# Publication Year: -
# Title: An In-Depth Gemological Study of Blue Sapphires from Pailin, Cambodia
# Abstract: Heated faceted blue sapphires reportedly mined near Phnum Yat in Pailin, Cambodia, along with an unheated, rough trapiche-type blue sapphire crystal from Pailin. Photo: Vincent Pardieu © GIA.

The Cambodian province of Pailin is an important historical locality that has produced many fine but often small stones for over a century. Currently, just a few mechanized mining operations remain active around Pailin; artisanal miners exploit river gravels in the dry season. Although today’s production is sporadic, gems previously mined from this deposit are found in the marketplace and in jewelry.

The Pailin gem field is centered on the eroded remnants of three volcanic cones that brought ruby and sapphire to the surface as passengers—xenocrysts—in alkali-basalt magma. Due to the climate, the alkali-basalt weathers very quickly, releasing stable minerals including corundum, garnet, and zircon, which miners find in secondary deposits.

Researchers from GIA’s Bangkok laboratory analyzed 68 sapphire samples collected during field expeditions to Pailin. The samples were fashioned to optimize them for laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) chemical analysis, UV-Vis-NIR and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and inclusion studies using microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Results from their study and field observations from the mining area appear in a new article titled An In-Depth Gemological Study of Blue Sapphires from Pailin, Cambodia

Pailin sapphires resemble gems from other basalt-related deposits in Thailand, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Australia, and northern Madagascar. As sapphires from these sources share similar geologic origins, it’s challenging to discriminate between them. Magnification of the Pailin sapphires revealed dense milky clouds, strong blue color zoning, and bands of minute particles, along with mineral inclusions such as pyrochlore, plagioclase feldspar, ferrocolumbite, goethite, zircon, and monazite. UV-Vis-NIR and FTIR spectra showed features typical of basalt-related sapphires. As with previous studies of basalt-hosted blue sapphires, the authors note that a combination of trace element chemistry and microscopy can help separate Pailin sapphires from samples from other localities. @chapter:0 @chapter:0 @chapter:0


# Publication Year: 1983
# Title: Engraved Gems: A Historical Perspective
# Abstract: Such innocuous events as the creation of the pre-gummed envelope and the modem postal system contributed to the demise of the engraved gem seal. During the thousands of years that the seal served as man's most important mark of identification, however, gem engraving reigned as one of his most significant art forms. This article traces the-history of engraved gems from primitive amulets through cylinder seals, scarabs, scaraboids, and ringstones, to the more recently introduced cameos. Also discussed is the engraving process itself, how to evaluate an engraved gem, and more recent developments in the materials and methods used to engrave gems. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: 2003
# Title: Summer 2003 Gem News International
# Abstract: Diamonds
            "Additional” Facets and Their Effect on Scintillation
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            “Alphabet” Agates from Indonesia
            Unusual Cat’s-Eye Beryl from Brazil
            Magnetic Corundum
            Large Pink Fluorite from Pakistan
            Crystals of Color-Change Garnet from Bekily, Madagascar
            The Lion Cut for Colored Stones and Diamonds
            Tale of a Swallowed Tahitian Cultured Pearl
            Trapiche Rubies Displaying Asterism
            Cat’s-Eye Scapolite from Tanzania
            Miscellany from Tucson
Synthetics and Simulants
            Cubic Zirconia Briolettes
            A Bicolored Synthetic Diamond
Conference Reports
            SME 2003 Annual Meeting
Announcements
            Digital Geologic Map of Madagascar
            Thailand Gem Adventure
            AGTA Spectrum Awards competition
Conferences
            Jewellery World Expo 2003
            GIA GemFest USA
            IGC Postponed
            Training Courses in Heat Treating Corundum
            Geophysical Exploration for Diamonds
Diamonds—From Source to Use
            HRD Diamond Marketing Conference
            SEG Diamond and Kimberlite Course
Exhibits
            Enamels at the Newark Museum
            Art Deco at the Royal Ontario Museum
            Tourmaline at Mineralientage München

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:4 @chapter:0 @chapter:4


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: One Natural Melee Diamond Found in Large Batch of HPHT Synthetic Melee
# Abstract: Figure 1. Out of a parcel of 1,102 diamond melee received at GIA’s New York lab for testing, 1,092 were identified as HPHT synthetic melee. Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia and Towfiq Ahmed.

Over the last decade, the production methods used to create synthetic diamond melee have improved substantially, along with the quality of the specimens themselves. The increase in the amount of synthetic melee submitted—both disclosed and undisclosed—to GIA’s laboratories for identification has exponentially increased since GIA began offering its Melee Analysis Service in 2016. Parcels of melee are often submitted with a mixture of naturals and synthetics. Typically, a few synthetics are detected in batches of natural melee diamonds, known in the trade as “salting” (e.g., S. Eaton-Magaña and J.E. Shigley, “Observations on CVD-grown synthetic diamonds: A review,” Fall 2016 G&G, pp. 222–245).
GIA’s New York laboratory received a batch of 1,102 melee diamonds with a total weight of 9.67 carats for the melee analysis service. The tested melee ranged from 0.98 to 1.52 mm in diameter. Preliminary testing using GIA’s fully automated screening device referred 1,093 for further testing, while nine were found to be outside of the service criteria. Further analysis using detailed spectroscopic analysis confirmed 1,092 (figure 1) out of the 1,093 to be HPHT synthetics. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopy performed on the referred melee revealed an absorption band at approximately 2800 cm–1 from trace boron in the diamond lattice, classifying these melees as type IIb (boron-bearing), typical of HPHT synthetic diamonds. Due to the relatively high concentrations of boron, these melee diamonds showed a clear blue hue, which is very different from most of the melee diamonds we have tested.
Further examination using photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy showed no detectable peaks of nickel, often a catalyst used to grow HPHT synthetic diamonds (e.g., Spring 2017 Lab Notes, pp. 95–96). These spectra were in fact atypical of HPHT synthetic diamonds. Distinctive HPHT growth patterns were observed in the DiamondView (figure 2) along with strong phosphorescence following exposure to short-wave UV radiation (figure 3).

Figure 2. This diamond shows characteristic growth patterns of HPHT-grown material. Photo by Stephanie Persaud.

Figure 3. These HPHT-grown synthetic diamond melee, from the parcel of 1,102 specimens, display strong phosphorescence following exposure to short-wave UV radiation. Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia and Towfiq Ahmed.
One sample out of 1,093 was confirmed as a natural diamond. Infrared absorption spectroscopy indicated this stone was type Ia, with a hydrogen peak at 3107 cm–1. DiamondView imaging displayed a typical blue fluorescence and no detectable phosphorescence, both typical for a natural type Ia diamond.
It is interesting to note that only one natural was found in this parcel of melee. This has been the largest percentage of undisclosed synthetic melee that GIA has seen. The majority of the HPHT synthetic melee had no detectable traces of Ni, demonstrating the importance of advanced testing to identify these melees. @chapter:9 @chapter:1 @chapter:9


# Publication Year: 2013
# Title: Rare Faceted Neptunite
# Abstract: Figure 1. This unusual 11.78 ct faceted neptunite appeared to be black but was actually a dark orangy red. Photo by Robison McMurtry.

              An 11.78 ct faceted “black” octagonal modified step-cut stone was recently presented to the Carlsbad laboratory for identification (figure 1). Standard gemological testing revealed an RI of 1.69–1.73 and a hydrostatic SG of 3.19. Microscopic examination with a fiber-optic light source showed the stone was actually a very dark orangy red. It was heavily included with fractures and platelets, as well as randomly oriented unidentified thin needles evenly distributed throughout the gem (figure 2). These tests suggested neptunite, an identity confirmed using Raman spectroscopy.

	Figure 2. The orangy red neptunite contained dense needles of unknown composition. Field of view: 1.72 mm. Photo by Nathan Renfro.

	Neptunite commonly occurs in association with, and as a guest inclusion in, the rare blue mineral benitoite (E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 1, ABC Edition, Zurich, 1986). Both minerals are Ti-bearing silicates. Benitoite may contain whitish inclusions of crossite (an amphibole) or natrolite (a zeolite), so it is possible that the thin needles in this neptunite are composed of one of these metamorphic minerals. The main source of neptunite is San Benito, California, where it is found along the walls of natrolite veins in blueschist (B. Laurs et al., “Benitoite from the New Idria District, San Benito County, California,” Fall 1997 G&G, pp. 166–187). The type locality for this material is the Narsarsuk pegmatite in Greenland (O.V. Petersen and O. Johnsen, “Mineral species first described from Greenland,” Canadian Mineralogist, Special Publication No. 8, 2005, pp. 76–77). Neptunite crystals have been found in sizes up to a few inches, but they are rarely faceted because of their brittle nature and relative softness (5–6 on the Mohs scale). The few crystals that are faceted usually weigh less than 1 ct, making this large specimen of particular interest. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first faceted neptunite identified by GIA. @chapter:8 @chapter:0 @chapter:8


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: A New Treatment: Creating Phantom Structure in Opal
# Abstract: Figure 1. An 11.68 ct treated phantom opal in which the phantom structure appeared during experiments with various solutions. The sample is shown under daylight through the dome (left) and under halogen lighting through the bottom (right). Photos by Le Ngoc Nang.
Phantom structure in opal is a rare and interesting feature found only in Ethiopian opals (www.opalauctions.com/learn/opal-information/phantom-ghost-of-the-opal). The phantom consists of a large spherical inclusion, white and opaque, that is enclosed by transparent, yellow, or colorless host opal—whimsical names include “ghost,” “egg,” and “mother and daughter” opal. The exotic combination of precious opal surrounded by transparent opal renders this material more attractive and valuable. So far, there has been little research on its characteristics and formation.

