Publication Year: 2015 Title: Blue Gahnite Inclusions inCat’s-Eye Heliodor Abstract: Figure 1. These four heliodor cabochons display sharp eyes under incandescent fiber-optic illumination. Photo by C.D. Mengason.

	Four golden oval cabochons (figure 1) were submitted to the Carlsbad laboratory by L. Allen Brown (All That Glitters, Methuen, Massachusetts) for scientific examination. Standard gemological testing revealed that the stones were beryl. Under incandescent fiber-optic illumination, the stones showed a very sharp cat’s eye, caused by growth tubes and fine needle-like inclusions oriented parallel to the c-axis. Under magnification, blue crystals with octahedral morphology (figure 2) were the most distinctive internal characteristic.

Figure 2. Diffused fiber-optic illumination reveals well-formed blue octahedral crystals in addition to the hollow tubes that cause the chatoyancy. The black needle-like inclusions may be hematite. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 1.10 mm.

	Raman microspectroscopy was used to identify the blue octahedral inclusions as gahnite, a zinc-rich end member of the spinel group with the general formula ZnAl2O4. It occurs most commonly as an accessory mineral in granitic pegmatites, usually associated with almandine-spessartine garnet, muscovite, beryl, tourmaline, and nigerite (D.R. Soares, et al., “Chemical composition of gahnite and degree of pegmatitic fractionation in the Borborema Pegmatitic Province, northeastern Brazil,” Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 2007, Vol. 79, No. 3, pp. 395–404). According to Brown, the stones were purchased in Tucson in 2010 and were represented as being from Brazil. These are the first beryls with gahnite inclusions that GIA has examined to date. Since gahnite is a diagnostic inclusion in sapphires from Sri Lanka (E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 3, Opinio Verlag, Basel, Switzerland, 2008, p. 290), detailed study of gahnite may also provide some indication of the geographic origin of heliodor. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Enormous South Sea Cultured Pearl Filled with Cultured Pearls Abstract: Figure 1. The large 49.55 ct South Sea cultured pearl (left) is shown alongside a typical 13 mm South Sea cultured pearl. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

              Known for their size, South Sea cultured pearls can attain a diameter of 20 mm or more. A massive baroque white South Sea cultured pearl weighing 49.55 ct and measuring 27.12 × 23.23 × 21.67 mm (figure 1) was recently submitted to the New York laboratory for identification. Besides its remarkable size, we noted a small corner section with a circular gap highlighted by a yellowish glue-like material (figure 2). This feature suggested that a smaller pearl with similar color and luster had been used to fill an opening in the baroque cultured pearl.

	Figure 2. A small pearl was plugged into this opening in the baroque pearl. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.
Microradiography revealed that this smaller pearl was a nonbead-cultured pearl with an irregular linear dark central growth feature (figure 3, left). Both pearls originated from a saltwater environment, according to energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectroscopy. Surprisingly, microradiography revealed three additional bead-cultured pearls within the large baroque specimen (figure 3, right). These three cultured pearls showed their own distinct bead demarcations and had all been drilled through. The large void was filled with an unknown substance that prevented the three pearls from moving around.

	Figure 3. The baroque pearl’s internal structure suggested a non-bead cultured pearl (left). X-radiography showed that three bead cultured pearls were used to fill the void (right). Photo by Surjit Dillon Wong.
Although we occasionally see filled or plugged pearls (see D. Hargett, “Unusually large worked and plugged cultured pearl,” Winter 1991 Lab Notes, p. 251), this was the first time we had encountered a South Sea cultured pearl filled with multiple bead-cultured pearls. We believe this enormous pearl was originally cultured with a single bead nucleus, but that somehow the bead emerged through an opening. To maintain the specimen’s weight and durability, the three bead-cultured pearls were used to fill the void and the opening was plugged with a smaller nonbead-cultured pearl. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Green Sapphire Filled with Glass Abstract: Figure 1. This 1.83 ct specimen proved to be a manufactured product consisting of lead glass and natural green sapphire. Photo by Robison McMurtry.

              In recent years, one of the most problematic gem treatments has been the filling of ruby with lead glass, due to its unstable nature. In 2007, a new application for lead glass treatment in corundum began to appear in the market: sapphire filled with cobalt-colored lead glass (T. Leeawatanasuk et al., “Cobalt-doped glass-filled sapphire; an update,” The Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2013, pp. 14–20). Recently examined at the Carlsbad laboratory was a particularly unusual 1.83 ct green sapphire (figure 1) that proved to be filled with a significant amount of lead glass.

Standard gemological testing gave an RI of 1.762–1.770, a hydrostatic SG of 4.00, a prominent absorption band at 450 nm, and inert reaction to long- and short-wave UV. These properties are consistent with natural corundum. Microscopic examination, however, revealed numerous low-relief cracks throughout the stone that showed a prominent blue flash effect, as well as several flattened gas bubbles trapped within the filler (figure 2). Also observed were reflective rutile needles.

