diego County, California
            New Pegmatite Gem Production from Tsarafara, Madagascar
            Pezzottaite from Myanmar
            Cat’s-Eye Prehnite
            Cat’s-Eye Topaz from Sri Lanka
            Tourmaline (Dravite and Liddicoatite) from Northeastern Mozambique
            Turquoise from Nacozari, Sonora, Mexico
Treatments
            Lead Glass–Filled Rubies with Hollow Backs Set in a Closed Back Mounting
Miscellaneous
            October 2006 Myanmar Gem Emporium, and Other Gem News from Myanmar
Announcements
G&G Online Calendar
Exhibits
            Colored Diamonds at the London Natural History Museum
            Bernd Munsteiner Carvings at the GIA Museum
            Symbols of Identity—Jewelry of Five Continents
            French Jewelry at the Legion of Honor
            Native American Jewelry
            Gold at AMNH
            Jewelry of Ben Nighthorse

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:30 @chapter:0 @chapter:30


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Winter 2007 Gem News International
# Abstract: Diamonds
            Colored Diamonds Break $1 Million per Carat with Record Auction Prices
            Namibian Diamond Mining by Namdeb
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            Double Jeopardy in Amber
            Inclusions in Andradite from Namibia
            Andradite from Baluchistan, Pakistan
            Two Axinite Species from Tanzania
            Baddeleyite from Mogok, Myanmar
            Chrysocolla Chalcedony from Iran/Armenia Area
            Yellow-Green Clinohumite and Yellow Chondrodite from Tanzania
            Transparent Dumortierite and Sapphirine from Tanzania
            Brazilian Blue Opal, with Cristobalite and Quartz
            Otolith Pendant
            Goethite and Hematite Inclusions in Quartz from Mina Da Batalha, Brazil
            Sinhalite from Myanmar
            Field Study of Cu-bearing Tourmaline Mines in Mozambique
            New Cu-bearing Tourmaline from Nigeria
Synthetics and Simulants
            New Tairus Synthetic Beryl Simulating “Paraíba” Tourmaline
            An Unusual YAG with a “Reverse” Color Change
Conference Reports
            Geological Society of America 2007
            Goldschmidt 2007
            The Madison Dialogue Ethical Jewelry Summit
Announcements
            Visit Gems & Gemology in Tucson
Exhibits
            Exhibits at the GIA Museum
            Gems! Colors of Light and Stone at the Bowers Museum
            The Aurora Collection at “The Vault” at the London NHM

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:30 @chapter:0 @chapter:30


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Topaz Description
# Abstract: This selection of gems from Ouro Prêto, Brazil, and Russia's Ural Mountains, displays the golden orange to pinkish red color range of precious topaz. The gems range from 7.61 to 14.33 carats in size.

                      Many consumers know topaz as simply an inexpensive blue gem. They’re surprised to learn that its blue color is hardly ever natural: It’s almost always caused by treatment. They might also be surprised to know that topaz has so many more colors to offer gem lovers, including pinks and purples that rival the finest fancy sapphires.

	This superb reddish purple pear-shaped topaz from Brazil's Capão mine displays the gem’s top color. - Courtesy Dr. Wagner Colombarolli
Topaz is allochromatic, which means that its color is caused by impurity elements or defects in its crystal structure rather than by an element of its basic chemical composition. The element chromium causes natural pink, red, and violet-to-purple colors in topaz. Imperfections at the atomic level in topaz crystal structure can cause yellow, brown, and blue color. Brown is a common topaz color, and the gem is sometimes mistakenly called “smoky quartz.”

	So far, commercial deposits of imperial topaz are found in a single area of the world: Ouro Prêto in Brazil. The 6.00-carat pear shape and 3.82-carat antique cut display nuances of the gem's color. - Courtesy Suwa & Son

	Against the light, this crystal's color zones and high clarity stand out clearly. It might be possible to fashion a unique gem from this piece. - Courtesy Dr. Wagner Colombarolli
Topaz actually has an exceptionally wide color range that, besides brown, includes various tones and saturations of blue, green, yellow, orange, red, pink, and purple. Colorless topaz is plentiful, and is often treated to give it a blue color.

	Topaz crystals are typically elongated, with grooves parallel to their lengths. For this reason, they're commonly cut into long oval or pear shapes. These crystals show orange, pink, and brown colors. - Eric Welch/GIA
The color varieties are often identified simply by hue name—blue topaz, pink topaz, and so forth—but there are also a couple of special trade names. Imperial topaz is a medium reddish orange to orange-red. This is one of the gem’s most expensive colors. Sherry topaz—named after the sherry wine—is a yellowish brown or brownish yellow to orange. Stones in this color range are often called precious topaz to help distinguish them from the similarly colored but less expensive citrine and smoky quartz.

Topaz is also pleochroic, meaning that the gem can show different colors in different crystal directions. @chapter:6 @chapter:0 @chapter:6


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Color Study of Fancy Sapphire from Greenland
# Abstract: Figure 1. Part of the suite of sapphires studied for this project (weighing 0.23–1.41 ct). Photo by Sasithorn Engniwat; courtesy of Greenland Ruby.
Over the past 70 years, several ruby and pink sapphire localities have been documented in the region of Greenland’s capital city, Nuuk (P.W.U. Appel and M. Ghisler, “Ruby- and sapphirine-bearing mineral occurrences in the Fiskenaesset, Nuuk and Maniitsoq regions, West Greenland,” GEUS, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, 2014). Several of these localities are currently exploited on a small scale by the local communities. In 2017, Greenland Ruby A/S started a large-scale mining operation at the Aappaluttoq ruby and pink sapphire deposit, located 160 km south of Nuuk.
The corundum extracted at Aappaluttoq is heated in air at temperatures over 1500°C for several hours, with some flux added. In rare cases, the heating significantly alters the color of light pink and near-colorless sapphire, resulting in fancy-color sapphire. GIA recently studied a parcel of 22 of these fancy-color sapphires mined and treated by Greenland Ruby (figure 1).
A combination of ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectra and trace element chemistry using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) were collected at GIA in Bangkok to identify the causes of color. For full quantification of the chromophores, it is necessary to do this analysis in oriented, clean samples with a known path length. Since most of the Greenland material is polished as cabochons and contains some inclusions, it is very challenging to calculate or even estimate the absorption coefficients. We limited ourselves to a rough interpretation of the chromophores based on the shape of the spectra. Orientation of the samples was estimated based on the pleochroism.
Additionally, we could not precisely identify which area of the stone was analyzed during the spectroscopy, and thus all UV-Vis spectra were bulk measurements and combined the color of different zones. In contrast, the LA-ICP-MS analysis was performed at very specific spots, allowing the analysis of specific zones.
The literature describes six chromophores responsible for color in natural corundum (E.V. Dubinsky et al., “A quantitative description of the causes of color in corundum,” Spring 2020 G&G, pp. 2–28). Four of the chromophores from that study are responsible for the colors in this suite.