Figure 2. There is no significant visual difference between an untreated Ethiopian natural phantom opal (left, 35 ct) and a treated phantom opal (right, 6 ct). Photos by Le Ngoc Nang.
At the end of 2021, while performing experiments on natural opal to test changes in transparency and the play-of-color effect with various solutions, the authors accidentally discovered how the phantom formed artificially in natural opal when immersing the stones in a mixture of water, oil, acetone, and other solutions (figure 1). As our curiosity continued to grow, we devised a treatment method to create a phantom in opal by adjusting the amount of solutions, time, and temperature. The phantom opal obtained by the treatment is visually similar to natural phantom opal (figure 2). The treatment is simple, but it creates a spectacular and bizarre structure that improves the stone’s appeal and value.
To reproduce the treatment process, we randomly selected an opal sample purchased from a jewelry store in Ho Chi Minh City (the seller did not know the gem’s origin). The oval cabochon weighing 19.0 ct was white in bodycolor and semitranslucent, with weak play-of-color (dull orange, yellow, green, and blue). The gem was tested before and after treatment using standard gemological methods and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy with a spectral range from 650 to 4000 cm–1 at Liu Gemological Research and Application Center. The refractive index was 1.45 (spot method), and the hydrostatic specific gravity was 1.72–1.85. The stone was inert to long- and short-wave ultraviolet radiation. Examination with a gemological microscope revealed many black inclusions that might be black magnetite. FTIR spectroscopy displayed major absorption bands at 779, 999, and 1638 cm–1. The gemological properties and FTIR analysis indicated natural opal.

Figure 3. Left: The opal before treatment is semitranslucent white and shows a weak play-of-color. Right: After 36 hours of treatment, the opal becomes transparent light yellow, containing a white phantom. Photos by Le Ngoc Nang.
After the gemological examination, the opal was soaked in a mixture of 90% vegetable oil and 5% ethanol, and the mixture was boiled at 80°C. Treatment time depended on the sample size and the expected size of the phantom. With longer heating time, more of the “phantom” was converted into transparent opal, resulting in a smaller center and larger surrounding transparent area. In this case, the author decided to treat the gem for 36 hours, and the finished artificial phantom was half the size of the host opal (figure 3). The shape of the phantom was similar to that of the host gemstone. Notably, the play-of-color area shrank after treatment. It went from covering the entire opal to just a thin layer at the outline of the phantom. Interestingly, the dull quality of the play-of-color did improve somewhat.

The characteristics of an opal sample before and after treatment are shown in table 1. Three distinct features can be used to identify the artificial phantom. The first is the morphological similarity between the host opal and its phantom. Second, the treated phantom opal strongly luminesces under long- and short-wave UV radiation as a result of the oil, while the natural opal is usually inert to weak green. Third, the FTIR spectra after treatment exhibit two additional significant peaks at 2853 and 2922 cm–1, attributed to the symmetric and asymmetric stretching vibration of the aliphatic CH2 group present in oil (N. Vlachos et al., “Applications of Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy to edible oils,” Analytica Chimica Acta, Vol. 573–574, 2006, pp. 459–465). The third feature is also the most noticeable evidence that the sample has been treated with oil.
The treated sample was stored at room temperature under fluorescent lighting for three months to test the treatment’s stability. The phantom remained intact, leading the authors to conclude that the treatment stabilization is permanent under normal conditions. The apparent stability of the transparent opal may be explained by the impregnated oil in the stone, which evaporates slowly. To avoid damaging the treatment, however, careful handling is still advised when wearing a stone treated in this way.
In gem trading, treated products must be disclosed. Treated phantom opal may appear commercially in the future, so it is important to disclose our treatment process used to create a phantom structure by impregnating opal with oil and heat, as well as the means to identify the treatment. More importantly, this report is intended to avoid confusion between natural and treated phantom opal. @chapter:48 @chapter:0 @chapter:48


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Blue Amblygonite-Montebrasite from Rwanda
# Abstract: The newly discovered variety of amblygonite-montebrasite is unique for its blue color. It often has a mottled appearance with alternating blue and creamy white patches. The faceted stone weighs 0.83 ct. Photo by Lhapsin Nillapat.
Amblygonite-montebrasite, with the formula LiAlPO4(F,OH), is a fluorophosphate mineral series found in granitic pegmatites and pegmatite-related environments. The Pala district in California and the Black Hills in South Dakota are historic U.S. sources of amblygonite-montebrasite for industrial use, but most of the world’s well-known pegmatite districts have also produced considerable quantities of amblygonite-montebrasite.
A relatively common rock-forming mineral in these specific environments, the mineral is typically opaque and contains abundant fractures. Its color is often an unremarkable creamy white, causing it to blend in with associated feldspars. All of these factors limit its use as a gemstone. When used as a gem material, it is often colorless to yellow-green.
Geologists are interested in this mineral because of its high lithium content (up to 10%), which often suggests the presence of other (and easier to process) lithium minerals nearby. With increasing demand for lithium ores, exploration teams around the world are paying closer attention to amblygonite-montebrasite as an indicator of high lithium content in geological environments. This was the case in western Rwanda, an area known for its pegmatite-related tin deposits, where local geologists discovered an unusual variety of amblygonite-montebrasite in multiple pegmatites and sent it to mineral traders in Bangkok.
The new material (see above) differs from classic varieties in that its color is bright blue, sometimes associated with creamy white patches in a mottled pattern. All other characteristics match the known properties of amblygonite-montebrasite.
Confocal Raman spectroscopy showed a perfect match with amblygonite for several of the whitish and all of the bright blue patches. The position of certain peaks is related to the fluorine concentration in the mineral and can help to estimate the distribution between both end members (B. Rondeau et al., “A Raman investigation of the amblygonite-montebrasite series,” Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 44, No. 5, 2006, pp. 1109–1117). The position of the peak around 1060 cm–1 was in the lower range (1052 cm–1 or lower), which points to a very fluorine-poor composition, near pure montebrasite. Raman spectroscopy performed at GIA’s Bangkok laboratory also revealed the presence of other minerals in the creamy white matrix. This included a mix of complex phosphates that share mineralogical and chemical similarities (e.g., berlinite, souzalite, and trolleite, confirmed by Raman spectroscopy) as well as feldspar. The only exception in terms of coloration consisted of small dark blue spots of the mineral scorzalite, with the formula (Fe2+,Mg)Al2(OH,PO4)2, a common secondary phase in complex, phosphate-rich pegmatites.
Despite advanced techniques indicating that this newly discovered variety, as well as the majority of previously documented gems, are closer to montebrasite (the OH-rich end member), the gemological community keeps referring to these materials as amblygonite. Amblygonite-montebrasite remains a rare gem that is unfamiliar to the general consumer. It requires considerable care due to its perfect cleavage and hardness of approximately 6, making it less suitable for daily wear. With this new addition to its color range, amblygonite-montebrasite might gain more recognition. @chapter:14 @chapter:0 @chapter:14


# Publication Year: -
# Title: GIA Field Gemologists Visit Zambia’s Emerald Mines
# Abstract: Explore Zambia’s Emerald Mines

	Visit Zambia’s emerald mines with GIA field gemologists.

	You will surely feel the lure of emerald—central Africa’s green treasure—in this short GIA video. First, you’ll visit the Musakashi, Zambia, emerald mining area where mining is carried out by local people with simple hand tools.

	Next, you’ll travel with Field Gemologist Vincent Pardieu and the GIA team to Zambia’s Kafubu area, one of Africa’s oldest gem-mining areas. “There are maybe 400 mines, and maybe less than 10 are active,” says Pardieu.

	While there, you’ll witness several active emerald mines. Some are very small-scale and operated by local people, while some, like the MIKU and the KAGEM mines, are very large. The latter is probably the largest colored gemstone mining pit in the world. “The production of the mine is maybe accounting for 20 percent of the world,” remarks Pardieu. “The pit is way bigger than two years ago.”

	In this video, you’ll view the entire KAGEM operation—a modern, highly sophisticated mechanized pit mine. As you stand on the rim of the pit, a ripple of explosions blasts ore for processing. “Geology is dictating our mining here,” says Gemfields geologist Robert Gessner.

	You will witness workers recovering emeralds from the pit. “It’s exciting to touch a stone coming out of the ground,” says GIA Field Gemologist Andy Lucas.

	You’ll also venture underground into Gemfields’ exploratory underground workings and see the firm’s secure processing and sorting facility.

	This GIA Field Expedition (FE56) took place in September 2014. Besides Pardieu, the participants were cameraman Didier Gruel, Field Gemologist Andy Lucas, Gems & Gemology Technical Editor Dr. Tao Hsu, and Field Gemologist trainee Stanislas Detroyat. @chapter:34 @chapter:2 @chapter:34


# Publication Year: 1988
# Title: A Gemological Look at Kyocera's New Synthetic Star Ruby
# Abstract: Kyocera Corporation of Kyoto, Japan, is currently marketing under the trade name "Inamori" a macroscopically natural-appearing semitransparent asteriated synthetic ruby. With the exception of obvious internal characteristics and a relatively strong fluorescence to ultraviolet radiation, all of the gemological properties shown by this material are essentially the same as those encountered in natural star rubies. For the majority of gemologists without access to research- grade testing equipment, the internal characteristics of Kyocera's synthetic star ruby are the only universally reliable means of identifying this new product. @chapter:10 @chapter:0 @chapter:10


# Publication Year: 1982
# Title: Carving Gem-Quality Opal
# Abstract: Gem-quality opal poses special problems for the carver that are not encountered when working with low-quality material. Herein the author uses three examples to explore these differences and the implications for success or failure in the final piece. @chapter:33 @chapter:2 @chapter:33


# Publication Year: 2013
# Title: Strands of Tiny Akoya Keshi Pearls
# Abstract: Figure 1. This strand contains more than 300,000 akoya keshi pearls, each one only 0.7–0.9 mm in diameter. Photo by Eric Welch.

              How small can a pearl be? At the American Gem Trade Association show in Tucson, the Japanese Pearl Exporting Co. presented some akoya keshi pearls only 0.7–0.9 mm in diameter (figure 1). At this size, it is difficult to distinguish individual pearls when looking at a strand. According to the seller, the single strand shown in figure 5 contains more than 300,000 keshi pearls, which would take one person four years to drill and assemble.

Traditional tools are used to drill these tiny pearls. A thick wooden board is soaked overnight to soften it, and each pearl is embedded in the board to keep it stable. A very sharp, thin drill is used to bore a hole in each pearl. By pulling a thread attached to the drill, the worker can keep rotating the drill until it reaches the desired depth.

	Figure 2. These tiny akoya keshi pearl strands are paired with ruby and sapphire. Photo by Eric Welch.
“Keshi,” the Japanese word for poppy seeds, form as by-products of the akoya culturing process. They account for less than 0.5% of all annual akoya production, which has diminished in recent years. Akoya keshi pearls come in various sizes, shapes, colors, and lusters. Strands are often paired with colored stones such as ruby and sapphire (figure 2). @chapter:53 @chapter:4 @chapter:53


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Spring 1982 G&G Lab Notes
# Abstract: Diamond
Emerald: A True Treasure
Fake Beryl Specimen
Synthetic Green Beryl
Unusual Inclusions in Synthetic Emerald
Opal
Pearls, Cultured
Sapphire
Sugilite
World's Largest Taaffeite?

