# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: A Newly Discovered Iridescent Andradite from Inner Mongolia, China
# Abstract: Figure 1. Iridescent andradite samples (25 ct and 125 ct) from the Lindong area of Inner Mongolia, China. As shown in the left photo, sample G-1 displays iridescence on the (211) plane but not on the (110) plane. Photos by Jiuchang Yang.
Iridescent garnet found in Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia, was recently encountered in the Chinese market. Iridescent garnet was first discovered in 1943 in the U.S. state of Nevada (E. Ingeron and J.D. Barksdale, “Iridescent garnet from the Adelaide Mining District, Nevada,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 28, 1943, pp. 303–312), and it is also found in Mexico and Japan (M.A. Badar and M. Akizuki, “Iridescent andradite garnet from the Sierra Madre Mountains, Sonora, Mexico,” Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Monatshefte, Vol. 1997, No. 12, pp. 529–539; T. Hainschwang and F. Notari, “The cause of iridescence in rainbow andradite from Nara, Japan,” Winter 2006 G&G, pp. 248–258). To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report of iridescent garnet in China. Two rough samples were collected by the authors in the Lindong lead mining area (figure 1). The refractive index was over the limits of a conventional refractometer, and the hydrostatic specific gravity values were 3.85 and 3.84. Both showed an inert reaction to long- and short-wave ultraviolet fluorescence. These standard gemological testing results were consistent with garnet.

Figure 2. Left: Growth layers viewed normal to the (110) crystal face in a backscattered electron (BSE) image from a polished thin section. Right: The iron and aluminum contents corresponding to each spot in the BSE image.

Figure 3. Sample G-1 was identified as andradite based on a comparison with a sample from the RRUFF database. Spectra are offset vertically for clarity.
On the basis of energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence, calcium, silicon, iron, aluminum, manganese, magnesium, titanium, and sodium were detected. The chemical composition of the larger sample was analyzed using electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). The composition was consistent with that of andradite, containing major elements of calcium, iron, aluminum, and silicon, with the derived chemical formula of (Ca3.015Mn0.031Na0.006Mg0.003Ti0.002) (Fe1.846Al0.138)[Si2.978O12]. The backscattered electron image showed clear growth layers (figure 2, left). Aluminum in the darker zones was about 2 wt.% higher on average than in the lighter zones, and the iron content decreased with increasing aluminum. Raman spectroscopic analysis involved comparison with the RRUFF database (B. Lafuente et al., https://rruff.info/about/downloads/HMC1-30.pdf). The peak positions (figure 3) indicated that the samples were consistent with those of andradite, supporting the composition inferred from EPMA. Raman shifts within 300 to 400 cm–1 were assigned to SiO4 rotational vibrations. Raman shifts within 400 to 700 cm–1 were caused by Si-Obend (bridge oxygen) bending and asymmetric stretching vibrations. Raman shifts at 800 to 1200 cm–1 were attributed to the characteristic absorption peak of Si-Ostr stretching vibration (B.A. Kolesov and C.A. Geiger, “Raman spectra of silicate garnets,” Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 25, No. 2, 1998, pp. 142–151).

Figure 4. Sample G-1 displays strong iridescence with a full spectrum of colors. For certain bands, the color does not change as the viewing angle changes. This image is of a face parallel to (211). Photomicrograph by Jiuchang Yang; field of view 24.45 mm.

Figure 5. Top: The polished thin section in A and B was cut normal to the (110) crystal face. Observation under crossed polarizers (A) showed strong grid-like pattern, abnormal birefringence (possibly caused by lattice-like twinning), and angled growth bands. Bottom: The section in C and D was cut parallel to the (110) crystal face. Observation under crossed polarizers (C) showed partitioned abnormal birefringence caused by contact twinning and faint growth bands. Photomicrographs by Jiuchang Yang; field of view 25.05 mm.
Microscopic observation revealed an attractive play-of-color with a complete visible spectrum of colors on the (211) crystal plane of sample G-1 (figure 4). We cut three polished thin sections from sample G-2 along the (110) and (211) crystallographic axes to observe the twinning structure and extinction phenomena under a polarizing microscope. The sample displayed angled layered growth structures and a strong grid-like pattern and abnormal birefringence (figure 5). A grid-like extinction phenomenon parallel to the growth layer (figure 5A) may have been caused by lattice-like twins, and figure 5C shows two areas with different extinction orientations. One study on Japanese andradite showed that the iridescence effect is caused by the alternate growth of iron-rich layers and aluminum-rich layers. These layers cause a thin-film interference phenomenon in the crystal structure (Hainschwang and Notari, 2006). Therefore, we speculate that the iridescence of andradite from the Lindong lead mining area is not closely related to twinning but may be closely related to thin-film interference caused by its layered growth structure. @chapter:7 @chapter:0 @chapter:7


# Publication Year: 1986
# Title: Fall 1986 G&G Book Reviews
# Abstract: “Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones”
By Edward J. Gübelin and John I. Koivula, 532 pp., illus., publ. by ABC Edition, Zurich, Switzerland, 1986. US$175.00

“Pearls: Natural, Cultured and Imitation”
By Alexander E. Farn, 150 pp., illus., publ. by Butterworth &. Co., London, 1986. US$29.95

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:40 @chapter:0 @chapter:40


# Publication Year: 1987
# Title: Fall 1987 G&G Lab Notes
# Abstract: Brazilian Alexandrite
Highly Radioactive Green Diamond
Treated Yellow Diamond with Cape Lines
Jade Earrings
Black Cultured Pearls
An Unusual Use for a Natural Pearl
Scenic Quartz
Heat-Treated Yellow Sapphire
Cat's-Eye Sillimanite (Fibrolite)
A Brownish Gray Taaffeite
A Rare Green Cat's-Eye Chrome Tourmaline

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:2 @chapter:0 @chapter:2


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Suspended Crystal in Red Spinel
# Abstract: A crystal inclusion in red spinel shown in darkfield illumination (left) and fiber-optic lighting (right). Photomicrographs by Isabelle Corvin; field of view 1.78 mm.
The sharp outline of a tabular included crystal in a 0.44 ct red spinel (see above) appeared suspended when viewed with darkfield illumination. Under fiber-optic lighting, the body of the crystal darkened and displayed a flash of rainbow colors caused by thin-film interference between the host spinel and the inclusion.
Not all included crystals display such drastically different appearances with different light sources. This particular well-formed crystal was the only notable inclusion in the red spinel. The surprising “rainbow” effect made it stand out from other crystal inclusions observed in similar material. @chapter:24 @chapter:0 @chapter:24


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Phosphorescence of Synthetic Sapphire
# Abstract: Figure 1. Left: The 1.14 ct synthetic sapphire under daylight-equivalent lighting. Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia. Right: The sample exhibited phosphorescence in this DiamondView image. DiamondView image by Akhil Sehgal.

Phosphorescent features in synthetic colorless sapphires have previously been reported in G&G (Fall 2013 GNI, pp. 182–183). A 1.14 ct colorless sample was recently submitted to the New York lab for identification (figure 1, left). The gemological properties determined the stone was corundum. The specimen was free of inclusions, with no detectable gas bubbles or curved striae. Quantitative chemical analysis, showing a lack of gallium as well as iron levels below the detection limit, indicated that the sample was synthetic. The material was also transparent to short-wave ultraviolet radiation, whereas natural colorless sapphires do not transmit short-wave UV light due to the quenching effect from trace impurities (S. Elen and E. Fritsch, “The separation of natural from synthetic colorless sapphire,” Spring 1999 G&G, pp. 30–41). This is the same test used to effectively separate type I and II diamonds; nitrogen impurities in diamonds are strong absorbers of light in the short-wave UV range between 225–320 nm (C. M. Breeding, “The ‘type’ classification system of diamonds and its importance in gemology,” Summer 2009 G&G, pp. 96–111). The UV-visible spectrum shown in figure 2 also illustrates the transparency with the absorption edge at approximately 216 nm, whereas natural near-colorless sapphires typically have an absorption edge around 300 nm.

Figure 2. Transparency was observed in the UV-Vis-NIR spectrum.
Figure 3 illustrates the phosphorescence band centered at approximately 424 nm, along with other minor decay bands observed in the visible spectrum that mix together to produce the blue phosphorescence observed in figure 1 (right). The phosphorescence lasted about 25 seconds, until the excited electrons dissipated. The only trace elements detected with LA-ICP-MS were Ti (21 ppma average), and Cr, Mg, and Ca (below 5 ppma). Chalky blue fluorescence in sapphires is believed to be due to Ti4+ charge-transfer transition of isolated Ti4+ ions or Ti-Al vacancy pairs. The fluorescence peak is usually between 410 and 420 nm, but shifts to higher wavelengths as Ti concentrations increase (B. D. Evans, “Ubiquitous blue luminescence from undoped synthetic sapphire,” Journal of Luminescence, Vol. 60–61, 1994, pp. 620–626; W.C. Wong et al., “Charge-exchange processes in titanium-doped sapphire crystals. I. Charge-exchange energies and titanium-bound exitons,” Physical Review B, Vol. 61, No. 9, 1995, pp. 5682–5698). The phosphorescence in synthetic colorless sapphires could be related to this property, with the addition of the decay route including forbidden energy transition states. Phosphorescence in synthetic colorless sapphires is still not well understood, and additional research is needed to verify the origin of this phenomenon.

Figure 3. The phosphorescence spectrum of the synthetic sapphire shows the main band
centered at approximately 426 nm, along with smaller bands in the visible-light region. @chapter:43 @chapter:1 @chapter:43


# Publication Year: -
# Title: The Red Hot Gems of Summer
# Abstract: "The Crimson Prince Ruby" is a 3.22 ct unheated ruby from Mogok, Burma (Myanmar). Stone courtesy of Jeffery Bergman, Primagem, Bangkok. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

No color evokes more energy, action, emotion and excitement than red. It is associated with the power of fast cars, the passion of crimson roses and the seduction of summer sunsets.
Regal Red Gems
In early cultures, ruby was revered for its similarity in color to blood, the source of life. Deep red, sometimes with a hint of purple, called “pigeon’s blood” in the trade, is the most sought after shade for rubies. No colored gemstone has been more treasured by kings, queens, rulers, moguls and the upper classes than ruby. Even today, fine rubies remain an indulgence of the few.
What draws us to ruby? Does it have a mysterious quality or power – as thought by early civilizations? The scientific explanation for ruby’s subtle attraction lies in its high chromium and low iron content, which creates its red color. The chromium also causes the gem to fluoresce when viewed in ultraviolet light; in natural light, the fluorescence of high quality rubies creates an almost mesmerizing, subconscious glow, reminiscent of heat haze on a desert highway.
Red spinel, cherished by kings and emperors, also has a long and glorious history. Many famous “rubies” were actually red spinels, illustrating how very similar these gems can be in appearance. Spinels mined from 1000 C.E to 1900 C.E., in what is now known as Afghanistan, accounted for many of the red gemstones in jewelry of that era. They were called “Balas rubies,” derived from the Arabic balakhsh, for the Badhakhshan region in Afghanistan where the gem was found. The quality of natural spinel has gained notice and appreciation in recent years, so its presence and value in the market has also increased.