Figure 2. A UV-Vis-NIR spectrum dominated by Cr3+ features often results in a pink to red stone, depending on the concentration of Cr3+ (in ppma). When the sample is oriented down the c-axis, the color often trends toward reddish purple (i.e., fancy sapphire).
Most stones from the Aappaluttoq deposit are colored by the Cr3+ chromophore, giving them their typical pink to red color (figure 2). The intensity of the color is directly linked to the concentration of Cr3+, which can go up to several 1000 ppma, and in exceptional cases even to 15,000 ppma. Most of the lighter-colored material has a concentration of a few 100 ppma, resulting in a pink color.

Figure 3. The peaks at 550 and 430 nm in the o-ray spectrum (black) suggest the presence of Cr3+, causing pink to red in the stone. The trace element analysis (in ppma) shows a clear excess of Mg2+ compared to the Ti concentration, highlighting that trapped hole creation is very likely. When we remove the absorbance spectrum of Cr3+ from the stone’s absorption spectrum (blue), it is obvious that the combination of Cr3+ with the trapped hole is the cause of the remaining color and the strong orange tint observed in the stone.
Depending on the orientation, it can appear more purple (when viewed through the c-axis). In some cases, this is so strong that the face-up color of the stone is modified to an extent that it cannot be defined as ruby or pink sapphire and falls into the fancy reddish purple range. Some of the stones develop a more orangy tone after treatment. (A bright orange oval brilliant seen at the 2023 Tucson shows is highlighted in this issue.) This color can be attributed to the creation of trapped holes in combination with Cr3+ (figure 3).
To create trapped holes, the chemical balance in the stone needs to be correct. Only when a stone is acceptor dominated will trapped holes be present. In the case of Greenland ruby, this comes down to the balance between Mg2+ vs. Ti4+, Si4+, and H+. Since the stones have all been treated in air (oxidizing atmosphere), we can assume that H+ has diffused out of them. With the method used to measure trace elements (LA-ICP-MS with a quadrupole MS), we cannot correctly quantify the Si4+ content in these stones. The possibility that Si4+ plays a role in the color cannot be excluded. Regardless, there is no indication here that Si4+ is required to tilt the balance of chromophores when comparing trace elements vs. observed color. Since we do not aim to quantitatively analyze the color, we ignore any potential presence of Si4+. This means that the concentrations of Mg2+ and Ti4+ are the determining factors: Only if the amount of Mg2+ is larger than the Ti4+ concentration can trapped holes develop in sapphire from Greenland.
Two ions in sapphire can pair with trapped holes: Fe3+ and Cr3+. Since the trapped hole preferentially pairs with Cr3+, this is the chromophore observed in these stones. The quantity of trapped holes that can form in corundum is very low, and as such, not all the Cr3+ couples with a trapped hole. The final color will be a combination of the trapped hole color and the pure Cr3+ chromophore, resulting in a combination of pink to red and orange colors. Trapped holes are very strong coloring agents that can have a major impact even when their concentration is very low.

Figure 4. This plot shows the o-ray spectrum of a pale yellow sample (black) and a modified o-ray spectrum where some contribution by Cr3+ is subtracted (blue). When the Cr3+ spectrum is removed, a pure Fe3+ spectrum remains. This spectrum is characterized by the double peak at 377–388 nm and one at 450 nm. The ratio of the 388 to 377 nm band suggests a relatively low Fe3+ chromophore concentration, which matches the observed color and analyzed chemistry (in ppma).
The Fe3+ chromophore is the weakest one encountered in natural corundum. Very high concentrations of Fe3+ are required to create a yellow color, often exceeding several thousand ppma. Since the Greenland rubies have a maximum iron concentration under 1500 ppma, this chromophore creates only a very weak yellow color (figure 4). Other common chromophores are much stronger and more common, which makes it very difficult to notice any color contribution by Fe3+. Only when the Cr3+ concentration is extremely low can we detect the pale yellow color from the Fe3+ chromophore.

Figure 5. The extremely low Cr3+ contents allow other features to be dominant. In this case, Fe2+-Ti4+ charge transfers with a large peak at 580–620 nm are responsible for a blue color. The absorption spectrum of the stone also shows some features related to Fe3+, which is a very weak chromophore and does not influence the color.
The Fe2+-Ti4+ chromophore creates a blue color in corundum and is relatively strong (figure 5). When observed in ruby from Greenland, its effect is usually limited to a slightly increased purplish hue in the chromium-rich corundum, occasionally modifying the color to a dominant purple hue. Only when the Cr3+ concentrations are extremely low is there a chance for the corundum to have a blue color. We still observe some cloudiness after the treatment in the blue zones.
We assume that this type of rough corundum had a milky appearance caused by a high concentration of fine rutile particles before treatment. During treatment at temperatures over 1200°C, some of the particles dissolved into the lattice, becoming available to pair with Fe2+ that was already present and creating a blue bodycolor. Due to the large amounts of Ti4+ that diffused into the crystal lattice, the iron was forced to remain in a reduced state (Fe2+).
The nature of the treated corundum from Greenland makes high-quality spectroscopy a challenge. Nevertheless, we were able to isolate and identify the chromophores responsible for the fancy colors observed in these sapphires.
It is important to note that many of these fancy colors developed as a result of heat treatment. The trapped hole–related chromophores only become visible after H+ diffused out of the stone under oxidizing conditions. These same conditions also allow the iron to oxidize and create the pale yellow color by Fe3+ chromophores. The high temperatures were also required to dissolve rutile particles into the corundum lattice and form Fe-Ti pairs.
While these fancy-color stones remain a curiosity, they make for a welcome addition from a mine that is known for its ruby and pink sapphires. @chapter:5 @chapter:0 @chapter:5


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Pearls: Nature's Sustainable Gem
# Abstract: A research group is studying marine cultured pearls, like these Tahitians, and their potential as a sustainable gem. Photo by Amanda Luke/GIA.