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:18 @chapter:1 @chapter:18


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Trends in the Jewelry and Accessories Market in Shanghai, 2025
# Abstract: 1. Importation of Gems and Jewelry by Shenzhen
In 2021, Shenzhen imported gems and jewelry (HS 71) valued at USD 26,541 million, an increase of 124.69% compared to the previous year. However, from January to November 2022, imports decreased by 0.25% to USD 24,370 million. Switzerland was the largest importer to Shenzhen, accounting for 37.72% of total imports, increasing by 17.94%. Following were Australia (-12.80%), South Africa (+19.05%), India (-27.28%), and Hong Kong (+29.29%). Thailand ranked 16th, with Shenzhen importing gems and jewelry worth USD 137 million, a decrease of 16.50%. Details are provided in the table below.
Analyzing the types of gems and jewelry imported, from January to November 2022, Shenzhen imported unworked gold as the top category, accounting for 71.07%. This was followed by unmounted diamonds, pearls, and other gems set in non-precious metals, totaling 10.04%, 8.52%, 5.21%, and 1.14% respectively. Regarding imports from Thailand during this period, Shenzhen imported mounted diamonds, pearls, and other gem-set jewelry made of silver the most, accounting for 45.11%. This was followed by unmounted diamonds, synthetic or semi-precious stones, and gem-set jewelry made of other valuable metals, accounting for 15.88%, 12.78%, 9.03%, and 7.09% respectively. Details are shown in the graph below.
2. Exportation of Gems and Jewelry by Shenzhen
Examining the exportation of gems and jewelry by Shenzhen, in 2021, exports totaled USD 1,986 million, a decrease of 18.48%. From January to November 2022, exports amounted to USD 1,767 million, a further decrease of 4.55% compared to the same period last year. The top five markets for Shenzhen's gems and jewelry exports were Hong Kong, Switzerland, France, the United States, and Taiwan, with percentage changes of -23.55%, +55.75%, +371.24%, -37.74%, and +413.72% respectively. Thailand ranked 15th, with a decrease of 16.92%. Details are provided in the table below. @chapter:32 @chapter:3 @chapter:32


# Publication Year: 2022
# Title: Vietnamese Skyline
# Abstract: Hogbomite-filled dislocations in a Vietnamese spinel. Photo by Wimon Manorotkul; vertical field of view 4 mm.
In the red spinel from Vietnam’s Luc Yen district in the figure above, layers of iridescent needles stretch skyward like a futuristic skyline from a science fiction novel. Such hogbomite-filled dislocations are a common sight in red, pink, and blue spinel from Vietnam. According to Gübelin and Koivula (Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Volume 2, Opinio Verlag, Basel, Switzerland, 2005), hogbomite (Mg,Fe)2(Al,Ti)5O10 is found in spinel via isomorphous replacement. @chapter:7 @chapter:0 @chapter:7


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Graphite Inclusions Forming Octahedral Outline in Diamond
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 1.30 ct Fancy brownish greenish yellow diamond contains an octahedral-shaped inclusion. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

Primary diamond deposits are usually found in mantle-derived igneous rocks, with the principal hosts being kimberlite and lamproite. During the ascent to the earth’s surface, diamonds may be converted, partially or entirely, to graphite and chemically dispersed and eliminated (A.A. Snelling, “Diamonds – Evidence of explosive geological processes,” Creation, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1993, pp. 42–45). GIA’s New York laboratory recently received a 1.30 ct Fancy brownish greenish yellow diamond (figure 1) containing an octahedral-shaped inclusion outlined by minute crystal inclusions along the junctions of the crystal faces.

Gemological examination at 60× magnification reveals that the octahedral-shaped inclusion is outlined by numerous irregular dark crystals (figure 2). Advanced gemological analysis with UV-Vis and FTIR spectroscopy confirmed that this was a natural diamond with a natural color origin.

Figure 2. Minute graphite inclusions outline the octahedral crystal faces in this diamond.
Photo by Yixin (Jessie) Zhou; field of view 7.19 mm.
Further analysis using Raman spectroscopy reveals that the dark inclusions are graphite crystals with a Raman peak at 1590 cm–1 (figure 3), which corresponds to the graphite G band (I. Childres et al., “Raman spectroscopy of graphene and related materials,” in J.I. Jang, Ed., New Developments in Photon and Materials Research, Nova Science Publications, 2013). Since this G band is at a slightly higher energy level than that from the primary graphite, which usually peaks at around 1580 cm–1, we propose that the crystals tested are likely the secondary graphite converted from part of the original diamond into graphite form during the specific growth episode when oxidized fluids rich in CO2 and H2O passed through diamond bearing horizons. This also explains the shift of the G band to a higher energy, due to the higher strain near these newly formed secondary graphite crystals (J. Hodkiewitcz, “Characterizing graphene with Raman spectroscopy,” Application Note: 51946, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Madison, Wisconsin, 2010). Late formation of additional diamond layers on top of the graphites would have converted them to covered internal features within the larger diamond (R.H. Mitchell, Kimberlites and Lamproites: Primary Sources of Diamond, Geoscience Canada Reprint Series 6, Vol. 18, No. 1, 1991, pp. 1–16). Primary graphite crystals could also mix into the crystal clouds during the diamond’s growth due to changes in environmental temperature, pressure, and the growth fluid’s chemical elements. These minute graphite crystals would tend to form along the junctions of crystal faces, since they usually have a higher surface energy. Thus, we believe that both primary and secondary graphite formation, occurring between the diamond’s growth episodes, contributed to this phenomenal octahedral outline.

Figure 3. The graphite G band at 1590 cm–1 is found on the minute crystals along the
crystal junctions, confirming that they are graphite crystals.
Graphite inclusions are commonly seen in diamonds as isolated crystals or jointed crystal clouds. It is very unusual to see these minute graphite inclusions formed at the junctions of the original diamond crystal faces and outlining the octahedral growth pattern. This stone not only captures the amount of stress and extreme conditions under which the diamond grew, but also shows the beauty of the formation of crystalline diamond. @chapter:39 @chapter:1 @chapter:39


# Publication Year: 2022
# Title: The Geographic Origin of Diamonds, Sapphire from China, and Pigments Sourced from Gem Materials
# Abstract: Welcome to the Fall 2022 issue of Gems & Gemology! This issue delivers fascinating new content, offering four feature articles ranging from the hot topic of diamond origin to an in-depth look at the role gem materials have played in art throughout history.
“…the only definitive method to establish diamond origin depends on preserving and retaining origin information from the time of mining”
In our lead article, Evan Smith and coauthors explore the methods and challenges associated with determining the geographic origin of diamonds. Current approaches have attempted to associate trace element characteristics with specific origins, but there is still no scientifically robust method to determine the geographic origin of a given diamond. The authors conclude that the only definitive method to establish diamond origin depends on preserving and retaining origin information from the time of mining rather than determining it analytically.
Next, authors Yimiao Liu and Ren Lu of the Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences in Wuhan, examine sapphire from a lesser-known source in Muling, China. Comparing their samples with sapphire from well-known sources worldwide, the authors report on the quality, gemological characteristics, and origin-related features with comprehensive analytical results. They determine that Muling sapphire is from a more diverse geological environment than the sapphire from many other regions.
In our third article, join Britni LeCroy for a lesson in art history as she researches pigments historically sourced from gem materials. Covering hematite, azurite, malachite, lapis lazuli, bone, ivory, and cinnabar, the study investigates the evolution of pigments in a wide array of artistic mediums, from ancient cave drawings to modern paintings.
Finally, Yicen Liu and coauthors present their spectroscopic investigation of the color mechanism of pink spinel reportedly from Kuh-i-Lal in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. To determine the cause of color, the group examines the mechanism of color change from room temperature to 1000°C using spectroscopic techniques and trace element analysis.
Meanwhile, our regular features continue to deliver interesting findings from all over the globe. Highlights from the Lab Notes section include an exceptional natural-color 1.21 ct red diamond, a gota de aceite–like effect in a Brazilian emerald, and the first report of a natural pearl discovered in a Telescopium shell. Micro-World is packed with illuminating observations from the inner landscapes of gemstones, offering a glimpse at an unusual brightly colored purple fluid in quartz, “smoke ring” inclusions in heated blue sapphire, and a large orange rutile inclusion in a “chameleon” diamond. Diamond Reflections returns with an exploration of fluid inclusions in natural diamond, highlighting the scientific value these inclusions offer from the great depths of the earth. In Gem News International, you’ll find an update from Mozambique’s ruby mines, a report on the first-ever Turquoise United conference in Albuquerque, and highlights from current gem and mineral exhibits at the San Diego Natural History Museum and the Perot Museum of Nature and Science in Dallas.
We hope you enjoy the latest issue of Gems & Gemology! @chapter:4 @chapter:0 @chapter:4


# Publication Year: 1987
# Title: The Lennix Synthetic Emerald
# Abstract: The Lennix synthetic emerald, currently manufactured in France, is a dark green, moderately transparent to translucent material grown by flux fusion. With the microscope, zones of lighter and darker green are evident. For the most part, the gemological properties of this synthetic emerald overlap those of natural emeralds, although the low refractive-index and specific-gravity values are good indicators that this material is synthetic. The presence of "wispy veil" inclusions provides conclusive proof of synthetic origin, as do the chemical analyses, infrared transmission spectra, and cathodoluminescence. @chapter:10 @chapter:0 @chapter:10