These rubellite (pink) and green tourmaline bottles were carved in China during the turn of the 20th century from the era of the Chinese Empress Dowager Tz’u Hsi. She was a devoted fan of tourmaline, especially the pink tourmaline from San Diego’s Pala District. They bring a refreshing spritz of cool and warm tones. Courtesy of the Bill Larson Collection. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Red garnet necklaces adorned Egypt’s pharaohs thousands of years ago and were entombed with them as prized possessions to be used in the afterlife. Ancient Roman signet rings with carved garnets were used to stamp the wax that secured important documents. Clergy and nobility in the Middle Ages (475–1450 C.E.) also favored red garnet. The availability of this red gem increased with the discovery of deposits in central Europe around 1500. Known as “Bohemian garnets,” this source became the nucleus of a regional jewelry industry that reached its peak in the late 1800s.
Rubellite and pink tourmaline were favorite gems of the Chinese Dowager Empress Tz’u Hsi in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The majority of pink to red tourmaline mined in San Diego County’s famed tourmaline mines (Tourmaline Queen, Tourmaline King, Stewart, Pala Chief and Himalaya) during that period was shipped to China. Much of the material was carved into snuff bottles and other objets d’art, but the finest quality was set in jewelry.

This Oregon sunstone is ablaze in color and shows the fiery sparks of aventurescence or schiller. Courtesy of GIA Dr. Edward J. Gübelin Collection. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Hot Red Gems
The hot, dry, high desert of eastern Oregon is home to Ponderosa, Dust Devil and Sunstone Butte mines – the primary sources of sunstone. According to Native American legend, the blood of a great warrior – wounded by an arrow – dropped onto pieces of Oregon sunstone. The blood carried his warrior spirit into the stones, coloring them with shades of red and giving them sacred power. The Oregon mines produce enough material to supply mass marketers as well as carvers and high-end jewelry designers.
Sunstone often exhibits aventurescence, a sparkly, metallic-looking luster caused by flat, reflective inclusions, sometimes called “schiller” by sunstone fanciers. Sunstone can be a variety of either microcline or oligoclase feldspar with an orange/brown background color. The color in Oregon sunstones comes from copper platelets that give it flash and sparkle.

View Gallery

Fire opal is a transparent to translucent opal with a background color that has smoldering hues of yellow to orange to red (some colorless fire opal is also found). Mexico is the primary source of fire opal, and material found there generally exhibits a strong play of color, though on rare occasions, no play of color. Smaller amounts of fire opal are produced in Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Honduras, Guatemala, Nevada and Oregon.
Rare Red Gems
Sweet Home Mine in Alma, Colorado, discovered in 1873 for its silver, produced the world’s finest rhodochrosite. The mine closed in 1967 after moderate success, but reopened from 1991 to 2005, during which it produced an estimated $100 million in rhodochrosite specimens. These gems are housed in several prominent mineral museums and private collections around the world. The largest known rhodochrosite crystal, the Alma King, is on display in the Denver Museum of Nature and Science and the Alma Queen is displayed in the Houston Museum of Natural Science.

Sweet Home Mine in Alma, Colorado produced the Alma Rose, a mineral specimen consisting of five large crystals of rhodochrosite described by the owners as “cherry red." Courtesy of Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks and Minerals, Hillsboro, Oregon. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA
Red beryl, also known as bixbite, is a North American gemstone found only in the Wah Wah Mountains of central western Utah. Most cut specimens are less than one carat. Since it is no longer mined, it has become rare, historical material.
Rhodonite is found in the sultry region of Minas Gerais, Brazil and Australia, Peru, Russia and the United States. Transparent rhodonite crystals are rare and seldom larger than one gram, but their hardness makes them excellent cut gemstones. The name rhodonite is derived from the Greek rhodon meaning rose.

The Moussaiff Red is a famous 5.11 ct Fancy red diamond. A red diamond without any modifier is rare. The pure red color and size of the Moussaiff Red diamond make it peerless. Courtesy of William Goldberg Diamond Corp. Photo by Elizabeth Schrader/GIA
Taaffeite (pronounced tar-fite) is named after Richard Taaffe, who found the gem in 1945 in a jewelry shop in Dublin, Ireland. It is the only gemstone to have been identified from a cut and polished specimen. Prior to Taaffe’s discovery, most pieces were misidentified as spinel due to their similar crystal form. It is one of the rarest gemstone minerals in the world.
The Moussaieff Red, originally named the Red Shield, is the ultimate in collectible red gemstones. It is an internally flawless, breathtaking 5.11 ct Fancy red natural color diamond. Discovered in the 1990s by a farmer in Brazil and cut from a 13.90-carat rough by the William Goldberg Diamond Corp., the rare red diamond was displayed in 2003 as part of the Smithsonian Institution’s “The Splendor of Diamonds” exhibit.
Although these red gemstones are often associated with the heat of summer, our passion and desire for them knows no season. @chapter:40 @chapter:2 @chapter:40


# Publication Year: 2017
# Title: Jewelry Industry Summit
# Abstract: The second Jewelry Industry Summit was held in Tucson, Arizona, January 29–30. The meeting was a continuation of the first summit, held in New York in March 2016, though new initiatives emerged from the Tucson gathering.

	Opening remarks by Doug Hucker and Jeff Bilgore (AGTA) were followed by three speakers from outside the gem and jewelry industry. Lisa Manley (Sustainability Strategy and Cone Communications, Boston) discussed exploring a company’s strengths, opportunities, and aspirations, calling sustainability “a team sport.” Thea Polancic (Conscious Capitalism, Chicago) spoke on imagining the industry’s future, citing specific companies that have used their leverage in their industries to make a difference in the world. Bob Mitchell (Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition, Washington DC) presented on pinpointing possibilities for successful and sustainable business practices.

	The majority of the summit was focused on committee updates from the first meeting and creating new initiatives to be worked on. Carried over from 2016:

		Brian Cook (Nature’s Geometry, Tucson) is developing a model community for golden rutile miners in Bahia State, Brazil. A construction site has been chosen, and negotiations with the municipal government for lapidary equipment have begun. See this entry for more information.

		The education committee, headed by Christina Miller (College Corner, Ohio) is creating a glossary that can help members of the industry and consumers understand the language of sustainability, ethical sourcing, and responsible practices.

		The chain of custody and due diligence committee drafted guidelines for suppliers seeking responsible sources.

		The harmonization team is charged with establishing best practices among the existing standards across industries. Under the lead of Mark Hanna (Richline, Providence, Rhode Island) and Richard Nehls (LA Rocks, Los Angeles), the team has collaborated with other organizations to learn from their challenges and successes.

		#ResponsibleJewelryStories, the marketing arm of the summit, is led by Cleo Zancope Gnatek (Jane Taylor Jewelry, New York), Dana Bronfman (Dana Bronfman Fine Jewelry, New York), and Cecilia Gardner (New York). This team has created a website to share stories of responsible sourcing, ethical practices, and sustainability. Industry members interested in sharing their stories on this topic should contact responsiblejewelrystories@gmail.com.

		Members of the sales associate and consumer education team, led by Kevin Reilly (Platinum Guild International, New York), have developed an outline for training purposes and a proposal for content providers and potential sponsors.

		The sustainability in jewelry committee, headed by Mike Pace (New York), has distributed a survey about perceptions of sustainability to 800 fine jewelry buyers who identify as “millennials.”

		The team working to fight silicosis and industrial diseases among gemstone cutters, led by Eric Braunwart (Columbia Gem House, Portland, Oregon), is creating pilot programs with three NGOs as well as the AGTA.

	Among the new initiatives proposed at the summit were an effort to find a safe, affordable alternative for mercury in gold mining; a development index to measure the positive and negative effects of the gem and jewelry industry on a nation’s economy; and a plan to build an agro-geo-ecotourism movement in Thailand. The location and dates of the next Jewelry Industry Summit will be announced later in 2017. @chapter:42 @chapter:3 @chapter:42


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Family Heirlooms Recovered After 9/11 Attacks
# Abstract: These pieces, recovered after the September 11 attacks from a safety deposit box at the World Trade Center, were on display at GIA.

	Robin Silvers, a gem specialist in Los Angeles, was moved and overwhelmed by the items a client showed her – two petite silver mesh clutches, a diamond brooch and two pocket watches – all recovered from the family’s safety deposit box buried in the rubble of the World Trade Center after the September 11 attacks.

	The safety deposit box was one of 2,500 found in a JP Morgan Chase bank vault at 5 World Trade Center, which partially collapsed. The vault sustained severe damage from fires that burned for weeks after, and most of the boxes’ contents were nothing more than ash when they were finally discovered.

	Silvers’ anonymous client didn’t remember the family had a safety deposit box until weeks later. She was extremely worried about her father on 9/11 because he lived in Lower Manhattan and was likely on his way to work in a family-owned commercial building situated on the perimeter of the World Trade Center complex.

	Her father was late to work that day, so he was unharmed, but people who leased space in their building were injured or killed. “We knew people who were lost in those attacks, and our building was partially destroyed,” she said.

	When she did remember the safety deposit box, “it was like an electric shock went through me. The ripple effect of losses continued.” The family assumed the contents were destroyed.

	A couple of years passed before bank officials began to evaluate the boxes and contact owners. Silvers’ client went through a roller coaster of emotions as news went back and forth about whether or not the pieces in the safety deposit box had survived.

	“It was really surprising when they were found – and kind of bittersweet,” she said.

	A 1950s-era 14k white gold ribbon bow brooch, a gift from the client’s father to her mother, is particularly special because her mother, who passed away from breast cancer when the daughter was 19, had very little jewelry.

	“It’s one of the last pieces I have of my mother’s,” she said. The brooch was blackened from the heat of the fires, but the diamonds were in good condition, so she thought she might have it repaired.

	The silver clutches and pocket watches belonged to her great-grandparents. Her great-grandfather emigrated from Nazi Germany and her grandmother grew up during the Great Depression, so she imagines they were prized possessions, as well as being links to her heritage.

	Silvers said she got the chills the first time her client showed her the pieces. She immediately realized the brooch should not be repaired.