	Pearls – unlike any other gem – are organic, created inside a living mollusk. Regardless if it forms naturally or is cultured with care, pearls develop beneath the water’s surface amidst plants, animals and an often fragile ecosystem. But have you ever wondered if pearls can help the environment? That’s the question at hand for a group studying the ecological effects of marine cultured pearls.

	Dr. Saleem Ali, director of the Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining at the University of Queensland, Australia, visited Carlsbad, CA on Friday, June 7, 2013 to share his research on the benefits of pearls as a renewable gem and sustainable pearl farming practices with students studying at GIA. Dr. Ali is part of a team researching pearls and their effect on the environment.

	The research group works directly with pearl farmers to understand the pearl supply chain and will use their research to create a set of sustainability standards for the industry. The three-year project, funded by the Tiffany & Co. Foundation, is exploring the environmental impact of pearl farming and ways it can improve water quality, positively impact coral reef conservation and reduce overfishing.

	Already midway through the project, Dr. Ali and his team have identified a distinct positive connection between pearl farming and conservation. According to their research, the need for clean water is an essential part of the cultured pearl industry. “If you want a good quality marine pearl, you need happy oysters, and happy oysters need pollution-free waters,” Dr. Ali said.

	Other environmental factors – such as marine life – also play a significant role. Dr. Ali and his team examined the effects of pearl farming on coral reefs to learn what practices can help sustain the reefs. The critically endangered ecosystems are home to many species of fish that help maintain ocean biodiversity and provide nutrients for mollusks. Climate change and bleaching from pollution threaten these delicate reefs. Dr. Ali and his team study all potential threats since even small things – such as the type of netting material used in pearl farming – can have a negative effect on the health of coral reefs.

	Dr. Ali also reviewed the impact of pearl farming on local economies. He said their research shows that pearl farming diversifies these economies and is able to coexist with tourism and the fishing sector. In fact, pearl farming also provides more income opportunities for residents so they don’t have to rely on fishing, which reduces the risk of overfishing.

	As the project continues in the next year and a half, Dr. Ali and his team will explore opportunities to brand pearls as sustainable and promote their environmental benefit. “Pearls are unique – they are the only renewable gemstone in the human timescale,” said Dr. Ali. Since 1999, however, pearl exports in French Polynesia have increased, but value decreased. The team hopes that if consumers know pearls are a renewable resource and can improve the environment, their value will increase.

	Students were very interested in how Dr. Ali’s research could affect the pearl industry. One student, whose family works in the cultured pearl industry, said she was eager to share what she learned back home. “It was great to get a different perspective… and know there is a way to be more sustainable in this industry,” she said.

	Dr. Ali emphasized that sustainability is a natural part of pearl farming – the key is to allow everything to exist together. There is “a lot of potential” for students planning to enter the cultured pearl industry, he added.

	Dr. Saleem Ali presents his research to GIA students and staff in Carlsbad, CA. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA.

	Marine pearl farms, like this one in the South Pacific, are the focus of a three-year research project on the environmental impact of pearl farming. Photo by Amanda Luke/GIA.

	Students at the lunchtime presentation learned how the research group is exploring ways to brand pearls as sustainable. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA. @chapter:53 @chapter:4 @chapter:53


# Publication Year: 2024
# Title: Chinese jewelry market in 2023 grows strongly Attracting both Chinese and foreign brands
# Abstract: The jewelry and accessories industry can be categorized into various types, such as home interior decorations, fashion accessories, and automotive accessories. Fashion accessories can further be divided into categories like earrings, headpieces, necklaces, wristwatches, bracelets, rings, and more. Currently, the consumption behavior of Chinese consumers towards fashion jewelry or jewelry has been increasing compared to the past. According to iiMedia Research, retail sales of jewelry reached a cumulative value of 47.2 trillion yuan in 2022, representing a 7.2% increase from the previous year. Within this figure, sales of gold, silver, and jewelry totaled 3.31 trillion yuan, marking a 9.8% increase. Sales of gold, silver, and jewelry accounted for 0.7% of total retail sales of consumer goods. The consumer market in the jewelry industry in China is showing a continuous upward trend.

Trends in the consumption behavior and target group preferences for jewelry among Chinese consumers.

Factors that Chinese consumers consider when deciding to purchase jewelry prioritize product quality, accounting for 39.1% of their considerations. This is followed by product design, price, and discounts. However, the least influential factor is word-of-mouth from reputable sources. More than half of consumers prioritize brand, design, and quality of jewelry when making purchasing decisions, followed by price discounts. Currently, consumers tend to make more rational purchase decisions, focusing on practicality, beauty, and purchasing capabilities as their main goals. This has become the main target for consumers when buying products. The consumer group in the jewelry industry has evolved beyond just working-age individuals to include younger consumers and post-90s millennials, who have become significant buyers of gold jewelry. In recent years (2023), fashion jewelry brands have utilized marketing strategies by collaborating with popular games and cartoons to design products that align with trends and have unique identities. These marketing techniques attract new-generation consumers, making them more interested and easily captivated by the products, thereby increasing sales opportunities for jewelry brands. With the increasing presence of new-generation consumers, co-branding strategies will be a key strategy to expand opportunities for the jewelry industry in the future.  The development of the economy and improvement in living standards among Chinese citizens has significantly increased the demand for jewelry, as evident from clear trends. According to iiMedia Research, the jewelry demand among Chinese consumers reached 1.05 billion people in 2023, marking a 1.9% increase compared to the previous year, with a continuing upward trend. The main objective that Chinese consumers favor in purchasing jewelry is to create a social image. Consumers predominantly choose to buy earrings, followed by hair accessories and necklaces, respectively. Additionally, up to 20.2% of consumers opt to purchase watches primarily for social reasons. Furthermore, purchasing jewelry as a reminder of individuals or significant events in life is another factor influencing consumer behavior. Among the top 5 countries whose jewelry brands are favored by Chinese consumers are China itself, Switzerland, France, Italy, and South Korea. More than half of consumers (57.6%) prefer Chinese brands. Over the past few years, Chinese jewelry brands have successfully blended traditional culture with national design styles, which resonates well with Chinese consumers. Notable brands that have found success in the Chinese market include Pandora, known for contemporary designs, diverse options, and affordable prices, as well as Chow Tai Fook and Chow Tai Seng, renowned Chinese brands that blend traditional culture with modern design.

     The online live streaming marketing in the jewelry industry in China continues to grow.