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Tracking the trends in the luxury jewelry market of Brazil.
# Abstract: The luxury jewelry retail trade in Brazil increased by 90% in 2021, reaching 1.4 billion reals - luxury jewelry and fashion accessories are the most potential category in 2021, with retail sales increasing by 14% to 1.33 billion reals. H Stern Comercio e Industria Ltd led in 2020 with a 20% market share in retail sales, projected to grow at a current CAGR of 10% (5-year CAGR ending 2021) throughout the forecast period until 2564.
Sales peaked in the second half of 2020, with luxury jewelry recovering in early 2020 amid uncertainty about the health crisis, causing many stores to temporarily close due to COVID-19. However, during the latter half of 2020, there was a significant decrease in cases and deaths from infectious diseases in Brazil, and Brazilians gradually began to feel more comfortable returning to social interactions under health safety regulations. During this recovery period, shopping trends stimulated sales as an investment in consumer spending patterns. The average price of luxury jewelry, the most expensive consumer goods category targeting high-income individuals, was noted. This category is mostly aimed at wealthy individuals who are limited in their leisure and entertainment options (due to restrictions during the pandemic). The combination of these factors has led to unprecedented social savings history in Brazil.
At the beginning of 2564, there was another difficult period with an increase in associated numbers related to major outbreaks, resulting in social interactions at limited times. In this second cycle, consumers were aware of the most effective prevention measures, while the country's border remained closed. The majority of affluent consumers continued to show strong interest in buying self-directed luxury jewelry, which increased their investments in brands. The demand for luxury jewelry continued to rise, which increased the brand's investment in reaching consumers with more options in terms of offers. At the end of 2020 and the beginning of 2021, Bvlgari and Cartier launched e-commerce activities in Brazil, 3D products, fashion video campaigns, free delivery, flexible delivery, and chat readiness for product clarification. Features that were presented by digital interfaces in the brand's area Experience in buying luxury jewelry depends on the actual store with more incentives: the interest of employees in the store, decorations, the scent of the environment, and the possibility of trying the product - the components that are moving towards a digital experience Although there has been significant progress in the past, the e-commerce effort. industry is an in-depth experience with the power of real stores in attracting customer participation with a more realistic experience. However, it is still the kind of store with small size the industry continues to invest in well-trained staff experiences. The best customer and brand interaction in the market. These concerns Bvlgari opened a pop-up store at Iguatemi Shopping in 2564. @chapter:32 @chapter:3 @chapter:32


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Garnet Description
# Abstract: Most people do not realize garnets come in a wide variety of gem types and colors, with many cutting options.

                      Garnets are a set of closely related minerals that form a group, resulting in gemstones in almost every color. Red garnets have a long history, but modern gem buyers can pick from a rich palette of garnet colors: greens, oranges, pinkish oranges, deeply saturated purplish reds, and even some blues.

Red garnet is one of the most common and widespread of gems, found in metamorphic rocks (which are rocks altered by heat and pressure) on every continent. But not all garnets are as abundant as the red ones. A green garnet, tsavorite, also occurs in metamorphic rocks, but it’s rarer because it needs unusual rock chemistries and special conditions to form.

Demantoid is a rare and famous green garnet, spessartine (also called spessartite) is an orange garnet, and rhodolite is a beautiful purple-red garnet. Garnets can even exhibit the color-change phenomenon similar to the rare gemstone alexandrite.

All garnets have essentially the same crystal structure, but they vary in chemical composition. There are more than twenty garnet categories, called species, but only five are commercially important as gems. Those five are pyrope, almandine (also called almandite), spessartine, grossular (grossularite), and andradite. A sixth, uvarovite, is a green garnet that usually occurs as crystals too small to cut. It’s sometimes set as clusters in jewelry. Many garnets are chemical mixtures of two or more garnet species.

Garnets are a group of closely related mineral species with many different color varieties. @chapter:3 @chapter:0 @chapter:3


# Publication Year: 1986
# Title: The Changma Diamond District, Mengyin, Shandong Province, China
# Abstract: Since the early 1960s, Chinese geologists have conducted extensive exploration for diamonds. One of their most important discoveries to date is the Changma kimberlite district in Shandong Province, which encompasses two pipes and eight dikes. The most active mine currently, the Victory No. 1, produces approximately 6,000 ct of diamonds annually, 20% of which are gem quality. The ore is processed locally and the rough stones are given a preliminary sort before they are sent to special factories for cutting. Large, good-quality stones have been recovered at Changma; the largest to date weighs more than 119 ct. @chapter:35 @chapter:1 @chapter:35


# Publication Year: 2017
# Title: Book Review: Jeweler’s Enameling Workshop: Techniques and Projects for Making Enameled Jewelry
# Abstract: By Pauline Warg, paperback, 160 pp., publ. by Interweave, Fort Collins, Colorado, 2016, $16.99.

Enameling is a form of art that many cultures have practiced for centuries, all around the world. If you happen to be a jeweler, you’ve most likely had some exposure to the process in your career, whether facing a challenging request for repair, using the technique to enhance a design, or simply admiring the delicate, colorful work. If you are a jewelry enthusiast but not a maker, you’ve most likely seen the art form but perhaps not realized the minutia behind the beauty.

Why do craftspeople enamel jewelry, and what exactly is enameling? you may wonder. Pauline Warg’s new book, Jeweler’s Enameling Workshop, will help answer these questions. Flipping through the book, we are regaled with page after page of answers: full-size pictures that show the vibrant colors created with the enameling process. The author’s account in the introduction deepens our understanding of why. Jewelry metals can be very monochromatic, and Ms. Warg writes “I love being able to add color to my work without necessarily using gemstones.”

The title’s reference to “workshop” points to the second question: what is enameling? We think of attending a workshop, where we’ll learn hands-on practice, and also of the jeweler’s workspace, where we get a glimpse of interesting tools and various stages of enameled pieces. Ms. Warg has delivered a 160-page resource detailing the intricate art of fusing glass to metal. The book includes essential information, step-by-step project instructions, links to other well-known authors and books, and a list of resources and supply houses.

The book’s first section, "Enameling Basics," provides a wonderful general introduction to enameling that is both easy to read and informative. It includes enough of the science behind the methods for the reader to understand what is happening, but not so much as to bog down the reader. For those who are inspired to pursue enameling, there are other, more process-intense publications that include the expanded science; that is not this book’s intent.

Another key aspect of the first section is a thorough overview of the tools and setup necessary for enameling. In general, jewelry making is a tool-rich activity, and enameling takes the richness to a whole new level. Having basic jewelry-making tools is not enough to start enameling in your studio, and the author does a good job outlining the difference between the two. Further, she is very thoughtful about listing not only what tools and supplies are needed, but also the skills necessary to complete a project. Instructions on how to use the tools, process photos, and troubleshoot, and reminders of general safety concerns guide readers through the methods to create enameled pieces. Lastly, and most importantly, after reading the first section we are left inspired and ready to get busy in our “workshop.”

The main body of the book, titled "Projects," features a series of 20 enameled jewelry projects with step-by-step instructions. The way the author created connections between terms, similar processes, and sections where expanded explanations can be found is very well thought-out. Not only is it like having an instructor present, but it also helps the reader navigate without having to reread similar instructions in each section.

Here and there throughout the book an entry-level jewelry maker may feel a little lost. A few pages include written descriptions of tools that, while standard in a well-used jeweler’s shop, are not everyday knowledge. Although the book is described as appropriate for someone wholly new to both enameling and jewelry making, this is a tall order for one publication. More than likely the reader will need some prior courses or additional books to understand some of the instructions.

Another area that may leave a beginning enamelist feeling behind is the instruction of loading pieces into the kiln for firing. Balancing a small piece of metal coated with ground glass on top of a metal trivet, carefully placing these on a wire rack, and then successfully balancing the three items on a long-handled firing fork while gently placing them into a 1450°F kiln is a precarious maneuver! While Ms. Warg does outline the method, not including a full-size image of the practice in the extensive photos is an oversight, considering it is such an essential part of the enameling process. The author does, however, carefully outline the different types of kilns, as well as the difference between an enameling, or jeweler’s, kiln and a top-loading ceramicist’s kiln.

The flow of the book from one section to another is well thought-out and easy to follow, transitioning nicely from entry-level enameling to more complex projects. The author very thoroughly covers the volume of information necessary to teach how to enamel, while also taking into account how to make a lovely piece of jewelry.

Jeweler’s Enameling Workshop is a great pick for any beginning to advanced jeweler. Having a copy on your bench will inspire you to get working and to start dreaming about how to add beautiful color to your jewelry designs. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Summer 2010 G&G Lab Notes
# Abstract: Unusual Polyphase Inclusions in Corundum
Black Diamond with Solid CO2 Micro-Inclusions and Phosphorescent Zones
Fancy Vivid Blue HPHT-Treated Diamond
Interesting Display of the H3 Defect in a Colorless Diamond
CVD Synthetic Diamond Over One Carat
Synthetic Diopside in Manufactured Glass
Green Be-Diffused Sapphire
Heat-Treated Spinel
Erratum

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:22 @chapter:1 @chapter:22


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Trade Fair & Play Fair, Says Gem Trade
# Abstract: Consumer confidence and globalization has led to increasing public awareness of how the goods  are made and where they are sourced. The article discusses how the colored gemstone industry is taking steps to create conditions that are fair and decent for miners and others involved in the industry, just as the global diamond industry has done with the Diamond Development Initiative and the Kimberley Process. The Fair Trade Gems project was launched by the Columbia Gem House firm and is the first jewelry industry company to join the Fair Trade movement. The Quality Assurance and Fair Trade Gems Protocols that were created were designed to increase the standard of living for the miners and gem cutters and also include environmental protection, fair labor practices, and health and safety standards. Protecting the quality and integrity of the product is an important feature of the Fair Trade Gems program, as it extends the protection to consumers, who deserve to know exactly what they are buying.

Abstracted by Michele Kelley @chapter:49 @chapter:3 @chapter:49


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Book Review: Graff
# Abstract: By Suzy Menkes, Vivienne Becker, Maria Doulton, Joanna Hardy, Nina Hald, Nicholas Foulkes, and Joanne Harris, 270 pp., Rizzoli International Publishing, New York, 2015, $95.00.

	London-based jeweler Graff Diamonds was founded in 1960. Since that time, Graff has become an internationally known and important purveyor of large diamonds of historical renown. With stores around the globe, the Graff name has become synonymous with opulence and rarity in jewelry circles. Graff Diamonds has been awarded the Queen’s Award for International Trade multiple times, and Graff himself was awarded the Order of the British Empire in 2013. This luxurious, large-format book pays homage to the jewelry house in eight lavish chapters.

	Chapter I, titled “Beginnings,” chronicles Laurence Graff’s humble origins. Born into a working-class family on London’s East End, Graff left school at age 15 to become an apprentice in a jewelry shop. After a scant three months, he was let go because he would “never make the grade.” Undeterred, Graff went on to found his own business, which continues to grow through hard work and solid ethics – values he credits to his mother. According to Mr. Graff, his mother continued to “check up” on him until she died at age 98, reminding him to always be “honest in his dealings with other people.”

	Chapter II, called “Image,” shows the building of the Graff brand though reprints of many of their famous ads through the decades. The ads are visually stunning, and graphically bold. Of particular interest in this chapter are ads from the famous “Military Campaign” of the 80s and the “Green Campaign” of the 90s.