	“When I saw the brooch and was able to touch it, along with the other items, it brought home to me everything they had gone through. To repair the brooch would erase everything that had happened to it on 9/11,” she said. “It’s beautiful the way it is.”

	Silvers showed it to her friend, David Humphrey, a jeweler from Pacific Palisades, California, who contacted GIA to write a report for Gems & Gemology. Terri Ottaway, curator of the GIA Museum, saw the brooch as it was being photographed for the journal and asked to display it on campus.

	“This exquisite diamond brooch endured a horrendous event that forever changed America,” Ottaway said. “Its condition is a reminder of how the human spirit can shine through tragedy – just as these diamonds still sparkle in their blackened setting.”

	One conversation led to another between Silvers, her client and Ottaway, and now all five pieces are on display in Carlsbad through Nov. 18. Silvers’ client appreciates the symbolism they represent and is at peace with her decision to display them at GIA.

	“I miss having my mother’s brooch with me,” she said. “But I realize it is a connection for people to 9/11. It’s a symbol of resilience, renewal and rebirth – there’s life in it.”

	A 14K gold Columbus pocket watch, left; a 14K gold Lord Elgin pocket watch, center; and a 1950s-era 14K white gold ribbon brooch, with 75 diamonds (2.78 total carat weight) intact, right.

	Two petite silver mesh clutches fused together from the heat of the fires that burned for weeks. The larger one, left, measures 5.5 inches wide by 4 inches high and the smaller one 2.7 inches by 2.5 inches. You can see the remains of some of the contents in them. The reverse side of the clutches is on the right. @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Chrysoberyl Inclusions in Flux-Grown Ruby
# Abstract: Figure 1. This ruby proved to be a flux-grown synthetic ruby with chrysoberyl inclusions. Photo by Shunsuke Nagai.

The Tokyo laboratory recently received a 3.02 ct red pear-shaped mixed cut measuring 10.93 × 7.04 × 5.03 mm (figure 1). Standard gemological testing yielded a refractive index of 1.765–1.773; a hydrostatic specific gravity of 4.00; absorption lines at 693, 476, and 468 nm; and a broad absorption band between 500 nm and 610 nm seen using a handheld spectroscope. All of these properties were consistent with ruby. The stone displayed strong red fluorescence under both long-wave and short-wave UV.

Figure 2. These natural-looking hexagonal colorless crystals and the small nest of inclusions in the flux-grown ruby (top of image and around the hexagonal crystals) could be mistaken for natural corundum inclusions. Photomicrograph by Yuxiao Li; field of view 1.41 mm.
Microscopic examination revealed numerous hexagonal colorless inclusions as well as small colorless inclusions that resembled zircon nests often found in natural corundum (figure 2). Also observed were features suggesting the possibility of flux-grown corundum: hexagonal dark reflective long prisms and platelets (figure 3) and healed fissures filled with flux residues (figure 4).

Figure 3. The hexagonal dark reflective long prisms (left) and platelets (right) observed in the sample are common inclusions in flux-grown synthetic corundum. Photomicrographs by Yuxiao Li; field of view 1.28 mm.
Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) detected high amounts of Be (35.3–37.1 ppma), Cr (1733.5–2047.2 ppma), Rh (0.6–1.0 ppma), and Pt (0.5–1.1 ppma). Elements normally present in natural corundum such as Mg, Ga, and V were not detected. The chemistry indicated a flux growth process.

Figure 4. Fingerprints in the flux-grown ruby could also be mistaken for natural residue-filled fingerprints. Photomicrograph by Yuxiao Li; field of view 1.23 mm.
Earlier work has shown numerous transparent, colorless hexagonal tabular “ghost-like” inclusions in Chatham flux-grown sapphire (R.E. Kane, “The gemological properties of Chatham flux-grown synthetic orange sapphire and synthetic blue sapphire,” Fall 1982 G&G, pp. 140–153). In that study, X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) revealed that the pattern of the ghost-like inclusions was identical to that of chrysoberyl. That study also stated that Chatham, who was successful in synthesizing sapphire by the flux method, added heavy concentrations of beryllium, which explained the presence of chrysoberyl and the high beryllium trace element content. More recently, natural-looking transparent hexagonal crystals in a flux-grown pink sapphire have also been reported (Fall 2017 Lab Notes, pp. 367–368).

Figure 5. The Raman spectrum of the chrysoberyl inclusion compared to that of the known reference.
There was no surface-reaching transparent crystal in that pink synthetic sapphire, but the small amounts of beryllium suggested the possibility of chrysoberyl. In the present laboratory-grown ruby, fortunately, one of the transparent crystals reached the surface. With Raman spectroscopy, we were able to identify it as chrysoberyl (figure 5).
The beryllium concentration of this laboratory-grown ruby (up to 37 ppma) indicated possible beryllium diffusion treatment. High chromium (up to 2047 ppma) resulted in a vivid red color. With such a highly saturated bodycolor, we cannot deny the possibility of beryllium diffusion, though the signature orange rim was not found using immersion techniques. The numerous chrysoberyl crystals offer important evidence that the beryllium was already excised during the flux growth process. Beryllium diffusion of corundum requires exposure to extreme heat (above 1780°C; J.L. Emmett et al., “Beryllium diffusion of ruby and sapphire,” Summer 2003 G&G, pp. 84–135). These chrysoberyl inclusions do not show the typical indications following heat treatment, meaning this stone was not beryllium diffused after its growth.
With LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy, we were able to confirm that flux-grown laboratory-grown ruby with high beryllium content could indicate the presence of natural-looking chrysoberyl crystals. @chapter:19 @chapter:0 @chapter:19


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Color Origin of Phenakites from the Ural Emerald Mines
# Abstract: Figure 1. Phenakite with beryl in mica (left) and yellow phenakite (right). Photos by Mikhail Popov; fields of view 5 cm.
Phenakite (Be2SiO4) was first discovered at Russia’s Ural emerald mines, and was chemically identified in 1833. The mineral is widely distributed in beryllium deposits, but crystals of gem quality or large size are rare. At the Ural mines, however, there are large transparent crystals that can be used in jewelry. Jewelry-grade phenakite is generally colorless or yellowish brown (figure 1; see M.P. Popov et al., “Features of phenakite mineralization from the Ural emerald mines,” Bulletin of the Ural Branch of the RMS, No. 13, 2016, pp. 105–111). The main mineral inclusions are chlorite, talc, phlogopite, actinolite, and ilmenite; fluid inclusions with a gas-liquid composition also occur.

The color origin of phenakite using optical absorption spectroscopy has not been studied in detail. Many authors agree that the coloration is associated with electron-hole centers (see A.S. Marfunin, Spectroscopy, Luminescence and Radiation Centers in Minerals, 1975, Nedra, Moscow). This is indicated by the disappearance of color when phenakite is exposed to either ultraviolet radiation or high temperatures. According to one theory of absorption, this is related to the oxygen vacancies that have captured electrons (again, see Marfunin, 1975). Other researchers believe that the absorption features are associated with bridging electronic centers such as Al-O-Al, which are formed by isomorphous replacement of silicon by aluminum ions in the crystal lattice, in amounts up to 0.5% (see A.N. Platonov, Nature of Coloring of Minerals, 1976, Naukova Dumka, Kiev).

Figure 2. Absorption spectra of colorless phenakites (blue trace) and yellow-brown phenakites (black trace).
To determine the color origin of yellow-brown phenakites, we obtained optical absorption spectra of colorless and yellow-brown phenakite from the Mariinsky deposit. These spectra were collected in the 185–700 nm wavelength range, at room temperature, on a specialized Shimadzu UV-3600 spectrophotometer. A broad absorption band was noted in the 225–325 nm range of the yellow-brown phenakite spectrum, with a maximum at 268 nm. Absorption in the ultraviolet range of the optical spectrum was not detected in transparent colorless phenakites (figure 2).

Figure 3. Phosphorus ions replace silicon ions in a tetrahedral structure to form a [PO4]4– complex in yellow-brown phenakites. This complex is paramagnetic and gives several signals in the range of 320–340 mT. Splitting of the hyperfine structure of the signal occurs; lines 1, 2, and 3 appear and indicate the existence of the [PO4]4– radical. When the crystal rotates along its c-axis, it changes the intensity of these lines.
To study electron-hole centers and to reveal color centers in phenakite, crystals were examined using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). EPR is an informative method for studying dissymmetry of crystals, the role of the symmetry elements of the spatial group, and the distribution of impurity ions and point defects in the bulk of the crystal. Dissymmetry of crystals, as a result of the uneven distribution of point defects in the process of crystal growth, is a widespread phenomenon (see G.R. Bulka et al., “Dissymmetrization of crystals: Theory and experiment,” Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 6, 1980, pp. 283–293; R.A. Khasanov et al., “Derivation of the conditions for equivalent positions in crystals: The dissymmetrization of barite by electron spin resonance,” Crystallography Reports, Vol. 57, No. 5, 2012, pp. 751–757; J.M. Hughes et al., “Dissymmetrization in tourmaline: the atomic arrangement of sectorally zoned triclinic Ni-bearing dravite,” The Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 49, 2011, pp. 29–40). We used an Adani CMS8400 spectrometer (frequency ν=9, 4 GHz) at room temperature to perform EPR on our samples. During an experiment on the EPR spectra of the impurity radical [PO4]4– phenakite of deposits in Volynskii (see A.I. Novozhilov et al., “Electron paramagnetic resonance in irradiated phenakite Be2SiO4,” Journal of Structural Chemistry, Vol. 11, 1970, pp. 393–396), we found a difference in intensity of the lines of three magnetically nonequivalent centers for the impurity radical. The paramagnetic center [PO4]4– was only detected in the yellow-brown crystals (figure 3), and active centers were absent in colorless specimens. From this we concluded that the origin of the yellow-brown color of phenakite is associated with a paramagnetic complex [PO4]4– that produces absorption bands in the ultraviolet region, which in turn leads to the formation of this color in the mineral.

These results can be used in gemological identification of phenakites from the Ural emerald mines.

This study was performed in the context of the Russian Government Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University, “Paleogeodynamics and evolution of structural-material complexes in the formation of the continental-type crust ...,” theme no. 0393-2016-0019. @chapter:10 @chapter:0 @chapter:10


# Publication Year: 1989
# Title: The Capoeirana Emerald Deposit near Nova Era, Minas Gerais, Brazil
# Abstract: In 1988, a significant find of emeralds was made at Capoeirana, near Nova Era, in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Hundreds of kilograms of potentially gem-quality material have been removed since the first pieces were discovered in July 1988. The nature of the biotite schist with which the emerald is associated and the gemological properties of the Capoeirana emeralds indicate that this occurrence is related to the Itabira (Belmont mine) emerald site, only 10 km away. @chapter:1 @chapter:0 @chapter:1


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Purple Pyrope-Almandine Garnet From Mozambique
# Abstract: Figure 1. These purple pyrope-almandine garnets are from Manica Province of Mozambique. The rough specimens weigh (clockwise from left) 1.49, 1.14, 1.11, and 1.77 ct, while the faceted stone in the center weighs 2.34 ct. Photo by Lhapsin Nillapat.