	Figure 2. Flattened gas bubbles and a blue flash effect suggest that this stone contains significant amounts of lead glass, which was confirmed by EDXRF spectroscopy. Photo by Phil York; field of view 1.57 mm.
To determine if a leaded glass was used to hide the cracks in the corundum, we applied EDXRF spectroscopy, which confirmed the presence of lead. UV-visible spectroscopy was used to explore whether the color was intrinsic to the corundum (as in glass-filled ruby) or intrinsic to the filler glass (as in sapphire filled with a lead glass colored by cobalt). The UV-Vis spectrum revealed a prominent 450 nm series related to Fe3+ pairs responsible for the yellow component of the green color, which was consistent with the overall green bodycolor of the stone. The blue component was observed as diffuse planar color zoning unrelated to the network of fractures. This combination of natural yellow and blue components produced the overall green bodycolor.

This was the first lead glass–filled green sapphire examined at the Carlsbad laboratory. On a GIA identification report, this would be called a “manufactured product." @chapter:12


Publication Year: - Title: 2019 in Review: Diamond Trade Begins Recovery, Jewelry Retail Blooms Late, Extraordinary Auction Sales Abstract: Cartier fashioned the costliest piece in Christie’s May Maharajas & Mughal Magnificence auction, a Époque-era Diamond Devant-de-Corsage brooch that sold for $10.6 million. Photo courtesy of Christie’s

The world diamond industry continued to contract in 2019 in the wake of oversupplies and tightening credit, but the major auction houses still made headlines with extraordinary offerings. Retail jewelry sales held up as the world economy remained fairly strong, despite being buffeted by the U.S.-China trade war.
Regardless of a decent 2018 holiday season in the U.S., inventories of polished and rough diamonds continued to increase in 2019, causing prices of both to soften to the point where De Beers and Alrosa, the two largest diamond producers, slashed their sales volumes by some 25%. In addition, rough prices declined about 15% on average, especially in the second half of the year, according to a study by Petra Resources, a South African diamond mining company.
Prices and industry profits did not improve, so one of the industry’s leading lenders, ABN AMRO Bank, announced that it would no longer finance rough purchases for goods that can’t be cut profitably – that includes the majority of sizes and qualities below five carats.
ABN AMRO’s restrictions were stringent. It defined “profitable” sales as those that can achieve “real sales margins for goods sold as soon as possible after purchase of rough without considering credit terms.” The bank also said that clients wanting to use its rough buying credit facility need to apply on a case-by-case basis.
By November, total industry credit stood about $8 billion, just over half of the total three years ago and $10 billion below the peak of 2013.

A group of unsorted rough diamonds from the Diavik Diamond Mine in Canada. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA
De Beers and Alrosa, which account for about two-thirds of the rough diamond market by volume and value, reported their rough sales were down about 25% through the first three-quarters of the year. Rough sales by Rio Tinto, the third largest producer, were down more than 15% through the same period, as the company’s diamond division reported a loss for the first half. In November, producers reported the supply situation was improving, with a pickup in demand from diamond manufacturers.
Overall diamond production will likely fall about eight million carats this year from a 2018 total of 148 million carats.
JEWELRY RETAIL
U.S. watch and jewelry sales opened the year with 0.7% decline in January receipts and remained slightly behind 2018 for the first half of the year, according to U.S. Department of Commerce figures. Third quarter demand, however, rose into positive territory, accelerating to a 6% increase in September, compared to the same month in 2018.
Signet Group, which owns Kay Jewelers, Zale and Jared, reported a 2.1% increase in same store sales in the third quarter after struggling with declines earlier in the year. Its online sales rose 11%. In addition, Signet is reducing 50% of the amount of jewelry it purchases from Chinese suppliers because of the increased tariffs on its products.
Tiffany & Co., which is in the process of being acquired by the French luxury group LVMH, reported flat sales for the quarter as reduced tourist traffic in the U.S. has cut business at its flagship New York store and unrest in Hong Kong has deterred shoppers from commercial areas in that city.
In greater China, the protests in Hong Kong, which began in June, cut deeply into revenues. Chow Tai Fook, the largest jewelry retailer in the region, reported that its Hong Kong total sales were down 20% and 28% on a same store basis for the six months ending Sept. 30. Its same store sales on the mainland were up 1.9% for the same period.
In India, the declining rupee has deterred demand for diamonds and gold at retail.
AUCTIONS
The 2019 auction season was neatly divided into two distinct parts: Spring sales were devoted to history and design, while the fall sales saw a return of larger diamonds and rare fancy colored diamonds that had been the houses’ mainstays for the past several years.
The spring auctions had fewer lots and fewer very large and top fancy color diamonds than previous sales as prices eased from the record levels seen a few years ago. Auction executives were quick to point out that the market for high-quality gems and jewels remained robust for gems and jewelry with a historic past.
Rahul Kadakia, Christie’s international head of jewelry, said that April’s New York auction, which had no top fancy colored diamonds (pink and blue especially) over 5 carats or D flawless diamonds larger than 25 carats, “represented the current market.” In addition, a high percentage of lots came from estates, not dealers.
When the market weakens for major gemstones, the auctions have to become more careful, curating their sales to include smaller high-quality stones, more classic “signed” period jewels and more on estate pieces. Prices are usually less aggressive than those from dealers, Kadakia said.
Accordingly, the highlight of the spring auction season was Christie’s Maharajas & Mughal Magnificence jewels from the Al-Thani Collection in May.
Several pieces from the most famous Mughal ruler, Shah Jahan who ruled from 1628 to 1658, drew some of the most intense bidding. The Shah Jahan carved emerald of 30.60 cts, mined in Colombia, sold for $555,000, while his carved spinel and enamel seal ring from 1643 or 1644 brought $795,000. Jahan’s white jadeite dagger, the next to last lot in the sale, sold for $3.4 million, a record for a piece owned by the ruler.
The costliest piece in the auction was a Belle Époque-era Diamond Devant-de-Corsage brooch by Cartier that sold for $10.6 million. This brooch, which contains several large Golconda diamonds, was made in 1912 for Solly Joel, one of De Beers’ founders. The largest diamond in the brooch was a 34.08 ct E VVS1 Type Ia pear shape; followed by a 23.55 ct D VVS2 oval (potentially flawless) Type IIa; a 6.61 ct D VS1 Type IIa marquise cut and a 3.54 ct E VS1 Type I a heart shape diamond. All were graded by GIA.