	The authors recount the mineral aspects of diamond in chapter III, called “Miracles.” Here, diamond formation and origin is explained for the reader in the most generalized way, with photos showing the mining and sorting of rough crystals. There is also an outline of Graff’s vertically-integrated business, which starts at the mine and moves the diamond through cutting and finally to the creation of the jewelry that shows the stone at its best advantage.

	The uniqueness of the Graff brand is vividly portrayed in chapters IV–VI. “Rarity” features fascinating discussions on some of the famous diamonds that Graff has owned. These include the Graff Pink, the Letseng Star, the Wittelsbach-Graff, and the Lesotho Promise. Chapters V and VI, “Artistry,” and “Craft,” respectively, depict the work of Graff atelier. Pieces of magnificent jewelry are shown moving from watercolor designs on paper through to the finished piece.

	Chapter VII, called “Time,” showcases Graff’s gem-encrusted, horological masterpieces including the Graff Hallucination. The Hallucination is set with more than 110 carats of colored diamonds and is thought to be the most valuable watch ever created. Graff first started producing watches in 2008. The first of these were inspired by cut diamonds and as such, the watch bezels echo the facets of a round brilliant-cut gem. The style has since become a Graff signature, but they have also produced some exceedingly valuable and rare watches using different designs, such as the previously mentioned Hallucination. Finally, chapter VIII is called “Temptation.” In this chapter, author Joanne Harris recalls her first experience buying a Graff diamond with her husband, relating the magical experience and how the diamond, worn in a necklace, continues to symbolize the life she shares with her husband.

	The volume is highlighted throughout with outstanding color photos, but unlike many books in this style, a unique insert is included. It shows, in full color and at actual size, a chronological overview, of over 100 significant colorless and fancy-colored diamonds purchased by Graff between 1974 and 2015. This underscores the impressive variety and very large number of important diamonds handled by this one firm.

	Graff is highly recommended, not only for lovers of diamonds and stunning jewelry, but for those interested in the successful story of a “self-made” man. @chapter:45 @chapter:2 @chapter:45


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Headwinds Slow 2019 Vegas Business, Lab-grown Diamonds Proliferate
# Abstract: The JCK Show returned to its original venue, the Sands Convention Center, in 2019. Despite the reduced traffic, exhibitors welcomed the move. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

The U.S. stock market plunged about 7% in the two weeks leading up to the various Las Vegas shows, which ran from May 30 to June 3, injecting an air of caution into business. All told, jewelry designers and manufacturers of finished jewelry reported decent, if measured, demand, while loose diamond and gemstone dealers said business was down from last year.
Manufacturers said retailers came to buy but were cautious about placing large orders. “‘Let’s wait and see’ was the way a lot of discussions ended,” said one exhibitor in the JCK Plumb Club, an association of larger companies.
Continuing the trends of the past two years, jewelers have been incorporating more colored gems into their lines because they usually cost less than diamonds and often result in higher margins.
Judging by the jewelry designs on display at the shows, rainbows, tutti-frutti and various other wild, splashy color combinations were the major look across most price ranges. Designers favored multi-colored tourmalines, fancy colored sapphires and various colored garnets at the middle and high ends, and dyed glass and quartz in the lower price points.
Colored stone exhibitors at the American Gem Trade Association show, not surprisingly, found more calls for such material this year, especially at the lower end.

Multi-color tourmaline pieces were popular, such as these rings by Caroline at AGTA. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA
Diamond dealers, blunted by economic and political uncertainty; excess inventories, especially in sub-caraters (retailers can have their choice of thousands of such stones from online sources); and banks tightening terms of memo deals, saw less traffic and slower buying at the JCK Show.
To boost demand for diamond jewelry this fall and next year, the Diamond Producers Association (DPA) will begin aggressively targeting women who buy pieces for themselves.
The $10 million campaign #ToMeFromMe will be directed at “older millennial women.”
The DPA noted that spending by women in self-purchased jewelry averaged $1300 last year and represented 32% of U.S. diamond jewelry sales.
Despite slow diamond demand at the show, there were a number of new diamond origin tracking services at the JCK Las Vegas show. In addition to the GIA Diamond Origin Report, De Beers and Alrosa introduced their own mine-to-market diamond tracking; the Cullinan Diamond Report debuted as an identification system to track high-value, previously mined diamonds; and Sarine offered a service charting a diamond’s progress through the cutting processes.

Designers looked increasingly to affordable gems to create a bold look, such as this approximately 20 mm Baltic Amber sphere mounted on to textured silver at the Polish pavilion at JCK. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA
LABORATORY-GROWN DIAMONDS
Although calls for loose, natural diamonds were down this year, talk about laboratory-grown diamonds was even livelier than last year. About 50 companies selling lab-grown diamonds exhibited at the JCK Show, which was substantially up from last year, but prices were significantly lower. This led to intense speculation about where this market was heading.
Much of this talk was addressed at a seminar held by De Beers’ Lightbox, a line of laboratory-grown diamond jewelry the company debuted as last year’s Vegas show.
Emily Condo, brand strategy consultant for Lightbox, reported that a survey showed 44% of consumers still have not heard about laboratory-grown diamond brands and that 37% of consumers incorrectly labeled such diamonds as “simulants.”
She reported that the survey found that a majority of consumers were neutral or favorably inclined toward laboratory-grown diamonds because they offered them a choice, especially toward “lighter” occasions, such as non-romantic gifts and everyday wear. Consumers also expressed strong price resistance as prices rose: 78% said they would not spend more than $1,000 on a laboratory-grown diamond.
Lightbox, which sells its laboratory-grown diamonds for $800 per carat plus the cost of mountings, reported that after a year of selling online, 89% of those sales were for 0.5 total carat weight pieces and of those, 51% were colorless, 27% pink and 22% blue. 68% of purchasers were women buying for themselves, the majority of whom were in the 25-34-year age group.
The company noted that its production was set to reach 200,000 carats a year in the second quarter of 2020 after its factory in Oregon goes online.

A 3.01 ct Fancy Vivid orange diamond offered at JCK Luxury. Demand at the high end was muted this year as retailers took a cautious approach. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS PRACTICES
How best to meet consumer’s requests to have the most information about where their jewelry comes from was the topic of two industry panel discussions during the shows.
GIA presented “Embracing Sustainability Amid New Consumer Expectations” and the Responsible Jewelry Council (RJC) panel focused on corporate social responsibility and sustainable business practices.
The RJC panel included Gina Drosos, CEO of Signet Group; Jeff Corey, president of Day’s Jewelers, an eight-store chain in Maine; Raj Mehta of Rosy Blue; Eric Jens of Luxury Fintech; Feriel Zerouki, who manages De Beers Ethical Initiatives; Shekar Shah of Real gems, New York; and Iris van Veken, RJC executive director.
Participants agreed that best business practices have to begin internally with employees and customers to ensure they are “ingrained into the company’s DNA” in order to have lasting success.
“People want to believe in a company that has values,” Corey said.
Ethically sourced products occupied much of the discussion, with van Veken stressing that it was a shared responsibility across the entire value chain.
One of the most difficult areas for the incorporation of sustainable sourcing practices is artisanal mining. Shah explained that such miners are the backbone of the colored stone industry, “so they must be well taken care of.”
Zerouki added that, to empower artisanal diamond miners, De Beers developed Gem Fair, a program that gives them the best returns on their diamonds by bringing them all the way into the downstream market.
“Trust and transparency are the new equity,” van Veken stressed. “People want to have confidence that their purchases do some good.”
NEW VENUES
The JCK and AGTA shows operated in new venues this year. The JCK Show returned to the Sands Convention center, while the AGTA Show moved to the Las Vegas Convention Center, alongside the Antique and Estate Jewelry and Watch Show.
Exhibitors generally liked the changes, saying the new venues were much easier to navigate. @chapter:42 @chapter:3 @chapter:42


# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: Jewelry Development Impact Index
# Abstract: Jewelry Development Impact Index

The Jewelry Development Impact Index (JDI), one of the initiatives that grew out of the second Jewelry Industry Summit in January 2017, has become a flagship project of the Minerals, Materials and Society (MMS) program at the University of Delaware. Patricia Syvrud, development manager of MMS, discussed the program, which she calls a “road map to responsibility.”
The index is a work in progress; it has been part of the MMS program since the Spring 2018 semester. Rather than comparing products from various areas, the index analyzes the impact of sourcing and production on a given country. American University (AU) graduate students in the International Peace and Conflict Resolution program have been asked to conduct country/product specific case study comparisons using the seven UN Indicators of Human Security as a framework. From there, they have devised a methodology for measuring risk assessment. As an example, in fall 2018, AU graduate students looking at sapphire mining in Madagascar and platinum mining in South Africa drafted a binary quantitative approach that created scores and rankings based on answers to closed-ended questions. Such questions included “Is this country a signatory to the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative?” (Zero points are assessed for a yes, one point for a no.) After the total risk had been calculated on a scale from 0 to 10 for each category, recommendations for risk reduction were proposed. The fall 2018 assessment is being used and enhanced by the spring 2019 students. At the same time, a graduate student in the University of Delaware’s Energy and Environmental Policy program studied developing a methodology to compile existing indices in order to help the AU students leverage this published knowledge.
Syvrud, who has worked in many areas of the gem and jewelry industry, became involved with the JDI on a volunteer basis. She worked with the U.S. Department of State on prioritizing case studies and developing a methodology on measuring the supply chain’s impact on the welfare of a country, particularly since many gemstones come from fragile and vulnerable economies and may be used to fund illegal activities. It was decided that the best way to collect and compile this information was through academic research and case studies. During this time Syvrud met Dr. Saleem Ali, who had received a grant to create the Gemstones and Sustainable Development Knowledge Hub (GemHub; see Summer 2018 GNI, pp. 243–245). Shortly thereafter, Ali was awarded a grant from the Unidel Foundation to create an interdisciplinary program at the University of Delaware to study all extractable mineral resources and the science, politics, and socioeconomics surrounding them. He and Syvrud identified the JDI as the project that would anchor the MMS program and the MMS graduate certificate offered by UD.
Response to the JDI has been positive. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), among others, has taken notice, and invited the MMS program to participate in their Responsible Minerals Forum during a “side session” in April 2019. Syvrud is hopeful that the JDI can help members of the industry understand and answer questions about supply chains; it will also help companies understand supply chain issues and adhere to the numerous supply chain certifications and standards to become more transparent themselves. @chapter:49 @chapter:3 @chapter:49


# Publication Year: 1994
# Title: Spring 1994 G&G Book Reviews
# Abstract: “Gemstone and Chemicals: How to Create Color and Inclusions”
By George W. Fischer, Ph.D., 74 pp., illus., publ. by the author, Shelton, WA, 1991. US$24.00

“The Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond”
Edited by John E. Field, 710 pp., illus., publ. by Academic Press, London, England, 1992. US$195.00

“Mineral Reference Manual”
By Ernest H. Nickel and Monte C. Nichols, 250 pp., illus., publ. by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1991. US$18.95

“A Special Report from JPR on the Bold Retro 1940s Jewelry”
Edited by Nina Woolford, introduction by Lael Hagan, 117 pp., illus., publ. by JPR, Nina Woolford, and Gail Levine, Rockville, VA, 1992, US$35.00.