The distribution channels of the jewelry industry in China are following the growth of internet users in China. Online sales have become a significant channel for industry development. According to data released by China's Internet Network Information Center in June 2022, the number of internet users in China is nearly 1.08 billion. It is estimated that by 2031, China's live streaming e-commerce market will exceed 6 trillion yuan. This indicates that online channels remain crucial for this industry and are expected to expand further over time.

    The Office of Trade Promotion in Shanghai: In 2023, Thailand's exports of jewelry and gemstones ranked third, valued at $14,787.26 million US dollars, down 2.15% from the previous year. Thailand's top five export markets were Switzerland, Hong Kong, Singapore, the United States, and India, in that order. Excluding processed gold, the top five export markets were Hong Kong, the United States, India, Germany, and the United Kingdom, respectively.

Statistics from the Ministry of Commerce indicate that the jewelry and gemstone industry is one of Thailand's highest-earning industries. Thailand's strength lies in blending unique designs with Thai craftsmanship, which is highly regarded internationally. The 69th Bangkok Gems and Jewelry Fair (BGJF) held from February 21-25 this year was highly successful, with trade expected to reach no less than 385 billion baht. The fair attracted significant interest from Chinese visitors, ranking second after India in attendance. Many Chinese influencers attended the event and live-streamed the jewelry sales, showcasing new marketing channels targeting the Chinese market. The positive response indicates that Thai entrepreneurs should prepare for live streaming commerce to adapt to modern trade formats and seize opportunities for expanding foreign markets. @chapter:32 @chapter:3 @chapter:32


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Books: Bright Lights in the Dark Ages: The Thaw Collection of Early Medieval Ornaments
# Abstract: By Noël Adams, hardcover, 432 pp., illus., publ. by The Morgan Library & Museum, New York, 2014, US$95.00.

Bright Lights in the Dark Ages is the seventh volume in which the Morgan Library and Museum documents a segment of the Eugene Thaw collection. Thaw’s many collections have been assembled over a lifetime, and he is considered the museum’s greatest benefactor since J.P. “Pierpont” Morgan himself. Art collector and dealer Eugene Thaw began acquiring ornaments from the early medieval period in the 1980s, leading to a systematic effort in 2001 to bridge the gap between the Museum’s ancient collections and its late medieval holdings. Thaw’s choices were based on aesthetic rather than scholarly merit, and he was advised on his acquisitions by the author of this book.

	This volume focuses on small personal ornaments (brooches, buckles, and pendants), from Western Europe, including the United Kingdom and Scandinavia, to the Black Sea, that were fabricated in the early Middle Ages, often referred to as the “Dark Ages.” These small objects, often found interred with their owner in gravesites, are considered “portable wealth” and are usually interpreted by historians and archeologists as emblems of power and status.

	The book’s narrow focus allows the author to address two objectives. The first is to challenge the preconceptions of art and culture of the “Dark Ages,” and the pejorative use of that term to describe a time that was actually quite culturally dynamic. The second is to demonstrate the continuity and evolution of metalworking from the 2nd century to the 10th century AD. To provide helpful context, the introductory sections outline the declining Roman Empire, the migration and invasion of new peoples and tribes from the East and the North, and the contraction of the Byzantine Empire.

	The term “Dark Ages” refers to the death of classical literature in the sense that pagan tribes, specifically Germanic and Slavic “barbarians,” had rich oral traditions that eclipsed the written word following the disintegration of the Roman Empire. Other scholars of the 14th century regarded the dearth of written history, building activity, and artistic output as an indication of a “dark” time in history. Even today, “Hun,” “Goth,” “barbarian,” and, to a lesser degree, “Middle Ages” have negative connotations. Yet the barbarians and nomads, dismissed by the Greeks and Romans as having no culture or heritage, did recognize the sophistication of the Romans and sought to incorporate aspects of their culture, including classical forms and realistic imagery. In the 20th century, some scholars attempted to discontinue the pejorative use of “Dark Ages” and “barbarian,” promoting for a time the use of “migration period,” but the appellation and connotation appears to have been thoroughly embedded. The title of the volume seeks to challenge that preconception and to point out that all was not “dark” in this historical era.

	The book features more than 100 examples of personal ornaments from this period from the Thaw collection, including fine metal, inlay, cloisonné, and mounted gemstones. The pieces were collected as singles and not as part of a grave burial collection. Through extrapolation from similar objects interpreted in a grave context, the pieces can be assigned to specific periods and regions. In interpreting the significance and meaning of the objects, Adams admits to having “committed one of the graver sins for the archeologist—the purposeful mixing of different types of evidence” in having used historical information to explain archeological findings and vice versa.  The result, however, is a coherent narrative in which the reader can understand the significance and the sequence of the featured objects in an appropriate framework.

	Following the introduction are six chapters examining different facets of the migration and invasions that bridged the transformation of Western Europe from a Greco-Roman world to the modern nation-states. The chapter introductions weave together history and cultural shifts (illustrated with maps), theories of visual art and personal adornment, and the state of craftsmanship/technology. Examples from other collections are included to better illustrate concepts. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to examples from the Thaw collection. Each is illustrated by a large-scale photo plus detail views. For those wanting technical details, the gemstones are identified and the jewelry making techniques are described. The stylistic attributes are discussed and the placement of the piece in its historical and cultural context is elaborated on, usually referencing other documented pieces. The photography and description are detailed enough to inspire and serve as a guide for a contemporary jeweler to design or manufacture archeological “revival” pieces that vastly differ from the Renaissance, Etruscan, or Egyptian objects associated with medieval influence.

	The book ends rather abruptly, in the style of a catalog. The glossary could be more extensive, being dominated by geographic and historical periods rather than jewelry and stylistic terms. The bibliography attests ultimately to the scholarly nature of this work—it is an overwhelming 50 pages.

	Trained as a geologist, art historian, and archeologist, Noël Adams brings her unique scholarly perspective to the technological aspects of metalwork. Less attention is paid to historiography, historical gender studies, cemetery analysis, dating analysis, and anthropological interpretations of burial ritual. The body of historical knowledge is augmented by examining how the pieces were physically made and the origin of materials, though one can only speculate how pieces were commissioned, supplied, bought and sold, or their meanings.

	One favorite of Adams that was unfamiliar to me was “garnet cloisonné” or “framework cloisonné,” where garnets or glass pieces are collet set, giving the appearance of fired glass enamel. She defines this technique as “cold cloisonné” in the glossary. Examples are given of its evolution through Hunnic, Visigothic, and Merovingian periods of the 5th and 6th centuries.