	In early 2016, attractive purple garnets from East Africa started to appear in the Bangkok market (T. Sripoonjan and T. Leelawatanasuk, “Preliminary investigation of purple garnet from a new deposit in Mozambique,” GIT Gemstone Update, 2016, pp. 1−6). Author VP purchased 17 samples (figure 1) at the Bangkok Gem Fair and inquired about their origin. Mark Saul of Swala Gem Traders (Arusha, Tanzania) informed him that the source was a very unstable area of Manica Province in central Mozambique. Ameen Ikram, a gem merchant from Sri Lanka, confirmed this after managing to visit the mining site in June 2016. The deposit is located about 60 km northeast of Chimoio, near Gorongosa National Park. The area is under the control of the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO), an armed rebel group.

	The stones exhibited a vitreous luster. Standard gemological testing yielded an isotropic RI reading of 1.767 ± 0.003 and an SG value of 3.87 ± 0.02. An isotropic reaction with anomalous double refraction (ADR) was observed through the polariscope. The samples were inert when exposed to both long-wave and short-wave UV radiation. Examination with a gemological microscope revealed several internal features (figure 2), including individual and clustered zircon crystals, zircons with stress halos, black platelets of graphite, groups of colorless quartz crystals, thin films, needles, tubes, and iron stains in tubes. Raman spectroscopy was used to identify the mineral inclusions.

	Figure 2. Magnification of the pyrope-almandine garnets revealed several internal features: (A) zircon inclusions with stress halos and needles, field of view 1.4 mm; (B) thin films, field of view 3.5 mm; (C) groups of colorless quartz, field of view 1.8 mm; and (D) a platelet of black graphite, field of view 1.8 mm. Photomicrographs by Victoria Raynaud.

	Advanced analytical techniques, including UV-Vis-NIR and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and laser ablation−inductively coupled plasma−mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), were used to collect additional information. The UV-Vis-NIR spectrum (figure 3, left) indicated electronic transitions of specific Fe and very weak Mn transition metal ions, as described in the literature (K. Krambrock et al., “Purplish-red almandine garnets with alexandrite-like effect: Causes of colors and color-enhancing treatments,” Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 40, No. 7, 2013, pp. 555−562). All of the samples showed an iron spectrum including Fe2+ and Fe3+, and a weak absorption peak at 408 nm was assigned to Mn2+. The FTIR spectrum (figure 3, right) showed Fe2+ peaks at 4450 and 5820 cm−1 (R.G. Burns, Mineralogical Applications of Crystal Field Theory, Vol. 5, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1993, pp. 155−158), hydroxyl group features at around 3500−3600 cm−1 (G.R. Rossman et al., “Quantitative analysis of trace OH in garnet and pyroxenes,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 80, No. 5−6, 1995, pp. 465−474), and CO2 peaks at 2340−2360 cm−1. A minor FTIR peak at 2627 cm−1 might have resulted from the numerous inclusions in the samples. LA-ICP-MS analysis (table 1) revealed major amounts of Si, Al, Fe, and Mg, as well as minor amounts of Ca and Mn. Vanadium was also detected in very low concentrations, while titanium and chromium were below the detection limits. The LA-ICP-MS data confirmed the material’s identification as pyrope-almandine garnet with the following chemical components: 48.8−59.5% pyrope, 37.9−47.6% almandine, 2.0−3.5% grossular, and 0.5−0.6% spessartine.

TABLE 1. LA-ICP-MS analyses of pyrope-almandine garnets from Mozambique.

				Oxide

				Weight (%) ± SD (n = 5)

				SiO2

				42.34 ± 0.33

				Al2O3

				25.41 ± 0.22

				FeO

				17.93 ± 1.31

				MgO

				13.16 ± 1.19

				CaO

				0.94 ± 0.20

				MnO

				0.22 ± 0.02

				V2O3

				0.002 ± 0.001

				Cr2O3

				bdl

				TiO2

				bdl

					n: number of studied samples
					bdl: below detection limit
					SD: standard deviation

	Figure 3. Left: The purple garnet’s UV-Vis-NIR spectrum shows weak absorption bands attributed to Fe3+ (337, 367, and 424 nm) and Mn2+ (408 nm). The remaining peaks in the visible region (400, 461, 504, 523, 575, 619, and 698 nm) can be assigned to Fe2+. Right: The FTIR spectrum reveals Fe2+ bands at 5820 and 4450 cm–1, hydroxyl group features at 3552 and 3525 cm–1, and CO2 peaks at 2360 and 2341 cm–1. The very small peak at 2627 cm–1 may be caused by the samples’ numerous inclusions.

	The UV-Vis-NIR spectrum explains the purple color of the samples. Since the main absorption bands dominate the green-yellow regions of the visible spectrum, two strong blue and red transmission regions combine to produce an eye-visible purple color. These samples can be classified as pyrope-almandine garnet, commonly referred to as “rhodolite” garnet. @chapter:14 @chapter:0 @chapter:14


# Publication Year: 2015
# Title: Purple Scapolite
# Abstract: Figure 1. These two brownish purple specimens, a 1.58 ct oval and a 2.95 ct cushion, were identified through gemological testing as scapolite. Photo by Gagan Choudhary.

Two brownish purple faceted specimens (figure 1) were submitted for identification at the Gem Testing Laboratory, Jaipur, India. The 2.95 ct mixed cushion measured 9.95 × 8.05 × 5.88 mm, while the 1.58 ct mixed oval measured 9.07 × 7.08 × 4.46 mm. Both were relatively clean to the unaided eye. Based on their color, they were thought to be spinel, but testing soon proved otherwise. Testing yielded the following gemological properties: optic figure—uniaxial; RI—1.549–1.559; birefringence—0.010; and hydrostatic SG—2.63. The material fluoresced a weak orangy red under short-wave UV and was inert under long-wave UV. An absorption band was observed in the yellow-green region using a desk-model spectroscope. In addition, both samples displayed strong dichroism (figure 2) with deep saturated and pale purple colors along the “o” and “e” rays, respectively; this also influenced their face-up color. Under magnification, growth zones and two-directional cleavage planes intersecting at almost 90° were visible. The cleavage planes also contained some fine dendritic films; additionally, the oval specimen had an unidentified brown crystal.

Figure 2. The scapolite specimens displayed intense dichroism (shown here in the cushion), with a deep saturated purple along the o-ray (left) and pale purple along the e-ray (right). Photos by Gagan Choudhary.
These gemological properties were consistent with scapolite. Raman spectroscopy confirmed this, showing the characteristic peaks for scapolite at approximately 260, 296, 359, 418, 455, 534, 771, 993, and 1093 cm–1. The Raman spectra suggested the specimens belonged to the marialite end of the meionite-marialite solid solution series of the scapolite group (see rruff.info); this was supported by their RI and SG values (R. Webster, Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and Identification, 5th ed., rev. by P.G. Read, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK). Polarized absorption spectra (figure 3) revealed a broad absorption centered at approximately 550 nm in both specimens. The intensity of this absorption was stronger in the o-ray direction, while a weak hump at about 630 nm was also present in the e-ray direction. Such absorption bands, associated with Fe3+ ions and producing purple coloration, have been reported in sugilite (Spring 1995 GNI, pp. 66–67); however, additional Fe3+ features at approximately 350–365 and 410–420 nm were absent in both the “e” and “o” rays of those specimens. Qualitative EDXRF analysis revealed the presence of Al, Si, K, Ca, Fe, Br, and Sr. Mn is a common impurity resulting in purple coloration of stones such as kunzite or some sugilites, but it was not detected in these specimens. On the basis of absorption spectra and elemental analysis, the purple color of these scapolites appears to be caused exclusively by an Fe impurity.

Figure 3. Polarized UV-Vis spectra of the cushion-cut scapolite (shown here in the
cushion) displayed Fe-related absorption at approximately 550 nm, which is responsible
for the purple color of these specimens.
Purple scapolite is known from many localities such as Myanmar, Tanzania, and Tajikistan, but the client did not know the source of these stones. Although we have seen many purple to violet scapolites in the past, these specimens were different because of their brown color component, reminiscent of spinel. @chapter:15 @chapter:0 @chapter:15


# Publication Year: 1989
# Title: Contribution to the Identification of Treated Colored Diamonds: Diamonds with Peculiar Color-Zoned Pavilions
# Abstract: Some treated yellow and blue-to-green diamonds show a peculiar color zoning when viewed through the pavilion. The culet or keel-line area on such stones exhibits a bright yellow or blue color that contrasts with the otherwise lighter (and/or different) body color of the diamond (which does not show any other strong color zoning). Such peculiar color zoning near the culet or keel-line is a strong indication that the stone has been treated by electron irradiation. Although rare, this feature can be useful in identifying irradiated diamonds, especially some green diamonds, for which few criteria are available to separate natural-color from laboratory-treated stones. @chapter:29 @chapter:1 @chapter:29


# Publication Year: 1997
# Title: Summer 1997 Gem News International
# Abstract: Diamonds
            Conference on Diamond Technology
            A “Piggyback” Diamond Assemblage
            Synthetic Diamond Thin Film Jewelry
Colored Stones and Organic Material
            Color-Zoned Amethyst from Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
            Blue- and Multicolor-Sheen Moonstone Feldspar from India
            “Watermelon” Sunstone Feldspar Carving
            Musgravite: A Rarity among the Rare
            Faceted Cultured Pearls
            Inclusions in Quartz as Design Elements
Treatments
            A New Emerald Filler
Synthetics and Simulants
            Update on Vanadium-Bearing Synthetic Chrysoberyl
            “Cat’s-Eye” Synthetic Emerald
            Emerald Rough: Buyer Beware!
            An Especially Misleading Quench-Crackled Synthetic Ruby
            New Information on Flux-Grown Red Spinel from Russia

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:18 @chapter:1 @chapter:18


# Publication Year: 2019
# Title: Imitation Opal with Interesting Play-of-Color Pattern
# Abstract: Figure 1. This opal imitation shows a billowy play-of-color phenomenon. The largest block measures approximately 61.79 mm in length. Photo by Robison McMurtry and Diego Sanchez. Courtesy of Sanwa Pearl & Gems Ltd.

GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory recently examined samples of a relatively new manufactured gem material sometimes known as a “hybrid opal product” (figure 1) (see Spring 2018 Lab Notes, pp. 60–62). This material showed a refractive index of 1.498–1.500, and the specific gravity ranged from 1.33 to 1.35. Both of these properties fall far outside the range for natural opal, making identification very straightforward for the gemologist. These anomalous gemological properties also mean that this material is best described as an opal imitation and not a synthetic opal. This material is reportedly composed of about 20% silica and about 80% resin, which is consistent with the gemological properties measured.

Figure 2. The imitation opal showed broad swaths of the play-of-color phenomenon when examined with a microscope. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 18.80 mm.
This new imitation opal showed a pronounced play-of-color phenomenon with a pattern unlike the kind one would expect to see in conventional synthetic opal. Instead of small cellular patches, it displayed broad swaths of ever changing play-of-color covering large areas of the surface (figure 2). The laboratory examined samples that showed either a black or white bodycolor and a variety of colors in the play-of-color areas. For those who love opal, this attractive material could offer a cost-effective alternative to natural material while retaining the allure of the play-of-color phenomenon. @chapter:48 @chapter:0 @chapter:48


# Publication Year: 2016
# Title: Iridescent Spondylus Pearl
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 6.97 ct bicolored white and pink Spondylus pearl shows prominent reflective blue coloration over the fine parallel flame structure when viewed in certain directions under a single white light source. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.

	The optical phenomenon of iridescence is frequently observed in gem materials, but it is uncommon to see iridescent colors in porcelaneous pearls. Such pearls are appreciated for their prominent eye-visible flame structures, such as those seen in some Queen conch and Melo pearls. Pearls from these gastropods, along with Spondylus species bivalves, are routinely submitted to GIA’s laboratory. A bluish reflective sheen is a common feature of the flames seen in Spondylus pearls (Fall 2014 Lab Notes, pp. 241–242; Winter 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 436–437).

	A 6.97 ct bicolored white and pink Spondylus pearl (figure 1) was recently examined at GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory. When a single white light was used to illuminate the pearl, a prominent reflective blue coloration over its fine parallel flame structure was visible on the white portions. This created a pseudochatoyant effect similar to other Spondylus pearls previously examined. What was particularly captivating about this pearl was that iridescent colors ranging from purplish to a dominant blue were seen on the fine, well-formed flame structure when a fiber-optic light was applied in certain directions (figure 2).

Figure 2. Under magnification and using fiber-optic illumination, iridescent colors ranging from purplish to dominant blue reflect from the fine, well-formed flame structure of this Spondylus pearl. Photomicrograph by Artitaya Homkrajae; field of view 2.34 mm.

	As with many gemstones and nacreous pearls, the spectral colors seen on the flame structure are the result of the interference effect of light reflecting off of structural features. In this case, the thickness of the aragonite lamellae permits white light to be diffracted into most of the visible light wavelengths, resulting in a colorful effect.

	The iridescence characteristics of this pearl have not been encountered to such a marked degree in any other porcelaneous pearl examined by GIA. @chapter:11 @chapter:4 @chapter:11


# Publication Year: -
# Title: GemKids Introduces African Students to Natural Resources, Future Potential
# Abstract: Students at the Matshekge High School in Bobonong practice the MOHS Hardness Scale to test the hardness of minerals. Photo by GIA

	Thousands of African students are learning about the abundant natural resources found right in their own backyards through GIA’s GemKids program. The half-day workshops introduce the science of gemology with hands-on techniques that show the students why gemstones are a valuable resource.

	“The GemKids Program is a fun and fascinating introduction to gemology where students learn about gems from mine to market in an interactive environment,” said Elizabeth Bokaba, a GIA GemKids program instructor and coordinator. “Having taught several of these courses, it never ceases to amaze me how engaged the students are in this subject.”

	GIA’s GemKids Program was introduced in sub-Saharan Africa in 2012, and has taken place in Botswana, Cote d’Ivoire, Kenya, Namibia Tanzania and South Africa. Since March 2015, hundreds of students in rural Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Tanzania have participated.

	“This program enables students to understand more about − and ultimately benefit from − their natural resources,” added Brad Brooks-Rubin, GIA’s director of global development and beneficiation.

Elizabeth Bokaba teaches a student how to use a Darkfield Loupe at the Matshekge High School in Bobonong, Botswana. Photo by GIA

Botswana

	Close to 100 students from in and around Bobonong, Botswana, participated in the GemKids program over the course of two days in May 2015.

	Although large-scale diamond production has dominated Botswana’s economy since the late 20th century and the country is the world’s largest producer of diamonds by value today, Bobonong, located in Botswana’s Central District, is a source of colored gemstones. These colored gems may provide future economic opportunities for the children who grow up there.

	Twenty students from each school – Matshekge Hill Senior Secondary School, Bobirwa Community Junior Secondary School, Bobonong Community Junior Secondary School, Molalatau Community Junior Secondary School in Molalatau and Mosethla Community Junior Secondary School in Gobojango – participated in the GemKids program, which was organized in conjunction with the Botswana Geological Survey.

Students from Enaboishv Secondary and Bishopdvrning school. Photo by GIA

Namibia

	Local students from Five Rand Primary School in Okahanadja, a small town in Namibia, participated in GIA’s GemKids program in March 2015 in association with local company NamGem. Okahanadja is a rich source of diamonds and gemstones; many of the students’ parents work in mining-related jobs.

	The students were able to learn about and identify stones they encounter on a daily basis, often at home.

	“I am very honored to be part of this event as we are investing in the youth, especially those who are from underprivileged backgrounds. This opens many doors and windows of opportunity for them,” said the mayor of Okahandja, Her Worship Valerie Aron.

	In late June/early July 2015, GIA representatives delivered the GemKids program to more than 200 students – from the Gamams, Academia, Eldorado, Namibia P.S., Sunshine School, M. Mclean and Van Ryn secondary schools – during the Namibia Science, Technology and Innovation Fair.

	The fair was organized by National Commission on Research, Science and Technology with direct support from the Namibian government. GemKids was offered twice per day during the fair, for a total of 10 sessions, to a large numbers of students.

GIA participated in the East London Career Fair, organized by local nongovernmental organization DSR Youth Empowerment, in King William’s Town, South Africa in early July 2015. Photo by GIA

South Africa

	GIA participated in the East London Career Fair, organized by local nongovernmental organization DSR Youth Empowerment, in King William’s Town, South Africa in early July 2015.

	During the event, the Institute hosted a booth and presented students from across the Eastern Cape with essential information about GIA’s education offerings and career opportunities in the gem and jewelry trade.

	GIA also offered its GemKids program to more than 40 students from schools across the province. This program built on GIA’s participation earlier in the year at Career Indaba in Johannesburg.

Students from Arusha Secondary School tour the Arusha Gem Fair 2015 after the GemKids program. Photo by GIA

Tanzania

	Secondary students got to experience a gem trade show when GIA offered its GemKids program for the first time at the Arusha Gem Fair in Tanazania in April 2015.

	Secondary students from four local schools had the opportunity to learn about the natural resources that are an integral part of their local economy and tour the Gem Fair’s trading booths.

	GIA coordinated this program with the Tanzania Gemmological Centre, also based in Arusha. @chapter:34 @chapter:2 @chapter:34


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Two Pearls of Indian Cultural Significance
# Abstract: Figure 1. The Lord Hanumana pearl (left, 33.70 × 32.98 × 24.64 mm) and the Lord Ganesha pearl (right, 10.59 × 10.21 × 9.18 mm). Photo by Gaurav Bera.
In India, pearls (also known as moti or mukta) and pearl-adorned jewelry have historically been coveted by the affluent and served as symbols of cultural importance for centuries. GIA’s Mumbai laboratory has tested various jewelry items set with pearls that were not only artistic in their design but also of great symbolic and religious significance. Two recent submissions consisted of pearls fashioned into the likenesses of Indian deities (figure 1). The first was skillfully crafted to resemble Lord Hanumana, an Indian deity from the epic Ramayana bearing the likeness of a vanara (an ancient race of forest-dwellers). The ornament had a total weight of 24.91 g, and its surface was partially drilled in several positions. Yellow metal fittings set with green, white, yellow, and black enamel formed the head, eyes, body, and striped tail. A translucent red stone set on the pearl formed the tongue of the deity (figure 2, left). This baroque pearl was white and light gray in color with orient and measured approximately 33.70 × 32.98 × 24.64 mm. When viewed under 40× magnification, its surface showed typical nacreous structure with overlapping aragonite platelets, and minor surface openings were present on some areas. Most of the surface had good nacre condition, but a few small areas of the nacre were damaged or worn, and remnants of an adhesive glue were visible around some of the decorative enamel inserts.

Figure 2. Left: External appearance of the Lord Hanumana pearl. Photo by Gaurav Bera. Right: RTX image showing the internal structure. Also indicated are the gemstone tongue, the eyes, the tail, the void, and the filling.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry analysis of the pearl showed manganese levels below the detection level of the instrument and a higher strontium content of 1188 ppm. In addition, an inert reaction to X-ray fluorescence (XRF) confirmed saltwater origin. A moderate greenish yellow reaction was observed under long-wave ultraviolet radiation, and a weaker reaction of a similar color was noted under short-wave UV radiation. Such fluorescence reactions in nacreous saltwater pearls are often associated with pearls from the Pinctada-species mollusk. Real-time microradiography (RTX) imaging revealed the presence of a very large void that appeared to have been partially filled with a foreign material (figure 2, right). The clearest evidence of the void was observed within the ornament’s head as a dark gray area beneath the nacre layer. The outline of this void was consistent with the external shape of the pearl, but the filling material partially masked the void in RTX and made it harder to see the complete structure clearly. (The radiopaque areas visible on the microradiographs represent the adornments decorating the pearl.) While large voids are more often associated with non-bead cultured pearls, the shape and form of this void resembled those associated with natural pearls. Hollow pearls are often filled (wholly or partially) with a variety of materials including wax, metal, resin, cement, and shell to increase the weight and inflate the perceived value (Winter 2022 Lab Notes, pp. 480–481). In the case of older pearls such as this one, filling can provide enough solid material within the pearl to support all the metal adornments, and it can also improve the durability of the item.

Figure 3. Front view of the Lord Ganesha pearl (left) with a line drawing of features (center) and back view (right). Photo by Gaurav Bera.