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:21 @chapter:1 @chapter:21


# Publication Year: -
# Title: 2014 Sinkankas Symposium on Peridot and Green Gems
# Abstract: At the 2014 Sinkankas Symposium, Lisbet Thoresen presented lectures on peridot from Zabargad and the historical origins of “chrome” chalcedony. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.

                      More than 150 gem enthusiasts attended the twelfth annual Sinkankas Symposium on April 5 at GIA headquarters in Carlsbad, California. The theme for the day was peridot and uncommon green gem minerals.

Cohosted by the Gemological Society of San Diego and GIA, the symposium is held in honor of the famed gem and mineral author John Sinkankas (1915–2002). This year’s event featured 11 half-hour lectures covering a wide range of topics. Symposium organizer Roger Merk, a friend of Sinkankas’s, created a program that blended research, curatorial, and trade perspectives.

Attendees got an in-depth look at important geographic sources of peridot, past and present. Independent gem scholar Lisbet Thoresen, delivering the keynote address on behalf of Dr. James Harrell, described a 2010 archaeological expedition to the ancient mines on the Red Sea island of Zabargad. Dr. Raquel Alonso-Perez, curator of the Harvard Mineralogical and Geological Museum, characterized the geochemical setting of peridot from Pakistan’s Sapat Valley. Dr. George Harlow of New York City’s American Museum of Natural History, showed how the deposits of Mogok, Myanmar, are geochemically similar to those of Zabargad and Sapat Valley.

Dr. Raquel Alonso-Perez discussed the peridot deposits of Pakistan’s Sapat Valley. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
Also in the technical realm, Dr. William “Skip” Simmons of the University of New Orleans detailed the mineralogical and crystallographic properties of the olivine group. Complementing this talk was a presentation on olivine geology by GIA’s Dr. James Shigley.

Dr. William “Skip” Simmons delivered a talk on the physical properties, chemical composition, and crystal structure of olivine. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
In the afternoon sessions, Nathan Renfro of GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory demonstrated lapidary techniques for improving the optical performance of peridot and compared inclusions from various localities. Ms. Thoresen presented the historical context of the quartz variety known as “chrome” chalcedony. Robert Weldon of GIA overviewed the jewels of the Cheapside Hoard, an archeological trove buried in London centuries ago that included peridot from Zabargad. Dr. Shigley surveyed some lesser-known green gem minerals occasionally used in jewelry. Bill Larson, president of Pala International, presented a gallery of green gem and mineral specimens from his personal collection, several of which were also on display. In the closing address, Dr. George Rossman examined the causes of color in various green gem minerals.

To view symposium abstracts and speaker bios, or to order a copy of the proceedings volume, visit www.sinkankassymposium.net.

According to Merk, opal will be the theme for the 2015 Sinkankas Symposium. The lineup of scheduled speakers includes Dr. Eloïse Gaillou, associate curator of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, and Renée Newman, a leading author of gem and jewelry consumer guides. @chapter:30 @chapter:0 @chapter:30


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Observation of Etched Surface Micro-Features on HPHT Synthetic Diamonds Using Laser Confocal Microscopy
# Abstract: Figure 1. Laser confocal microscopy (LCM) shows traces of metallic catalyst and step-like growth marks in an HPHT synthetic diamond’s interior. Photo by Xuxu Wu.

China is the world’s largest HPHT synthetic diamond producer, with an annual output of more than 3,000 tons of rough industrial diamonds. The production technology of HPHT synthetic diamond is quite mature, and most Chinese HPHT synthetic diamonds use the hexahedral static pressure method. The diamond crystals grow out of high-purity graphite through a high-temperature and high-pressure process, and then the superfluous graphite is removed by acid cleaning (Z. Song et al., “Identification characteristics of large near-colourless HPHT synthetic diamond from China,” Journal of Gems and Gemmology, Vol. 18, No. 3, 2016, pp. 1–8).
Acid cleaning of HPHT synthetic diamond is usually done with 90% H2SO4 and 10% HNO3. This process can remove graphite and metal impurities that remain on the diamond surface and in crevices (L. Yin et al., “Micromechanism of the artificial diamond’s growth,” Journal of Synthetic Crystals, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2000, pp. 386–387). During the growth process, the metal catalyst and graphite are in close contact with diamond and continuously participate in crystal growth.
To the best of our knowledge, no research has been done on the surface characteristics of HPHT synthetic diamonds after acid cleaning, which can reveal the growth features of HPHT diamond. In this study, 39 HPHT synthetic diamonds produced in China were observed using laser confocal microscopy (LCM). The laser confocal microscopy measures the surface topography of the sample moving focused laser spots over the sample with a galvanometer scanner. The strongest-intensity scanning points in each vertical scan layer are recorded and used to construct the 3D topography through a pixel-by-pixel method (W.-C. Liu et al., “A self-designed laser scanning differential confocal microscopy with a novel vertical scan algorithm for fast image scanning,” IFAC-PapersOnLine, 2017, Vol. 50, No. 1, 2017, pp. 3221–3226). Therefore, the laser confocal microscope can overcome the problem of depth of field and observe the surface characteristics of materials clearly.
The characteristics of the structure after acid cleaning are observed on the surface of an HPHT synthetic diamond and on the inside of the crystal. An HPHT synthetic diamond was cut into thin slices and then washed by acid, exposing its internal structure (figure 1). Metal catalysts and a small amount of graphite remain in diamond crystals during growth, leaving holes in the interior. Due to the lack of raw material for growth in the hole, a step-like structure was left in the space that was not fully filled with crystallized diamond.

Figure 2. 3D scanning of micro-features by LCM shows the depth change and relative spatial relation. Image by Xuxu Wu.
The fine structure of the step-like growth can be expressed by using the 3D scanning function of the laser confocal microscope. The images built in the three-dimensional coordinate system can show the depth and spatial relationship of the microstructures (figure 2). The irregularly etched structures, the depth of voids left by metal catalysts, range from 5 to 17 μm.

Figure 3. Step-like irregular pits and lines on the surface of the HPHT synthetic diamond.
The inset shows a simulation of the sample’s stacked triangular growth structure. Photo
by Xuxu Wu.

Figure 4. The surface of this HPHT synthetic diamond presents several groups of
parallel lines. Photo by Xuxu Wu.
After acid cleaning, HPHT synthetic diamonds will display step-like irregular pits and lines on the surface (figure 3). The triangular growth structures of HPHT synthetic diamonds are stacked on the surface with slight displacement. Rectilinear line marks on the surface of HPHT synthetic diamonds (figure 4) are also very common, and may be traces of the displacements that develop between small crystals due to compression during the growth process.
Characteristic patterns observed on the surface of HPHT synthetic diamonds are related to metal catalysts and diamond particles, revealing the order of growth of synthetic diamonds. The step-like structure with the same angle is very common. The etched microstructure caused by metal catalysts usually displays irregular patterns. The several groups of parallel straight lines could be caused by the displacement and friction between a large number of tiny diamonds in the growth chamber. LCM is very reliable at revealing surface micro-features on HPHT synthetic diamonds, and it should be more widely applied to gemological research.
Contributors’ note: This study was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 41473030 and 41272086). @chapter:9 @chapter:1 @chapter:9


# Publication Year: 2024
# Title: Trends in jewelry products in the South Korean market
# Abstract: Although the entire jewelry market in Korea declined by 13.1% due to the economic challenges facing Korea, such as inflation and high-interest rates, the market for artificial or fashion jewelry grew by 21% compared to the previous year. This growth includes silver jewelry consumption among consumers and a 20% increase in the value of imported jewelry over a four-year period. This is a result of changing consumption patterns and increased demand for luxury brands.

Overview of South Korean Jewelry Market:

In the year 2566 (Thai calendar, equivalent to 2023), it is estimated that the total size of the South Korean jewelry market was approximately 5.51 trillion won, reflecting a 13.1% decrease from the previous year. This decline is attributed to consumption patterns affected by various factors such as high-interest rates and elevated product prices.

The trend of jewelry products in the South Korean market can be divided into wedding jewelry and non-wedding jewelry. The market for non-wedding jewelry is larger, accounting for 86.4% of the total jewelry market in the year 2566 (Thai calendar, equivalent to 2023).

The market value of wedding jewelry in South Korea has been continuously declining. In the year 2566 (Thai calendar, equivalent to 2023), it was valued at 3.95 trillion won, nearly halving from the value in 2560 due to a decrease in marriage rates in Korea.

On the other hand, the non-wedding jewelry market in 2560 was valued at 4.7 trillion won, decreasing by 13.8% compared to the previous year. This market is divided into general jewelry and fashion/imitation jewelry. The general jewelry market has a higher market share, but the fashion/imitation jewelry market saw an increase in value by 21.1% from the previous year. This is attributed to the increased demand for high-unit-price jewelry, leading to market recovery.

Trends in jewelry products in the South Korean market.

The trend of jewelry products in the South Korean market is shrinking due to the current global economic situation, which is experiencing declining income levels, increased inflation rates, interest rates, and exchange rates. As a result, consumer interest in jewelry is decreasing accordingly. Therefore, it is predicted that the jewelry market will find it challenging to grow during this period.

The trend of fashion jewelry in South Korea is characterized by products that are not specifically for weddings but are designed for fashion purposes. Fashion jewelry includes items such as rings, earrings, necklaces, pendants, bracelets, brooches, anklets, hair accessories, neck scarves, and wrist buttons made from mixed metals, alloys, and leather *excluding jewelry made from gold or platinum materials.
In 2566, consumers in South Korea showed a trend where 51.9% of them chose to purchase just 1 piece of fashion jewelry, while 48.1% tended to buy 2 or more pieces, with an average purchase rate of 1.73 pieces per transaction, slightly up from the previous year.