	I enjoyed this book because it gently made me aware of my own preconceived notions about the so-called “Dark Ages,” and then dispelled those notions. The early medieval period is one of the most complex in history—transitioning from long-established cultures of the Roman and Byzantine Empires to domination and displacement by very different peoples. The resulting turmoil eventually settled into an era of assimilation and comingling that would set the stage for a new era of creativity and progress, the “high” Middle Ages that eventually led to the Renaissance. In the introductory sections, the historical and cultural context is presented with just enough information to keep the interest of the average reader. Some of the chapters go into a level of historic detail that may be overwhelming to some, but gemological or jewelry enthusiasts can be satisfied by skipping to sections and illustrations focusing on medieval techniques and styles. Overall, Bright Lights in the Dark Ages is a worthwhile read. @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: 2022
# Title: Inclusions and Spectroscopic Features of Yellowish Green Enstatite
# Abstract: Figure 1. Two faceted and four cabochon bright yellowish green enstatites. Left to right: a 1.02 ct pear (sample no. e102), 1.32 ct cushion (e132), 2.78 ct cushion (e278), 1.44 ct pear (e144), 0.65 ct oval (e065), and 0.67 ct modified triangle (e067). Photo by C. Kamemakanon; courtesy of American-Thai Trading.
Gem-quality enstatite is the magnesium end member of the enstatite-ferrosilite series in the clinopyroxene subgroup of the pyroxene group. While the most common color is brown, it can also be colorless, green, or gray. Myanmar, Tanzania, and Sri Lanka are the main sources of gem-quality stones currently in the market. Enstatite can yield clean faceted gems but can also display four-, six-, or eight-rayed asterism.
Enstatites have been documented many times from various sources. Six-rayed star brown enstatite was reported from India (W. Eppler, “Star-diopside and star-enstatite,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 10, No. 6, 1967, pp. 185–188). Sri Lankan samples were reported in U. Henn and H. Bank, “Sternbronzit aus Sri Lanka,” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 40, No. 2–3, pp. 145–148. Star enstatite from Madagascar was described in T. Cathelineau, “Six-rayed star enstatite from Madagascar,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 36, No. 8, 2019, pp. 688–690. Four-rayed star brown enstatites from Sri Lanka were documented in E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Volume 3, Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, 2008. Faceted brown enstatite was reported in Koivula et al., “Gemmological investigation of a large faceted East African enstatite,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1988, pp. 92–94. Yellowish green enstatites from Africa were discussed in K. Schmetzer and H. Krupp, “Enstatite from Mairimba Hill, Kenya,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1982, pp. 118–120, as well as in B.M. Laurs et al., “Yellowish green enstatite (and star enstatite) from Tanzania,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 36, No. 8, 2019, pp. 691–693. Norwegian stones were documented in F. Schmitz et al., “Polymer-filled star enstatite from Norway,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2016, pp. 98–101.
Recently, GIT Gem Testing Laboratory (GIT-GTL) received six bright yellowish green enstatite samples weighing 0.65 to 2.78 ct (figure 1) that were reported by author SD to be from Africa. The stones appeared fairly similar to the previously documented four-rayed star yellowish green enstatite from Tanzania documented by Laurs et al. (2019). In that article, needle-like inclusions were found to be the cause of the four-rayed asterism, but their mineralogical identity was not reported.
Of the six stones examined in this study, four were cabochons displaying a four-rayed star effect while two were faceted (figure 1). The five stones with at least one polished flat surface gave refractive indices of α = 1.655–1.660, β = 1.661–1.665, and γ = 1.668–1.669, with a birefringence of 0.009–0.014, and are therefore biaxial positive. The spot RI reading of one cabochon without a flat surface was ~1.66. The hydrostatic specific gravity of all samples was 3.22–3.25. All these values fall well within the range of enstatite. The stones appeared weak orange under the Chelsea color filter and showed moderate yellow and yellowish green pleochroism. All were inert to both long-wave and short-wave UV.

Figure 2. A and B: Using oblique fiber-optic lighting, the four-rayed star enstatite cabochons reveal two sets of densely and regularly oriented fine needle-like inclusions intersecting at approximately 57° to 60°. C–E: The pear cabochon shows patches of densely oriented minute white particles (C), a plane of oriented tubes partially filled with small brownish white to colorless magnesite crystals (D), and oriented tubes filled with magnesite (E). F: Rectangular platelets and needle inclusions with bright interference colors in the modified triangle. Photomicrographs by S. Promwongnan; fields of view 3.6 mm (A–D) and 1.5 mm (E–F).
The main diagnostic internal features were the two sets of dense and regularly oriented needle-like inclusions (figure 2, A and B). The two sets measured on the same plane at the top of three cabochons (e278, e132, and e144) were found to intersect at an approximate angle of 57° to 60°, producing the four-rayed star effect seen on the cabochon surface (figure 1). While the two faceted stones also contained fine needle-like inclusions, they were not cut to display a star.

Figure 3. Raman spectra of the exposed fine needle inclusions plus host mineral (green line) show the superimposed peaks of rutile and enstatite that match with the RRUFF reference spectra (black and blue lines, respectively). Similarly, the spectra of exposed white to colorless crystals in short tubes plus host mineral (red line) display peaks of magnesite and enstatite that match with the RRUFF reference spectra (pink and blue lines, respectively).
Close examination also uncovered two sets of needles that did not produce asterism. In addition, patches of densely oriented minute white particles (figure 2C) and a plane of oriented short tubes (figure 2, D and E) were found in one stone (e144). These tubes were partially filled with tiny brownish white to colorless crystals identified by Raman spectroscopy as magnesite (figure 3). The presence of epigenetic magnesite (MgCO3) could have resulted from alteration of the host enstatite. The other feature consisted of sparse rectangular platelet inclusions occurring in various directions within the dense mesh of needle inclusions (e067, figure 2F).
The Raman spectra of all host mineral samples, recorded using 532 nm laser excitation, similarly showed dominant peaks that matched the enstatite reference spectrum from the RRUFF database (not shown here). Moreover, the Raman spectrum of the exposed fine needle inclusions plus host mineral in one sample (e078) gave the superimposed peaks of rutile (440 and 610 cm–1) and enstatite (238, 343, 662, 685, 1010, and 1030 cm–1), consistent with the RRUFF reference spectra in figure 3. Similarly, the Raman spectrum of exposed white to colorless crystals in short tubes plus the host in a sample (e144) showed overlapping peaks of magnesite (213, 330, 737, and 1094 cm–1) and enstatite, also consistent with the RRUFF reference spectra. The identity of the rectangular platelet inclusions, however, could not be resolved due to their sparsity and their depth below the surface.