Figure 4. X-ray fluorescence reaction (left) and an RTX image showing the Lord Ganesha pearl’s internal structure (right). A small twisted void and discoid features can be seen in the center.
Also submitted was a pearl portraying Lord Ganesha (figure 1, right). The white undrilled, button-shaped pearl weighed 6.27 ct and measured 10.59 × 10.21 × 9.18 mm. Its surface was carefully carved to resemble the Indian deity, with the head of an elephant and the seated body of a man on the front and a swirling pattern on the back (figure 3). EDXRF analysis results showed a high manganese content of 598 ppm and relatively low strontium levels at 376 ppm. These readings were supported by a strong yellowish green fluorescence reaction when exposed to optical XRF (figure 4, left), indicating the pearl was from a freshwater environment. RTX imaging revealed the presence of a small twisted void, along with discoid-like features (figure 4, right) typically seen in non-bead cultured freshwater pearls (K. Scarratt et al., “Characteristics of nuclei in Chinese freshwater cultured pearls,” Summer 2000 G&G, pp. 98–109).
The transformation of pearls into valuable pieces of art is a specialized skill. Indian artists have mastered this ability and can transform pearls into symbolic pieces that have a special connection to ancient Indian scriptures. The laboratory staff at GIA in Mumbai continue to examine intriguing pearls of historical and cultural significance in India. @chapter:55 @chapter:2 @chapter:55


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Turquoise United Conference 2023
# Abstract: Figure 1. From left: Jacob Lowry, Sean Hyrons, Matthew Wernz, and Kenneth Van Wey engage in a panel discussion titled “Laws: Liabilities and Protections.” Photo courtesy of the Turquoise Museum.
The second annual Turquoise United conference was held August 10–12, 2023, at the Albuquerque Convention Center in New Mexico. The vision of the conference is to bring together members of the turquoise industry at a single event for discussion and reunion. With this goal in mind, the conference caters to every aspect of the turquoise industry, attracting miners, lapidaries, collectors, dealers, artists, treatment experts, and researchers. A year ago, GIA representatives attended the inaugural Turquoise United conference (Fall 2022 GNI, pp. 390–394).
This year, there were additional symposium sessions across a range of topics and new competitions for registered conference participants. The first session was hosted by Turquoise Museum executive director Jacob Lowry, with a panel consisting of Kenneth Van Wey (Indian Arts and Crafts Board), Matthew Wernz (Federal Trade Commission), and Sean Hyrons (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). The panel discussed the laws surrounding the sale and purchase of turquoise jewelry and gave examples of situations in which their respective agencies may become involved (figure 1). The panelists offered advice to consumers purchasing turquoise jewelry, noting the importance of a written receipt stating the authenticity and nature of the product in as much detail as possible.
The turquoise grading system proposed by Joe Dan Lowry at last year’s conference has been put into practice. Attendees could attempt to grade sample stones or stones of their own using the system based on turquoise master stone sets and grades of color, matrix, and “zat” (boldness and dynamism). Application of the grading system requires detailed knowledge of certain turquoise features present at different mines. For example, author AG did not recognize “waterweb” matrix as being a valuable pattern, and therefore gave a lower matrix score on a stone with a high value. The grading system continues to be developed with feedback from the conference, with a goal of publicly accepted use by 2027.
The conference also offered courses for attendees. A “Turquoise Basics” course taught by Jacob Lowry described the types of turquoise and turquoise imitations in the market to better inform new buyers of the stone. Joe Dan Lowry taught a class called “Collecting 101,” offering guidance to consumers beginning their own turquoise collection. A follow-up course, “Collecting 102,” is planned for Turquoise United 2024.

Figure 2. Mark Baca (American Turquoise Online) holds his winning piece (right) and trophy for Best in Show. Photo courtesy of the Turquoise Museum.
Some attendees were rewarded for their impressive specimens and extensive turquoise knowledge. A highest-grade turquoise stone contest received numerous entries from multiple mines, ranging from natural cabochons with striking color and matrix to hefty rough turquoise nuggets. Best in Show winner Mark Baca (American Turquoise Online) received a monetary prize and trophy (figure 2). An identification contest over both days of the conference allowed attendees to test their skills at identifying the nature and mine origin of turquoise specimens. Michael Turano (Michael Turano Lapidary) won the contest, with Dye Masaki (Native Spirit) placing second, and Ty Gibson (Gibson Lapidary, LLC) in third.
Author AG presented his research on the Mona Lisa mine, located in western Arkansas, in a session on August 11. He provided details about the history, geology, mineralogy, and current mining operations at the site. Discussion about the methods used and Mona Lisa turquoise’s potential place in the market followed the presentation. Material from the mine was also on display at the Turquoise Museum, where the day ended with the Collectors’ Circle Gala.
The following morning, author AP presented GIA’s methods for identifying turquoise in the gemological laboratory. Attendees expressed their interest in learning more about these techniques and shared their views on terminology in the turquoise industry.
Next, Joe Dan Lowry presented a session on the challenges of fingerprinting turquoise mine sources, especially in archaeological contexts. The heterogeneity of turquoise, the multitude of sources, and the stone’s formation in near-surface, sedimentary environments create unique challenges when trying to determine a stone’s mine origin.

Figure 3. Left: A conference participant examines turquoise cabochons. Right: Iranian turquoise cabochon with a brown “spiderweb” matrix pattern. Photos by Aaron Palke.
Throughout the conference, a gem show focused solely on turquoise was open to the public. Roughly a dozen dealers participated, offering a wide variety of turquoise material (figure 3), including high-end jewelry pieces, natural rough material, untreated cabochons, stabilized cabochons, and beadwork. Many American turquoise localities were represented, while turquoise from Iran, China, Egypt, and Mexico was also available. A silent auction allowed conference attendees to bid on natural turquoise and turquoise jewelry pieces donated by the event sponsors.
The conference concluded with a banquet honoring the first inductees into the Turquoise Hall of Fame: Joseph Pogue, Leonard Hardy, Robert Zachary, Philip Chambless, and James Elquist. These honorees were nominated for their impact on the turquoise industry. The event sponsors reiterated their desire to grow Turquoise United, with confirmation that the annual event will be hosted in Albuquerque in 2024. @chapter:33 @chapter:2 @chapter:33


# Publication Year: 2008
# Title: Summer 2008 G&G Lab Notes
# Abstract: Diamond with Color Contributed by the 594 nm Center (?)
Subtle Flash-Effect Colors in a Filled Diamond
“Unidentified Clarity Characteristic” in Diamond
Gem-quality CVD Synthetic Diamond with Traces of Boron
Bleached Pinctada Margaritifera Cultured Pearls in Non-“Chocolate” Colors
Blue-Green Plagioclase Feldspar Possibly Colored by Copper
Unusual Green Fluid Inclusions in Quartz
Inclusions within Inclusions in Ruby
Blue Sapphire with Unusually High Concentration of Rare-Earth Elements

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:43 @chapter:1 @chapter:43


# Publication Year: 2017
# Title: Book Review: Gem Testing Techniques
# Abstract: By Alan Hodgkinson, hardcover, 552 pp., publ. by Valerie Hodgkinson, 2015, GBP185.

Although several books on gem testing have been previously published, this particularly comprehensive volume by renowned gemologist Alan Hodgkinson will certainly be a welcome addition to members of the field.  This book is geared towards a general audience from beginners to career gemologists. It is saturated with information, yet isn’t so technical to be impractical. The numerous chapters are organized in broad categories relating to particular physical properties. From acid testing of gem materials to the correct application of ultraviolet light, there is little that Hodgkinson does not cover. This book is well written with great detail. In its 552 pages, the reader will be pleased to find numerous images and diagrams that, while not generally glamorous, are very adequate for aiding the reader in understanding the concepts discussed. Scattered throughout the volume are a number of tips and tricks that the practicing gemologist may find useful to gain information while testing an unknown gem, such as using top lighting to observe pleochroism with a refractometer. Many of the methods require readily available and inexpensive materials, which many gemologists will appreciate; the use of “visual optics” to measure refractive indices with an elongate paper as an indexed scale is one example.

The book is clad in a plain blue hard cover, with silver lettering on the front cover and spine. A ribbon is included for marking one’s place as the reader navigates the pages. The overall quality of the paper, printing and binding appear to be very good. Overall, this book serves as a great reference for gemologists. The decades of experience by the author are apparent when reading through this book. Surely this will be a highly sought-after publication from which hobbyists and professional gemologists alike can benefit. @chapter:52 @chapter:1 @chapter:52


# Publication Year: 2014
# Title: Jadeite Bangle with the Appearance of Polymer Treatment
# Abstract: Figure 1. This 244.29 ct translucent light to deep green and brownish yellow bangle measures approximately 70 × 14 mm. It contained a transparent, light-colored area that suggested the possibility of a polymer impregnation process. Photo courtesy of Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.

Jadeite jade always comes under close scrutiny in the market because it is so frequently treated. The treatment options for jadeite jade are numerous: bleaching, dyeing, polymer impregnation, or a combination of these. Polymer impregnation is a particular favorite, a process that is not always easy to observe by magnification. A 244.29 ct translucent light to deep green and brownish yellow bangle measuring approximately 70 × 14 mm was recently submitted to the Lai Tai-An Gem Lab in Taipei. The client was concerned about a more transparent light-colored area (figure 1) that appeared to be possible evidence of impregnation.

Standard gemological testing indicated a spot RI reading of 1.54 at the more transparent light-colored area and 1.66 elsewhere on the bangle, an SG of approximately 3.32, and a characteristic jadeite spectrum exhibiting a band at about 437 nm. FTIR and Raman spectroscopy were also applied, producing spectral features that confirmed the bangle’s identity as jadeite jade. Microscopic examination revealed natural inclusions within the transparent area that appeared to be polycrystalline (figure 2). Neither would be seen in an impregnated specimen, ruling out this treatment. Further analysis with Raman microscopy was conducted to identify its true nature.

Sharp absorption peaks at around 207, 347, 400, 465, and 990 cm–1 were a match for nepheline (figure 3), a mineral sometimes associated with albite in jadeite. The nepheline crystal remained intact during the fashioning process, and its presence led to confusion over whether the bangle had been treated.

Figure 2. Microscopic examination of the suspect area revealed natural inclusions and a crystalline form. Neither would be found in an impregnated specimen. Photo courtesy of Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.

Figure 3. Sharp absorption peaks around 207, 347, 400, 465, and 990 cm–1 were consistent with nepheline, a mineral sometimes associated with albite in jadeite. @chapter:46 @chapter:4 @chapter:46


# Publication Year: 2021
# Title: Unique Metal Sulfide Inclusion in “Bing Piao” Red Agate from Liangshan, China
# Abstract: Figure 1. The cabochon on the left is a normal “Bing Piao” red agate measuring 12.50 × 19.60 × 10.11 mm. The bead on the right, approximately 11.80 mm in diameter, is a special type of “Bing Piao” red agate. Photo by Su Xu.