When considering gender, the purchase rate among male consumers decreased, contrasting with female consumers whose purchase rate increased compared to the previous year.

Regarding age groups, there was an increased purchase rate in all age groups except for those aged 50 and above.

The trend of fashion jewelry in the South Korean market:

The purchase rate of fashion jewelry in 2566 was at 16.5%, increasing by 1.8% compared to 2565. However, this purchase rate is still not significantly high compared to pre-COVID-19 times, where the rate was around 18.4-19.4%. This decrease is due to the shrinking consumer base caused by economic downturns.

Trends in the Fashion Jewelry Market in South Korea

Fashion jewelry made from silver has been consistently popular since 2563, although the popularity of metal-based jewelry has recently declined. Silver-based fashion jewelry is more popular among males (53.6%) than females, with the highest preference in the 20s age group (46.0%) and those aged 50 and above (56.0%).

Purchase Trends:

- Purchases of affordable fashion jewelry priced at 10,000 won have slightly decreased, while purchases in the 50,000 won range have increased.
- Main Channels of Purchase: General retail stores have the highest purchase rate at 59.1%, while online purchases have significantly increased to 17.1% compared to the previous year. Online purchases are particularly popular among consumers aged 20 and 30.

Predicted Purchase Trends:

- It is expected that the purchase rates for fashion jewelry among consumers aged 20, 30, and 50 will slightly increase, while those in the 40s and 60s will decrease due to uncertain economic recovery and varying consumption trends across different age groups.

Importing Fashion Jewelry to South Korea:

- Imports of fashion jewelry (HS code 7113) have continuously increased, reaching a 3.8% increase in 2566 compared to the previous year, with a value of 1.112 billion USD. This is the highest recorded statistic since 2565, contrasting with the overall shrinking trend in the jewelry market.

- Majority of imports come from four countries with luxury brands: France, Italy, the United States, and Switzerland, accounting for 90.9% of total jewelry imports.

Import Trends for Fashion Jewelry (HS code 7117):

- The import value of fashion jewelry reached 164 million USD, increasing by 2.9% from the previous year. China (43.7%) is a major importer due to its affordable products, followed by Italy (21.2%) and Germany (11.1%), along with France focusing on luxury brand production.

Overall, these trends showcase the dynamic nature of the fashion jewelry market in South Korea, influenced by consumer preferences, economic factors, and global trade dynamics.

Although the fashion jewelry import market in Korea is dominated by China and luxury brands, Thai fashion jewelry products still have opportunities and potential for market expansion in Korea. Korea consistently imports fashion jewelry from Thailand, with imports worth up to 7 million USD in 2566. Moreover, the trend of Thai fashion jewelry products has become more diverse, including contemporary designs suitable for all ages, pearl jewelry designs, and interesting marketing strategies through online channels. Additionally, participating in related trade shows such as the Bangkok Gems & Jewelry Fair will further open opportunities to meet and trade with Korean importers.

 @chapter:32 @chapter:3 @chapter:32


# Publication Year: 1990
# Title: Jewelry of the 1980s: A Retrospective
# Abstract: Fluctuations in the diamond market brought a new focus in jewelry on small diamonds and colored stones. The large quantities of blue topaz, amethyst, and citrine available made these gem materials especially popular. Cultured pearls saw a phenomenal rise, especially early in the decade. A broad mix of design trends included a return to older metal techniques such as granulation, as well as experimentation in new metals and metal-working techniques. While classical European houses were credited with some important new designs, exciting innovations emerged from elsewhere in Europe as well as Asia and the U.S. @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Observations on the Heat Treatment of Basalt-Related Blue Sapphires
# Abstract: This dark red crystal, presumably pyrochlore, in a Cambodian blue sapphire changed to red-orange with a surrounding partially healed fracture after low-temperature heat treatment. Darkfield and fiber-optic illumination. Photomicrograph by C. Khowpong © GIA, field of view 1.05 mm.

Basalt-related blue sapphires, which typically have a dark color when faceted, can be lightened through low-temperature heat treatment. This treatment is difficult to detect using standard gemological testing and microscopic examination. Researchers from GIA’s Bangkok laboratory sought an approach to identify this treatment. They performed spectroscopy (UV-Vis-NIR, FTIR, and Raman), LA-ICP-MS chemical analysis, microscopic examination, and fluorescence testing on 50 samples before and after heating.

The results are available in a study titled “Observations on the Heat Treatment of Basalt-Related Blue Sapphires” The authors determined that even with advanced testing, it is difficult to separate artificially heated basalt-related sapphires from natural unheated stones. @chapter:19 @chapter:0 @chapter:19


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Mobile Inclusions in a Decorative Quartz Object
# Abstract: Figure 1. A partial view of the long irregularly shaped brown negative crystal running along the length of its quartz host. Photomicrograph by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab; field of view 6.42 mm.

A client recently submitted an interesting transparent, highly polished, barrel-shaped object for identification. It weighed approximately 109.2 g, measured approximately 90 × 37 × 22 mm, and clearly exhibited a long brown internal feature (figure 1) containing multi-phase inclusions along the length of the predominantly colorless body. Standard gemological testing resulted in an RI reading of 1.55 (spot) and SG value of 2.61. Microscopic examination revealed fluid, fingerprint, and crystal inclusions typical of a natural growth environment. As a result, the object was identified as natural quartz, which was confirmed by FTIR and Raman analysis.

Figure 2. The countless tiny brown particles together with part of the large colorless bubble within the negative crystal. Photomicrograph by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab; field of view 4.57 mm.
However, the most notable feature of this specimen was its unique and impressive mobile inclusion scene. On first impression, the long brown inclusion appeared to be a crystal, but it turned out to be a negative crystal filled with countless tiny mobile brownish particles (figure 2) and a large colorless mobile gas bubble. The mobility of these inclusions within the brown negative crystal was cleverly incorporated into the final design, as the lapidary fashioned the object into a barrel form with flat faces at either end. This allowed the object to be flipped over like an hourglass, so that all the mobile inclusions would be set in motion (figure 3; see video). It was also noted that the gas bubble moved at a faster rate than the tiny particles, which made the object even more captivating. The ambient temperature also appeared to affect the speed at which the inclusions moved—the higher the temperature, the faster the rate.

Figure 3. A series of images showing the movement of the tiny brown particles and the large bubble in the barrel-shaped object. The denser particles drop toward the bottom and the bubble rises to the top. When flipped over, the process starts again, reminiscent of an hourglass. Photo by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.

Mobile Inclusions in Quartz

Although the identification of this quartz specimen was straightforward, it was a pleasure to see the artistry employed in its fashioning that permitted its inclusions to be easily seen to maximum effect. @chapter:26 @chapter:0 @chapter:26


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Unusual Carved Tourmaline Suite
# Abstract: This unique 303 carat “Snow White” tourmaline suite was reportedly carved in Idar-Oberstein in the 1970s. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy Jan Goodman Co.

              Jan Goodman (Beverly Hills, California), had an exquisite 303 carat suite of carved, particolored tourmaline depicting Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. In most depictions of the dwarfs in a line, the lead figure is “Doc” carrying a lantern. In this series, in a nod to the jewelry industry, the lead dwarf is depicted carrying a beaded necklace. Goodman recalls that the set was carved in Idar-Oberstein in the 1970s and came to him mounted in the presentation case. The suite had been in his personal collection for more than 30 years. Goodman told us “demand and price are finally in such a place as to justify parting” with it. @chapter:28 @chapter:2 @chapter:28


# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: Book Review: Diamonds: An Early History of the King of Gems
# Abstract: By Jack Ogden, hardcover, 408 pp., illus., publ. by Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 2018, US$40.00.