Figure 4. Polarized UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of an enstatite (e132) showing a dominant Fe2+-related broad band around 900 nm and additional Fe2+-related absorptions at 1750 nm in addition to a continuous rise from ~700 nm toward the UV with smaller absorptions at 427, 506, and 546 nm. The iron absorptions are superimposed by two broad bands around 420–490 nm and 600–700 nm due to the presence of V3+ plus trace Cr3+ in the stone lattice (see table 1). Spectra are offset for clarity.
Polarized ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectra of a sample (e132) showed features dominated by broad absorption bands of Fe2+ in the NIR region centered at ~900 and ~1750 nm (figure 4). The spectra rise continuously from ~700 nm toward the UV with small Fe2+ peaks at 427, 506, and 546 nm in the visible range (Cathelineau, 2019). In addition, these iron absorption features were superimposed by absorption bands around 420–490 nm and 600–700 nm due to the presence of V3+ with trace Cr3+ (see table 1). These two bands cause the absorption of the violet-blue and orange-red ends of the visible spectrum. Such overlapping absorption features allow the transmission window in the green to the yellow region, giving rise to the bright yellowish green color (Laurs et al., 2019). The origin of the absorption band at ~2220 nm, however, could not be resolved.

Semi-quantitative EDXRF chemical analyses revealed enriched contents of silicon (58.1–59.2 wt.% SiO2), magnesium (26.5–31.5 wt.% MgO), and aluminum (6.3–8.1 wt.% Al2O3), with trace amounts of iron, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, and zinc (table 1). Furthermore, the end-member compositions were calculated and appeared close to the enstatite end members (92.0–96.2% enstatite, 3.5–7.5% ferrosilite, and 0.3–0.5% wollastonite) of the enstatite-ferrosilite series.

In summary, the attractive bright yellowish green colors of these enstatites are caused by the combination of significant iron and vanadium with a trace of chromium substituting magnesium in the crystal lattice. The four-rayed asterism phenomenon is caused by light reflection from two sets of very dense fine rutile needle inclusions intersecting one another at approximately 57° to 60°. The similarity of these stones and those reported by Laurs et al. (2019) (tables 1 and 2) leads us to conclude these stones could also be from Tanzania. @chapter:3 @chapter:0 @chapter:3


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Susan Jacques’ Top 20 Traits to be Successful in Retail
# Abstract: Susan Jacques, pictured at GIA's Carlsbad World Headquarters in 2014, shared her tips for success in the retail industry at GIA's mini Jewelry Career Fair in 2010. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA

                      Susan Jacques spent more than 30 years in retail before becoming president and CEO of GIA in January 2014. She began her career at Borsheims in 1982, after earning her GG from GIA, and was appointed president and CEO in 1994.

She offered these traits for success during a panel discussion at GIA’s mini Jewelry Career Fair held on June 6, 2010 in Las Vegas:

PASSION: Warren Buffett says: “Tap dance to work.” Love what you do every day! Have it show.

LOYALTY: Remember who signs your pay check -- be loyal to your company. If you are unhappy and your job is not what you want to do, leave and find your passion elsewhere.

RESPECT: Know everyone in the company by name; show the same respect regardless of titles and treat people as you wish to be treated.

COMMITMENT: To your company, your job, your teammates, your success.

 DEDICATION:  Give 110 percent every day to ensure your and your company’s success.

 HONESTY:  Be a person of your word, always be honest and ethical in everything you do.

 INTEGRIT Y: Have the  highest standards of integrity, personally and professionally. Earn your stellar reputation and guard it with every action that you take and decision that you make.

TRUSTWORTHINESS: Trust is essential in our industry and in your company.  Be known for your trustworthiness.

TEAM PLAYER: Work well with others, be supportive and helpful. There is no I in TEAM! No prima donnas!

INITIATIVE: Don’t wait to be asked, take initiative, see the global picture.

CONFIDENTIALITY: NEVER breach confidentiality, what happens at X or with x stays there or between you.

DRIVE: Have the personal drive to succeed, do your best, set high goals and strive to exceed them.

EXCELLENCE: Always strive to exceed expectations and excel at what you do.

ATTITUDE: Keep a positive, optimistic, friendly, professional attitude EVERY day.

DETERMINATION: Be determined to succeed and be the best you can be and give every task your best effort.

FOCUSED: Focus on your goals and your ability to exceed customer expectations with every transaction.

MULTI-TASK: Learn to do many things simultaneously and excellently. Retail seldom allows you the ability to finish one thing before moving on to the next.  Be flexible.

EMPATHY: Be empathetic to fellow associates and customers. LISTEN to what they say.

CONFIDENCE: Exude self-confidence and believe in yourself and your ability to succeed.

KNOWLEDGE: Constantly learn and share your knowledge. It’s important to stay up to date on industry news, changes in treatments, product knowledge, social responsibility and sustainability. Stay in touch with GIA and continue to grow through learning! @chapter:45 @chapter:3 @chapter:45


# Publication Year: 1988
# Title: An Economic Review of the Past Decade in Diamonds
# Abstract: The diamond industry was buffeted by extreme price volatility during the last decade, unlike any encountered since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Although the industry is currently enjoying a resurgence of activity worldwide, particularly in the Far East, today's market differs significantly from what it was 10 years ago. This article reviews the factors that led to the enormous demand for diamonds in the late 1970s, examines the causes of recession in the early 1980s, and provides an analysis of the comeback of diamond in 1986. Inasmuch as events during this period ushered many changes into the diamond trade, an understanding of how economic forces affect the supply, demand, and value of diamond is critical to all gemologists. Factors such as inflation, recession, interest rates, and disposable income, as well as fluctuations in worldwide exchange rates, had, and undoubtedly will continue to have, an impact on the health of the diamond market. @chapter:37 @chapter:3 @chapter:37


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Spiral Nacre in Natural Pearl
# Abstract: Concentric spiral nacre formations seen on a natural saltwater pearl. Photomicrograph by Britni LeCroy; field of view 2.34 mm.