Over the past decade, with the discovery of “Nanhong” agate ore deposits in Sichuan Province, a significant amount of this material has been mined in Meigu County, located in the northeast of Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture. Commercial gem mines in Meigu County are located in three main areas, including Jiu Kou, Wa Xi, and Lian He. Field observations show that the ore body is found either in the interlayer fissures and cavities of Permian Emeishan basalt crystallized from siliceous hydrothermal fluid or as conglomerates of the Permian Leping Formation.
Previous reports found that “Nanhong” agate is colored by natural hematite inclusions. Moreover, these agates are divided into five major categories, including “Bing Piao” (a Chinese term that refers to their inclusions “floating on ice”). This type of agate (see figure 1, left) is colorless and contains red hematite particles distributed in attractive patterns.
Recently, a special type of “Bing Piao” red agate called “black grass” agate by merchants appeared in the market at Liangshan. A bead of this material (figure 1, right) was obtained for examination at the National Gold-Silver Gem & Jewelry Quality Supervision & Inspection Center (Sichuan).

Figure 2. These antennae-like inclusions consist of dot-like black minerals, coupled with red inclusions. Photomicrograph by Xiaoping Shi; field of view 9.00 mm.
Gemological properties of the semitransparent bead, including its RI of 1.54 and hydrostatic SG of 2.65, suggested agate; this was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. Magnification revealed tiny red inclusions that were identified as hematite by Raman spectra (peaks at 225, 244, 291, 410, 610, and 1320 cm–1) using a 785 nm laser. In addition to these attractive red forms made of hematite, the bead hosted many unusual black mineral particles displaying various shapes such as blades, planar clusters, and the like (figure 2). When viewed with reflected light, microscopic observations of their opaque, anhedral form and metallic luster suggested the particles were likely an iron sulfide. A Raman spectrum obtained from a surface-reaching black particle showed two major peaks at 342 and 377 cm–1, matching well with pyrite, according to the RRUFF database (reference spectrum R100166), as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3. The black particle was identified as pyrite based on comparison with Raman reference spectra from the RRUFF database. Spectra are offset vertically for clarity.
To obtain confirmation, the bead was polished down to a plate to perform chemical analysis and phase identification of the black particles using a scanning electron microscope in combination with an energy-dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS) equipped with an electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) detector. Qualitative analysis revealed the expected major elements of Fe, As, and S, along with minor Si, likely from the agate host. This was consistent with pyrite composition. The EBSD analyses indicated a cubic structure, and a search of the NIST Structural Database using Aztec software revealed a match for pyrite (FeS2).
Except for Liangshan, such distinctive black minerals of various forms have not been found in other “Bing Piao” red agate deposits. The pyrite particles, as inclusions that are unique to “Bing Piao” red agate from Liangshan, may therefore be considered reliable indicators of origin. Further gemological studies on these inclusions are required to construct the database for origin determination. @chapter:12 @chapter:0 @chapter:12


# Publication Year: -
# Title: International Group Sets Sights on Sustainable Gemstone Mining
# Abstract: Artisanal miners at the Birim River near Akwatia, Ghana sift the gravels for diamonds. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

The colored gemstone industry plays a tiny role on the world economic stage, but it has long been an important livelihood for hundreds of thousands of miners and traders in developing countries.
Improving those miners’ returns on their labor and their working conditions has been a difficult challenge, given the fragmented nature of the industry and the myriad conflicting interests at each trading level.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) held an important first-of-its-kind forum involving gemstone mining at its Paris headquarters in May to bring together as many actors in this scattered industry as possible. The goal of the three-day conference, that included a session on gemstone mining, was to begin the process of creating policies for sustainable mining practices and increasing returns for miners who often dig by hand with little to show for their efforts.
The OECD consists of 34 developed democracies with market economies that work with each other and some 70 non-member countries to promote economic growth and sustainable development. The organization estimates that 100 million people in more than 70 countries are engaged in artisanal and small-scale mining of a variety of minerals. About 15 million are mining for gold, including 4.5 million women and 600,000 children.
The forum, which included representatives of gold and other mineral interests in addition to colored stones, provided a platform for source country governments, gemstone traders, miners, civil society groups, large retailers and responsible source-certifying organizations to begin hammering out policies that will benefit producing nations and miners, while balancing the interests of other players.
Interviews with participants at the meeting illustrated the challenges of balancing everyone’s interests. For example:

Governments want revenue from and control of their resources, while miners resist regulations and export duties.
Artisanal miners – those digging with hand tools – often get very little from their finds partly because many of them operate illegally on private property or government-owned land and because they are often the poorest, most marginalized elements of society without education or power.
Large mining companies and fair trade certification agencies can adopt policies to promote sustainable mining and labor practices, and can afford the certification process. Small miners and dealers complain that such certification measures are too costly and are often used as an excuse to muscle them out.
Civil society groups and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working with resources such as gemstones often insist on near airtight accountability for every gemstone mined, while miners and dealers claim this is an unrealistic, if not impossible, goal.
Retailers increasingly want supply chain accountability to counter customer concerns – real or potential – over sustainability and conflict issues. Miners and dealers in source countries, however, are often unaware of such consumer concerns or have different or conflicting priorities.

The OECD is working to balance all of these conflicting interests into its guidelines. The majority of attention to the artisanal mining sector focuses on bringing miners into the formal sector, which means legalizing their activities to help reduce their dependence on money launderers and corrupt officials who often extort money or other benefits from them in exchange for allowing them to continue mining illegally, said Estelle Levin-Nally, a consultant on mineral artisanal mining sustainability and previously director of the GIFF project.
Levin-Nally said governments are starting to come around on this issue. She added, however, that the “colored gemstone industry has, by and large, accepted the relevance of OECD guidance for responsible sourcing of minerals to their sector.” She said that this is a new development, adding that there are still large gaps to work through.
“Upstream (at the local dealer and mining level) there’s concern that the downstream people are pushing sustainability priorities like environmental protection or conflict financing, while also pushing for low prices,” she said. “On the other hand, in the producing countries, the miners, exporters and government officials are desperately seeking support to for their primary concern – maximizing revenues. This is the foundation for stimulating investment in handling the social and environmental issues.”
She acknowledged that realities at the mine sources “can be quite messy with crime, smuggling and control by corrupt elements. These are problems that still must be dealt with in many situations.” She emphasized the importance of commercial pragmatism and taking a “human rights based approach” to unleashing the economic potential of the sector.

Sustainability audits have created a divide between larger mining firms, such as Gemfield’s Kagem emerald mine in Zambia, and artisanal miners who claim they are disadvantaged because they cannot afford the lengthy certification process. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

Governmental representatives at the meeting stressed the need to gain control over the mining of their resources before sustainable mining and fair labor practices could begin to operate. This means controlling mining and access to gem deposits; developing workable export procedures that bring in revenue, but do not invite smuggling; and excluding smugglers and criminal elements from mining areas.
While Levin-Nally notes that governments have been taking more initiatives in this direction, Jean Claude Michelou, a gemstone trader who has worked on these issues with the International Colored Stone Association, said the situation of many “informal” miners – those mining without permission from the government – remains very difficult.
“Many of these miners have no other means of support, so we need to find a way to legalize them,” he explained, adding that a number of countries continue to regard them as illegal squatters and operators.
Michelou, said some governments are now working to bring these miners into their legal framework.
“Colombia is one of the more involved governments in both its emerald and gold mining industries,” he said, because the government came to understand how much revenue it was losing by keeping these miners outside the system.
Myanmar, long an outlier because of sanctions against its military government, is also moving to wrest control of its ruby and jade production, Michelou said, adding that estimates of lost revenue shocked the country’s representatives at the meeting. Myanmar’s jade production is beset by huge challenges, noted in an earlier report.
While the OECD has developed an operational framework to account for all parties’ interests, the World Bank is starting to fund specific efforts to put these policies into practice through its Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources project.
Jeff Bilgore, who attended the meeting on behalf of the American Gem Trade Association, said his organization has developed a code of ethics and due diligence procedures over the past three years and its aim is to get these standards adopted by the OECD.
“Our prime concerns are to balance the miners’ interests with the concerns of small family businesses in producer nations and consumers in the U.S,” he said. “There’s been a lot of progress, but it’s step-by-step. Things are still far from perfect, but we are moving forward.” @chapter:49 @chapter:3 @chapter:49


# Publication Year: 2023
# Title: Glass Imitation of Cat’s-Eye Chrysoberyl
# Abstract: Figure 1. A ring mounted with an estimated 5.56 ct brownish yellow cat’s-eye cabochon resembling chrysoberyl. Photo by Johnny (Chak Wan) Leung.
The Hong Kong laboratory recently examined a ring mounted with an estimated 5.56 ct brownish yellow cat’s-eye cabochon (figure 1). The client submitted the stone as cat’s-eye chrysoberyl, which it resembled at first glance. Standard gemological testing yielded a spot refractive index of 1.57, well below chrysoberyl’s range of 1.74–1.75. Under short-wave UV radiation, the stone displayed strong chalky fluorescence. Microscopic observation revealed long parallel tubes creating a cat’s-eye when viewed from the top and a honeycomb structure when viewed from the side of the stone (figure 2). This confirmed the material was fiber-optic glass, made by fusing together very thinly spun glass fibers. Infrared spectroscopy showed two broad absorptions centered at 3500 and 2670 cm–1 associated with artificial glass, further validating our identification.

Figure 2. The cabochon displayed the honeycomb structure frequently observed in fiber-optic glass. Photomicrograph by Tsz Ying Fong; field of view 2.00 mm.
Artificial glass has been used as an imitation for different gems such as star sapphire (Fall 2021 Lab Notes, pp. 261–262), Paraíba tourmaline (Winter 2020 Lab Notes, pp. 518–520), nephrite and jadeite (Spring 2019 Lab Notes, pp. 93–94), and blue amber (Fall 2019 Gem News International, pp. 443–444). Its color and appearance can often lead to misidentification. Therefore, conducting basic gemological tests and observing the stone under a microscope is important, especially when the stone is set in jewelry. @chapter:24 @chapter:0 @chapter:24


# Publication Year: -
# Title: Pearl Journey
# Abstract: Few people outside the gem industry realize the true nature of a cultured pearl’s journey from the producer to the counter of a store. Whether the gem is being offered to consumer’s at a traditional jewelry store’s counter, an internet shopping site, or a television broadcast the journey always involves a great deal of effort.  Careful nurturing, countless hours of labor, and significant investment are needed to being a pearl to market. @chapter:47 @chapter:2 @chapter:47


# Publication Year: 2014
# Title: Books: Jewels of the Romanovs: Family & Court
# Abstract: By Stefano Papi, 352 pp., hardcover, illus. publ. by Thames & Hudson, 2013, $75.00.