Diamonds: An Early History of the King of Gems is a well-researched and well-documented fact-packed history, from diamonds in ancient India to the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 1700s. Ogden explores diamond legends, diamond mining in India, the introduction of diamonds to Europe, the worldwide diamond trade in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, world events that altered availability and pricing, and early cutting techniques and the technologies that made diamonds as we know them today possible. The book consists of 15 chapters, an epilogue, an excellent bibliography and index, and an appendix: a 1675 description of Indian diamond mines believed to be written by diamond dealer Nathaniel Cholmley. The illustrations—old paintings and drawings, letters and bills, photos of pieces still extant—give the book a strong sense of place and history.
In India as early as 500 BCE, diamonds were broken into chips for drilling and engraving other gemstones. Europeans also valued them for this use. Occasionally, diamond crystals showed up in Roman jewelry and in jewelry made in Syria, the end of the overland route to India. But trade was challenging in the beginning. The stones were not only of relatively poor quality, but they were also difficult to get, and Indian authorities prohibited their export until the 13th century.
Once trade with the East began, diamonds began to show up in written records—and in jewelry that survives to this day. Small, poor-quality stones were even available to merchants and tradesmen. Ogden mentions a London tavern owner who owned two diamonds in 1317; their value was “just six shillings and eight pence.”
European diamond trading blossomed in the 1500s with the opening of a sea route to India, but diamonds had been traded worldwide for centuries before that. Arabic, Armenian, and Jewish traders traveled overland to India and sold them in China and Russia, and they reportedly sold diamonds to Chinese buyers living as far away as the Philippines. And, of course, there was a diamond trade within India.
With the growing European diamond market came an interest in improving the stones through cutting. Although Indians drilled and engraved large diamonds, they seemed to use the resulting diamond powder solely to polish other gemstones. Any cutting or polishing was probably done by rubbing a diamond on a flat surface loaded with diamond powder. The equipment, too, was less than ideal. The bow-driven wheels used to cut colored stones rotated back and forth, producing a jerky movement that could not give diamonds the flat surface necessary to bring out their brilliance. It is likely that more sophisticated cutting methods reached India only when Europeans introduced diamond cutting mills there in the 1500s.
Europeans had been able to develop cutting mills by combining a rotary iron skeif with the crank and flywheel technology, reportedly adapted in Italy in the 13th century from the silk-spinning industry of China. Cutting mills became widespread as the European diamond trade grew in the 1500s. The technology worked so well for diamond cutting that the equipment remained virtually unchanged into modernity, except that the wheels are now driven by electricity rather than human, horse, or water power. The skeif, the angle gauge, the dop, and the diamond saw allowed the development of first the table cut—essentially an octahedron with the point removed—followed by the rose cut and finally the brilliant. Cutting added value to the stones, and many thick, old cut stones from India—called lasques—were bought at relatively reasonable prices and then recut into rose cuts in Europe for a profit. As cutting became more sophisticated, European cutters moved closer to the diamond source in India. Ogden writes that the “Mughal cuts,” which resembled large multifaceted rose cuts, were probably produced by these European cutters.
Until the development of the brilliant cut, most diamond cuts—point cuts, table cuts, rose cuts—were not only set in closed-back settings, but also backed with a black material such as soot mixed with resin. The backing was said to improve the color and create stones that were “most gracious to the eye.” But sparkle was in demand with the arrival of the brilliant cut. “The word sparkle sums up the change that had revolutionized the diamond trade,” writes Ogden. Brilliants were in such demand that rose cuts were refashioned as brilliant cuts regardless of the loss of weight.
Throughout the book, Ogden mentions the variety of terms devised to describe the cutting process and the parts of the resulting stones. Facets were “lozenges,” and a faceted stone was said to be “lozenged.” There were also fanciful cut descriptions. A cut akin to a step cut, but with a twin-sided peak in place of a table, was a “kirk riggin” (Scottish for “church roof”), hogback, or dos d’ane—“donkey back.” A three-cornered diamond was described as “thre nuikit,” or nooked, nook meaning “corner.” The French term carré (“square”) was used variously to describe an octahedron that had been “squared” to improve its beauty, a facet, the act of faceting, or a square diamond shape. A “harte” was a pear shape. A spark, a tiny accent diamond, was used much in the way “chips” have been in the more recent past.
Diamond cutting is most often associated with Amsterdam or Antwerp, but a cutting industry began in London in the 1500s with Queen Elizabeth’s encouragement. It was made possible by the unsanctioned diamond trade perpetuated by England’s renowned pirates, or privateers. Ogden writes that Sir Walter Raleigh intercepted the Portuguese ship Madre de Deus as it returned from the Indies, “carrying perhaps the largest single treasure of gems ever taken.”
The establishment of the East India Company in 1600 meant that diamonds began to flow into London more reliably, and cutting became a major industry. By the 1660s, more than £200,000 worth of diamonds arrived in London every year. However, a duty levied on diamond imports, falling support for the East India Company, and growing cutting operations in Amsterdam and Antwerp—where cutting costs were much cheaper—led to a declining industry. By 1852, when the Koh-i-Noor diamond was recut by Garrard’s, the British Crown Jewelers, the firm had to obtain advice on the cutting from cutters in Amsterdam, “perhaps to national shame.”
Quality has never been separate from the pricing of diamonds, and Ogden touches on this issue related to clarity, color, size, and cut. He describes the “square rule” used for pricing. A base price would be multiplied by the weight of the stone squared, so at £25 (~US$33 in 2019) per carat, a 4 ct stone would be priced by multiplying £25 by (4 x 4). Invoices often broke down the ancillary costs paid by the customer, including taxes and commissions to various people, and also items like “coach hyre” for necessary trips during the cutting process. The cutting cost was borne by the seller.
White diamonds, of course, were considered highest quality; yellows, browns, and greens were valued lower. In Europe, writes Ogden, “colored diamonds do not seem to have attracted much serious attention…until Jean-Baptiste Tavernier brought back from his sixth voyage to the east the large blue diamond that he sold to king Louis XIV of France in 1668….” This would eventually become the Hope Diamond.
As is also the case today, exceptionally large stones were priced individually. In one report, the Florentine diamond was valued at “a hundred thousand crownes between marchant and marchant, and a hundred and fifty thousand crownes between Prince and Prince.” This is a reminder, writes Ogden, that “value depends on whether one is buying or selling and to whom….”
Although Diamonds is packed with information, it’s not all dry facts. Ogden includes a delightful story: in the early 1200s, the Emperor of Nicaea presented a crown of pearls and diamonds to his empress, which he had paid for with “eggs of his innumerable poultry.” Ogden also reminds us of the incredible dangers of transporting these stones across thousands of miles. Marco Polo is said to have carried diamonds sewn into his clothing back to Venice after his travels along the Silk Road; gold of comparable value would have been impossible to carry on such a journey.
Ogden also reminds us that diamonds have always been involved in scandals and very public romances. He includes a photo of a hair ornament given by King Charles II to his mistress (and mother of two of his children), actress Nell Gwynn, in 1680. He also mentions Elihu Yale, founder of Yale University and governor of Madras, who had as mistresses not only the wife of Jacques de Paiva, a diamond dealer from Amsterdam and London, but also the wife of John Nicks, a member of the East India Company.
The above barely touches on the book’s topics. Ogden has examined numerous museum collections and delved deep into correspondence and invoices from the periods he covers. Diamonds: An Early History of the King of Gems is a fascinating book for anyone interested in the deep background of jewelry and will prove useful to future writers about gemstones as well as to anyone dealing with old jewelry. The minute detail that Ogden goes into is not for casual readers; however, as a reference, it is superb. @chapter:33 @chapter:2 @chapter:33


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Exhibition Review: Mogul to Modern: Met Exhibit Showcases Indian Jewels
# Abstract: This Mogul turban ornament, circa 1800–1850, offers a stunning example of Indian jewelry from the Al-Thani collection. The piece is set with diamonds and has 10 spinels suspended from the frame. Courtesy of Servette Overseas Ltd. and the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.

                      French explorer Jean-Baptiste Tavernier arrived in India nearly 400 years ago and found not only a treasure trove of gemstones, but a highly sophisticated jewelry-making and trade network already several millennia old.

India’s jewels have inspired collectors around the world ever since.

One of the most noted connoisseurs, Sheikh Hamad bin Abdullah Al-Thani of Qatar, recently selected 60 pieces from his private collection of Indian gems and jewelry—one of the world’s largest—for display at New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art. “Treasures from India: Jewels from the Al-Thani Collection” opened Oct. 28 and will run through Jan. 25, 2015.

In the Indian tradition, gemstones served a purpose well beyond adornment and display of wealth, according to Dr. Amin Jaffer, Christie’s international director of Asian art. Jaffer presented a lecture at the Met on “The Role of Jewels in Projecting Power in Royal India” the day after the exhibit’s opening.

Dr. Amin Jaffer, Christie’s international director of Asian art, presented a lecture at the Met on Indian royalty’s use of jewelry. Photo by Russell Shor.
“Jewels were highly symbolic of royal power,” Jaffir said, noting the great many paintings over the centuries of Indian rulers laden with gemstones. “Diamonds above all projected power, as they are hard stones and so associated with invincibility,” he said, adding that the majority of the wearers were men.

	“His Highness the Maharajah of Indore” was painted by British artist George Landseer in
	1861. Courtesy of Amir Mohtashemi Ltd., London.
The jewels on exhibit at the Met range from the dawn of the Mogul period in the mid-17th century to contemporary designs that incorporate both Indian and Western elements. The exhibit demonstrates how Indian fashion and design evolved through contact with European jewelers.

Among the exhibit’s earliest pieces is a dagger hilt from the early Mogul period, about 1620, of white nephrite jade intricately carved in the shape of a head. The European influence is evident in the carving’s similarity to a Portuguese Goan image of Christ as the Good Shepherd.

This nephrite jade dagger hilt, circa 1620–1625, demonstrates a European influence through its similarity to a Portuguese Goan image of Christ. Courtesy of Servette Overseas Ltd. and the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Emeralds became an integral part of Indian royal jewels in the 16th century after the discovery of deposits in Colombia. A gold tiger’s-head finial (an ornament atop a staff or frame) from about 1790 inlaid with diamonds and rubies and draped with an emerald collar was one of eight such figures that adorned the throne of Tipu Sultan, known as the Tiger of Mysore. The throne was dismantled in 1799 after the sultan was killed following a battle.

This tiger’s-head finial from the throne of Tipu Sultan, circa 1790, features gold inlaid with diamonds, rubies and emeralds. Courtesy of Servette Overseas Ltd. and the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Head ornaments, mainly for the front of turbans (jigha) and head bands (sarpesh) are a major part of the exhibition. One of the most stunning examples is the sarpesh shown in the lead photo. Measuring approximately 11 inches long, it is set with polki diamonds (still in their original rough forms but with the faces polished) and 10 large spinels suspended from the gold mounting. Although the piece was made between 1875 and 1900, the spinels are from a much earlier date. Like most traditional Indian jewels, the back is enameled.

India comprised more than 500 semi-autonomous states at the beginning of British rule in 1858. The jewels grew in extravagance after the British assumed control, and much of the wealth and power of the Moguls shifted to local rulers who no longer competed for military might but to see who could amass the most jewels.

“Rulers began making European-style crowns and tiaras, many of them extremely elaborate,” Jaffer said. Since India’s gem mines had long dried up by then, gems were extracted from centuries-old pieces. One ruler, the Maharaja of Patiala, gave Cartier and Boucheron more than 100 major gemstones to remount into modern jewels.

“It is still the largest single consignment that the jewelry house has ever had,” Jaffer said.

Indeed, by the latter part of the 19th century, jewelers such as Cartier regularly traveled to India to serve the princes who ruled under British control. These jewelers brought with them new styles and techniques, and the Indian royals often had some of their most prized jewels reset into modern pieces that reflected both cultures.

One Mogul-era carved emerald was reset into a platinum aigrette (head plume), topped with a sapphire and pearl spray, by French designer Paul Iribe around 1910. Unlike most pieces in the collection, this was an Indian-inspired piece created for a European wearer.

French designer Paul Iribe’s aigrette, circa 1910, has a Mogul-era carved emerald set in platinum with a plume of diamonds and sapphire and pearl beads. Courtesy of Servette Overseas Ltd. and the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
The tradition of blending Indian and Western design elements around large gemstones continues today and is well featured in the exhibit. Contemporary jewelry designer JAR (Joel Arthur Rosenthal) created a brooch in 2002 in the form of a cusped-arch window of the Jaipur Pink Palace, setting a 35.36 carat octagon-cut emerald inside and backing the gem with white rock crystal. And in 2010, the Jaipuri-born designer Santi Chaudhary created a ring with a 31 carat Mogul-era carved emerald bead set high on prongs to allow it to revolve.

According to an Indian proverb, “The value of a gem can only be realized by a king or jeweler because only they understand their complexity.” Today, gemologists have an understanding of gemstones far beyond that of the ancient royals, but their tradition of weaving jewelry into all parts of life remains strong. @chapter:55 @chapter:2 @chapter:55