Nacreous pearls are known to have platelet growth resembling fingerprints or topographic maps, but a less common appearance is nacre with a concentric spiral pattern. The feature is sometimes seen in small patches in unprocessed saltwater pearls. One recent example was exceptional as it showed spiral formations throughout its entire surface (see above). The pearl was determined to be a natural saltwater pearl from the Pinctada genus. Nacre is composed of aragonite crystals and conchiolin protein, with the crystals acting like bricks and the protein acting like mortar. The explanation for spiral patterns is complex and involves the development of screw dislocation defects during nacre formation as predicted by the Burton-Caberra-Frank theory (J.H.E. Cartwright et al., “Spiral and target patterns in bivalve nacre manifest a natural excitable medium from layer growth of a biological liquid crystal,” PNAS, Vol. 106, No. 26, 2009, pp. 10499–10504). @chapter:11 @chapter:4 @chapter:11


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Fissure with Moiré Pattern in Spinel
# Abstract: A precipitation of an unidentified mineral in a fissure of a purple spinel creates this highly intricate moiré pattern. A combination of oblique fiber-optic and darkfield illumination was used. Photomicrograph by Tyler Smith; field of view 2.90 mm.
Surface-reaching fissures commonly host precipitates of epigenetic minerals, as was the case with a 4.22 ct purple spinel recently examined by the author. “Islands” of unidentified birefringent inclusions occupied a near-planar fissure. These inclusions were inert to Raman spectroscopy. Delicate depositions radiating from these islands interacted to create a complex moiré pattern (see above). Moiré patterns, named after their resemblance to a type of fabric, form when parallel or concentric lines overlap. It is unclear whether the islands formed first and were partially dissolved in a secondary event, or if they formed simultaneously with the spinel. Although moiré patterns have been observed in partially healed fluid fingerprints and surface-reaching fissures, it is rare to see them expressed in such a spectacular form. @chapter:26 @chapter:0 @chapter:26


# Publication Year: 2008
# Title: A New Type of Synthetic Fire Opal: Mexifire
# Abstract: Synthetic opals have been produced and used in jewelry for more than three decades, and various imitation opals have been introduced in the trade. This article describes a new type of synthetic fire opal marketed as “Mexifire.” Some of the gemological properties of this synthetic are similar to those of natural fire opal. However, a low SG value (1.77) offers strong evidence of synthetic origin, and further indications are provided by a relatively low RI value (<1.40) and the presence of scattered pinpoints when examined with magnification. @chapter:48 @chapter:0 @chapter:48


# Publication Year: 2017
# Title: Mixed-Type Treated Red HPHT Synthetic Diamond
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 0.27 ct Fancy Dark red specimen is a multi-step treated HPHT synthetic diamond. Photo by Meili Wang.

A multiple-treatment process involving irradiation and HPHT annealing can produce pink to red color in natural and synthetic diamonds; specimens treated by this process have been on the market for over 10 years. To the best of our knowledge, nearly 95% of the studied red HPHT synthetic diamonds treated by the multi-treatment process are classified as type Ib or type IIa. Recently, we examined a treated red HPHT-grown synthetic diamond that was confirmed to be mixed type (IaA + IaB + Ib).

The 0.27 ct round brilliant sample, graded as Fancy Dark red (figure 1), had a metallic inclusion under the table. The DiamondView image showed strong red fluorescence and cuboctahedral growth structure; the latter is a typical feature of HPHT-grown diamonds (figure 2). Ni-related defects at 883.1/884.8 nm and 793.6 nm were revealed by a photoluminescence (PL) spectrum at liquid-nitrogen temperature with two different laser excitations (532 and 785 nm). The H2 defect corresponding to a sharp peak at 986.2 nm and the NV center associated with a strong peak at 637 nm were also found. In addition, the Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectrum (figure 3) confirmed the material was an uncommon type of IaA + IaB + Ib, with absorptions at 1282 cm–1 (A center), at 1175 cm–1 (B center), and at 1131 and 1344 cm–1 (C center), respectively (again, see figure 56). This mixed type is similar to that observed in treated natural diamonds. A moderate 1450 cm–1 absorption (H1a), which correlates with irradiation and subsequent annealing (Clark et al., “Absorption spectra of natural and irradiated diamonds,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A, Vol. 234, 1956, pp. 363–381), was also present. Thus, this diamond was identified as a multi-step treated HPHT synthetic diamond, with irradiation and HPHT annealing indicated as treatment processes.

Figure 2. The DiamondView fluorescence image shows cuboctahedral growth structure, a typical feature in HPHT-grown diamonds. Photo by Wen Han.

Figure 3. FTIR spectroscopy reveals that this diamond is type Ia + Ib, with the existence
of aggregated nitrogen atoms (A center at 1282 cm–1 and B center at 1175 cm–1) and
isolated nitrogen (C center at 1131 and 1344 cm–1) impurities. The H1a absorption
at 1450 cm–1, correlating with irradiation and subsequent annealing, is also observed.
Although most of the recent treated red HPHT synthetic diamonds are reported to be type Ib or type IIa (e.g, Fall 2016 Lab Notes, pp. 308–309; C.M. Breeding and J.E. Shigley, “The ‘type’ classification system of diamonds and its importance in gemology,” Summer 2009 G&G, pp, 96–111), such diamonds with mixed type Ia + Ib are available in the jewelry market, as exemplified by this study. Therefore, caution is still needed to distinguish such treated synthetic diamonds from treated stones of natural origin, as they may show similar characteristics. @chapter:9 @chapter:1 @chapter:9


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Exquisite Butterfly in Diamond
# Abstract: When light reflects from this crystal in a 1.01 ct diamond, the halo resembles a colorful butterfly. Photomicrograph by Tejas Jhaveri; field of view 2.90 mm.
Examination of a 1.01 ct triangular portrait-cut diamond with E color and I2 clarity revealed an inclusion in the center of the table resembling a butterfly (see the figure above and the video below). The butterfly inclusion was composed of a crystal with a stress halo. The crystal did not break the surface and was completely enclosed within the diamond. The rough was skillfully cut in such a way that this crystal was positioned on the center of the table when polished. The play of light reflects artistically on the stress halo, creating the appearance of a colorful butterfly.