              Stefano Papi’s Jewels of the Romanovs: Family & Court is a study of the Russian dynasty’s jewels and its gilded world at the turn of the 20th century. In this second edition, published to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the Romanov empire, Papi examines a wide range of items, from the crown jewels to intimate personal gifts made by court jeweler Carl Fabergé. Papi specializes in European jewelry and has worked for both Sotheby’s and Christie’s as a jewelry specialist; his expertise in the field of historical jewelry, plus his gemological background, make for fascinating reading.

For the reader who enjoys the history of Imperial Russia, this book offers a rich treasure trove of archival photos of the Romanovs and members of their court. The photos show not only the formal life of the royals but also intimate everyday scenes, giving a glimpse into the personalities behind the titles. Papi delves into the unique people who populated the royal circles, as well as the artists whose work adorned them. This book gives the reader an intimate look into the lives and personalities of early 20th century Europe. Navigating the family tree of European royal houses is no easy task, but Papi does a fine job of connecting the dots as he introduces the various characters. The history buff will enjoy both the images and the unique, colorful stories the author weaves.

For those interested in gems, this book offers archival and modern photos of some of the most beautiful and impressive jewels ever created. These are supplemented with compelling descriptions and stories of the jewelry’s provenance. The reader is taken on an incredible journey of intrigue and romance that crosses the globe and includes such stones as the 189.62 ct Orlov diamond in the Imperial Scepter, as well as the 400 ct spinel in the Great Imperial Crown. Pieces of jewelry are often accompanied by an archival photo or painting of the owner wearing the piece. Included in this volume is a beautiful color photo of a kokoshnik, or traditional Russian headdress, made with diamonds and large cabochon emeralds by the court jeweler Bolin. A black-and-white photo shows Queen Marie of Serbia wearing it, along with diamond earrings weighing 20 carats each. Over the years, some pieces have been lost or broken up to make other pieces, so these illustrations serve as a historical record.

The book is illustrated with masterpieces by the greatest jewelers of the time: Cartier, Bolin, Boucheron, Chaumet, Lalique, and, of course, the venerable Fabergé. They all catered to the courtiers of St. Petersburg. One of the prominent personalities at court was Maria Pavlovna, the Grand Duchess Vladimir. Married to Grand Duke Vladimir, brother of Alexander III, she was known for her collection of magnificent jewels. There was not one prominent jewelry house in St. Petersburg, Paris, or London that did not know her. She was one of their most important clients, famous for her glorious balls and dinner parties that rivaled even those at the Imperial court.

During the Russian Revolution, Empress Alexandra managed to get her major jewels out of the country. Some smaller treasures, including Fabergé cigarette cases and her husband’s cuff links, were stuffed into pillowcases and smuggled by a friend to the Swedish embassy. They remained stored in the basement of a government building in Stockholm until they were discovered in 2009. Sotheby’s sold off this treasure trove, along with the two pillowcases, in November of that year. One of the book’s more memorable photos shows several of the Fabergé cigarette cases on top of the pillowcases. This adventure is just one of many that enhance the history of the jewels in this book.

Of course, the story of the Romanovs ended tragically. Papi devotes the final two chapters to the last days of the royal family, documented in photos, and the final dispersal of royal treasures by the Bolsheviks. Many pieces made their way into American collections through dealers such as Wartski in London and Armand Hammer in New York. If only these jewels could speak, what stories they might tell! Stefano Papi has created a well-researched, beautifully illustrated book that gives them voice. @chapter:25 @chapter:2 @chapter:25


# Publication Year: 2018
# Title: Three Irradiated CVD Synthetic Diamonds
# Abstract: Figure 1. These 1.12 ct, 1.14 ct, and 1.34 ct laboratory-irradiated CVD synthetic diamonds all have similar appearance, with color grades equivalent to Fancy Deep green-blue. Photos by Robison McMurtry.
While laboratory-irradiated diamonds are often submitted for grading reports, irradiated synthetics with a green-to-blue color are still a rare occurrence. Before the submissions described here, GIA’s laboratory had examined only three irradiated CVD synthetics (Fall 2014 Lab Notes, pp. 240–241; Fall 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 320–321) and two irradiated HPHT synthetics. So it was interesting when the Carlsbad laboratory received three irradiated CVD synthetics, apparently from the same client.
All three synthetics showed very similar features in terms of color (equivalent to Fancy Deep green-blue; figure 1), clarity (equivalent to VVS2), and weight (1.12 ct, 1.14 ct, and 1.34 ct), along with comparable features detected by fluorescence imaging (figure 2) and spectroscopy (figure 3).

Figure 2. All three irradiated CVD synthetics displayed very weak fluorescence in the DiamondView, as seen in the 1.14 ct sample shown here. All showed the characteristic striations of CVD growth. Image by Sally Eaton-Magaña.

Figure 3. Radiation-related features dominate the CVD synthetic diamonds’ Vis-NIR absorption spectra when collected at liquid nitrogen temperature. Features include the GR1 at 741.2 nm, the 595 nm center at 594.2 nm, the TR12 center at 469.9 nm, a radiation-related peak at 464.3 nm, and the GR2 at 429 nm.
The Vis-NIR and IR absorption spectroscopy and the photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy were nearly identical among the three specimens, indicating that they were probably grown and treated under similar if not identical conditions. The IR absorption spectra showed very weak 3107 cm–1 and 1344 cm–1 peaks. Based on the integrated area of the 1344 cm–1 peaks (I. Kiflawi et al., “Infrared absorption by the single nitrogen and A defect centres in diamond,” Philosophical Magazine B, Vol. 69, No. 6, 1994, pp. 1141–1147), we determined the single N concentration as about 0.4–0.5 ppm for all three samples. The Vis-NIR absorption spectra showed typical features for irradiated diamonds: the TR12 (a radiation-related feature tentatively ascribed to a divacancy/di-interstitial defect at 469.9 nm), the 595 nm center, and GR1 [V0] at 741.2 nm (figure 3). PL spectra showed a weak SiV– doublet at 736.6 and 736.9 nm along with a very strong GR1 center. PL spectroscopy also indicated the presence of the H2 peak at 986.2 nm and the lack of the 596/597 nm doublet that is normally seen in as-grown CVD synthetics and generally disappears with post-growth treatment. This combination, along with the 3107 cm–1 peak in the IR spectra, suggests these diamonds were HPHT treated before irradiation.
Owing to their extreme rarity and individuality, creating a set of matching natural-color diamonds can be quite challenging. In contrast, synthetic diamonds can demonstrate uniformity in features and appearance due to the manufacturer’s ability to control the growth conditions, defect concentrations, and the subsequent treatment parameters. @chapter:9 @chapter:1 @chapter:9


# Publication Year: 2020
# Title: New Emerald Locality in Southern California
# Abstract: Figure 1. A map of California with an inset showing the San Diego area and marking the emerald locality (star).
Located about 60 miles east of San Diego, a new emerald deposit has been discovered in the Julian Mining District (figure 1). This area is known for pegmatite mines and hydrothermal mineral deposits; however, none of those are known to have produced emeralds to date. The emeralds (example shown in figure 2) were all collected by author RE and son Bruce Edley near the surface and are embedded in a biotite schist host rock. Most of the recovered single crystals have a translucent dark green color and inclusions, and they are typically smaller than 2 cm. A few light-colored green beryl crystals have been recovered from a nearby pegmatite. Their formation was likely correlated with metamorphic and hydrothermal processes associated with regional tectonism.

Figure 2. An example of an emerald cluster found in a new deposit in Julian, California. Specimen size is 20 × 10 × 9 mm. Photo by Myke Clarkson.
Samples were analyzed at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County and sent to GIA for species confirmation using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS). We performed Raman and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) hyperspectral mapping and powder X-ray diffraction (not shown) to determine mineralogy and elemental composition. Raman analysis on a polished pill-shaped gem (figure 3, left) identified beryl and quartz to confirm our observation of the rare combination of emerald and citrine. Raman further identified dolomite and hematite inclusions. XRF element maps (figure 3, right) show silicon (Si), chromium (Cr), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), and holmium (Ho) content. Of the approximately 425 carats of emeralds that have been recovered, about 5–10% contain macro-citrine inclusions, representing a unique aspect of this deposit.

Figure 3. Left: A 3.16 ct polished pill-shaped emerald, seen in transmitted light, was one of the best examples of emerald with citrine from this locality. Photo by Aaron Celestian. Right: Element maps of the outlined area on the specimen. Brighter areas indicate higher concentrations.
The distribution of trace elements in the pill-shaped emerald indicates a complex series of events. The emerald is cross-cut by a layer of citrine. Half of the gem is enriched in trace holmium (below the citrine), where holmium is inversely correlated with manganese. Chromium-rich areas run perpendicular to the citrine, but align on either side of the citrine, suggesting that the emerald formed as a single crystal. The patterns of holmium and manganese hint toward secondary geochemical processes that may be related to later citrine emplacement, though the origin of these processes is unknown. The unusual mineral associations and elemental distribution demonstrate the geologic complexity of the deposit, and further work is needed to unravel its full history. @chapter:5 @chapter:0 @chapter:5


# Publication Year: 2013
# Title: Exotic Stingray Skin Jewelry
# Abstract: Figure 1. This piece of stingray jewelry is placed on a backdrop of stingray skin. Courtesy of the Ferraccia Jewelry Collection. Photo by Eric Welch.

              Leather has long been used in jewelry, combined with precious metals and gemstones to add a special flavor. The variety of textures from different animal skins offers a highly versatile component for designers.

The Ferraccia Jewelry Collection exhibited a huge variety of stingray leather goods at the AGTA show, including bracelets (figure 1), necklaces, earrings, rings, belts, purses, and mobile phone cases. Stingray is not considered an endangered species. They are harvested as a delicacy in Asia and some Eastern European countries. The leather used in this collection comes only from the top of the stingray. This part of the skin, which serves as the animal’s armor and backbone, rarely exceeds 10 inches wide and 17 inches long (figure 2). The polished stingray skin displays a unique texture resembling hundreds of sparkling pearl-like spots under proper lighting. This pattern is tactile as well as visual. Considerable effort went into the tanning and finishing process to obtain the deep color and durability. Thirty custom dyed colors were created, and each skin has its own pattern, adding to the uniqueness and exotic appeal.

	Figure 2. A close-up view of the processed stingray skin shows numerous shiny pearl-like spots. Courtesy of the Ferraccia Jewelry Collection. Photo by Eric Welch.
Stingray leather is also very durable because the tiny grains are all rooted in the underside of the skin. With proper care, it should last more than a lifetime. A damp cloth, air drying, clear leather polish, and mild soap are used to remove any remnants between the individual grains. @chapter:53 @chapter:4 @chapter:53