	“Butterfly” Inclusion in Diamond @chapter:36 @chapter:1 @chapter:36


# Publication Year: 2010
# Title: Possible “Sister” Stones of the Hope Diamond
# Abstract: For more than a century, historians have debated the existence of “sister” stones to the Hope diamond, most notably the Brunswick Blue and the Pirie diamonds. The recent discovery of a lead cast of the French Blue, the Hope’s precursor, has provided a more accurate model of that diamond, which disappeared in 1792.Computer models of the French Blue and its parent stone, the Tavernier Blue, were used to determine whether other diamonds might have been created when the Tavernier Blue was cut into the French Blue, or when the latter was cut into the Hope. The results show that it was not feasible for other significant diamonds to have been created during any recutting. @chapter:41 @chapter:1 @chapter:41


# Publication Year: 2013
# Title: Blue Spinel Crystals in the MgAl2O4-CoAl2O4 Series, Part I: Flux Growth and Chemical Characterization
# Abstract: Synthetic CoAl2O4 spinel, a high-temperature oxide (melting point of 1955°C), is the most stable compound of a family of spinel-structured oxides obtained from CO3O4 at progressive increase of Al contents. High-quality spinel single crystals with compositions closely corresponding to the solid-solution series spinel sensu stricto (MgAl2O4)-cobalt spinel (CoAl2O4) were produced by flux growth method, with Na2B4O7 as the flux. Low cooling rates and linear temperature profiles were applied in the thermal interval 1200–800°C, followed by rapid cooling. Thermal runs were performed in a reducing atmosphere. Selected crystals were investigated by SEM/EDS X-ray mapping to check for compositional homogeneity and by electron-microprobe analysis to obtain the chemical formula.

								Crystals were found to be chemically homogeneous and entirely representing the MgAl2O4-CoAl2O4 solid-solution series, with the latter component ranging from 7% to 100%. The saturation of the vivid blue color increased with total cobalt content, but no shift in color hue was observed along the series. The unit-cell parameter a increased from 8.084 to 8.105 Å along the solid-solution series. The observed linear increase of the a parameter was seemingly due to the higher CoAl2O4 component. This was a premature and misleading conclusion, however, because structural changes in spinel may depend on both chemical composition and inversion parameter, which in turn is a function of thermal history. The composition of crystal products does not correspond to the composition of the starting oxide mixture: cobalt enriched in the crystals. A tentative explanation of this behavior is suggested by considering possible ionic potential as well crystal field stabilization effects.

Abstracted by Guy Lalous @chapter:26 @chapter:0 @chapter:26


# Publication Year: 2004
# Title: Winter 2004 G&G Book Reviews
# Abstract: “Bernd Munsteiner: Reflexionen in Stein [Reflections in Stone]”
Edited by Wilhelm Lindemann, 224 pp., illus., publ. by Arnoldsche, Stuttgart, Germany, 2004 (in German and English). US$75.00

“Illustrated Guide to Jewelry Appraising, 3rd Edition”
By Anna Miller, 200 pp., illus., publ. by GemStone Press, Woodstock, VT, 2004. US$39.99

“Magic World: Inclusions in Quartz”
By Jaroslav Hyrsl and Gerhard Niedermayr, 240 pp., illus., publ. by Bode Verlag, Haltern, Germany, 2003 [German and English]. € 49.00

“Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin”
By Hans-Rudolf Wenk and Andrei Bulakh, 668 pp., illus., publ. by Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2004. US$130.00 (hardcover); US$70.00 (softbound)

“Rocks Pebbles and Stones: Confessions of a Private Jeweler”
By Fred Feldmesser, 100 pp., publ. by Farrington Press, Boston, 2004. US$30.00 (E-mail: parker@ feldmesser.com)

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:31 @chapter:2 @chapter:31


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Update from the Responsible Jewellery Council
# Abstract: The Responsible Jewellery Council (RJC) has announced plans to include colored stones and silver in the next revision cycle for its Code of Practices, which RJC members are certified against. The organization has begun updating its existing standards, a process that takes place every five years. These plans dovetailed with the release of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which outlines 17 goals and 169 targets for member nations to meet. The author sat down with Edward Johnson and Anne-Marie Fleury of the RJC during the 2018 Tucson gem shows to discuss the status of these efforts.

The first round of public consultation, which focused on the scope of changes to the standard, took place in 2017. As of February 2018, RJC’s Code of Practices were under review prior to a second public consultation phase, which targets industry and non-industry stakeholders, of proposed changes to the Code. These consultation phases are in line with RJC’s annual auditing of their standard-setting approach, assurance framework, and measuring impacts program.

Like previous versions, the revised Code will certify business practices rather than products. The certification will cover all the important social, environmental, and health and safety issues in the jewelry supply chain. RJC’s priorities for change, which must work for businesses of all sizes, involve several areas, including:

Due diligence for responsible sourcing: RJC recognizes that traceability does not automatically translate to sustainability. As a standard for alignment with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, RJC encourages companies to adopt a due diligence approach to managing risks in their supply chain. Traceability remains a powerful tool for making responsible sourcing claims and is a voluntary certification option.
Gender equality: RJC endorses best practices that promote diversity, including gender equality. To this end, it is partnering with Business for Social Responsibility (BSR), a nonprofit organization dedicated to sustainable business practices, to develop better guidance on gender equality in the gem and jewelry sector. Topics to be covered include working conditions, facilities, and approaches to family leave.
Updating requirements on responsible mining: Many of the most challenging issues in the industry occur at the mining stage, and RJC continues to evolve its responsible mining provisions to address these challenges.
Reducing audit duplication: As it continues to work with jewelry industry members of all sizes, RJC continues to harmonize with and cross-recognize other industry initiatives already in place from other organizations so that businesses do not have to duplicate efforts at their own cost.

The consultation phase of the Code of Practices review is scheduled to run from April to July 2018. Announcements about the process can be found at https://www.responsiblejewellery.com/standards-development/code-of-practices-review-2/. @chapter:42 @chapter:3 @chapter:42


# Publication Year: 1995
# Title: A History of Diamond Sources in Africa: Part I
# Abstract: For more than 100 years, Africa has produced large commercial quantities of diamonds and important individual stones. The earliest official finds were made from approximately 1867 onward, in sands and gravels of the Orange and Vaal Rivers in South Africa. Subsequently, diamonds were found in "hard rock" kimberlites and, most recently, in off-shore deposits along the western coast of South Africa and Namibia. Important discoveries have been made in many other African countries. Angola, Botswana, Central African Republic, Ghana, Namibia, and Zaire have now joined South Africa as being among the top 10 diamond-producing countries worldwide. Part I of this two-part series examines the fascinating history of these numerous discoveries in southern and central Africa from the 19th century to the present. Part II will look at eastern and western Africa, as well as the history of diamond prospecting, mining, and production on the African continent. @chapter:34 @chapter:3 @chapter:34