The Catherine emerald, mined in Colombia over 250 years ago, sold for $4.3 nearly $1 million above its high estimate, at Christie’s May 15 Geneva auction. The emerald, originally a 107 ct square cut, was acquired by Catherine the Great, the Russian monarch, around 1790 and passed through Russian royalty until 1920. The gem was recut in 1954 to remove inclusions. Photo Russell Shor/GIA
The most publicized lot of Christie’s May 15 Geneva auction was surely one-of-a-kind: The Imperial Emerald of Grand Duchess Vladimir of Russia, which originally belonged to empress Catherine the Great.
The emerald’s rich history started when it was acquired as a 107.67 ct square cut by Catherine the Great toward the end of the 18th century. It passed through Russian royalty after her death until Cartier purchased it in 1927. Cartier had the emerald recut into a pear shape of 75.63 cts to eliminate most of the fissures and inclusions, then sold it to John Rockefeller Jr. in 1954.
Christie’s experts listed the pre-sale estimate of $2.3 million to $3.5 million in the catalog. When the bidding ended, an anonymous private buyer paid $4.3 million for the emerald, adding about $1 million for its history.
In the fall season, demand and prices at the extreme top end strengthened.

This GIA-graded Fancy Deep blue 7.03 ct diamond from London jeweler Moussaieff drew a top bid of $11.6 million ($1.65 million per carat) at Christies Nov. 12 Geneva auction. Photo courtesy of Christie's Images Ltd.
Christie's Nov. 12 Geneva auction was 93% sold by lot and 88% by value. The top lot of the sale was the GIA-graded Fancy Deep blue 7.03 ct diamond from London jeweler Moussaieff, which drew a top bid of $11.6 million ($1.65 million per carat), within the pre-sale estimate.
Other large gems that sold were:

A 46.93 ct GIA-graded D IF step cut cushion shape diamond for $3.1 million, ($66,800 per carat), just under the pre-sale estimate
A 25.2 ct GIA-graded D VVS rectangular cut diamond for $2.53 million ($100,595 per carat)
A 42.97 ct Burmese octagon cut sapphire for $2.5 million ($59,000 per carat)
A 13.53 ct Colombian emerald for nearly $1.1 million, a very strong $91,575 per carat

GIA alumna Anna Hu’s Dunhuang pipa Necklace sold for $5.8 million at Sotheby’s Oct. 7 Hong Kong auction. The necklace design features a 100.02 cushion-shaped Fancy Intense yellow diamond showcased in the shape of a Chinese musical instrument – Dunhuang pipa – and embellished with variously shaped and brilliant-cut diamonds mounted in 18K white and yellow gold. The pipa can be detached and worn as a pendant/brooch. Photo by Michael Oldford. Courtesy of Sotheby’s
In addition, a jeweled piece designed by GIA alumna Anna Hu on commission from Sotheby’s, drew a winning bid of $5.8 million at the auction house’s Oct. 7 Hong Kong sale. The necklace features a GIA-graded 100 ct Fancy Intense yellow diamond set in the shape of a Dunhuang pipa, a traditional four-stringed Chinese musical instrument that is depicted in an ancient mural in Dunhuang.
Sotheby’s May 14 Geneva sale saw one large D fl (36.57 cts) sell for about $5 million ($136,000 per carat) but most of the action was for signed period jewels, such as The Beaumont Necklace, a Van Cleef & Arpels Art Deco emerald and diamond creation that sold for $3.6 million, about 20% above its estimate.

The Beaumont Neckalce, a circa 1935 Art Deco emerald and diamond creation, presumably made by Van Cleef & Arpels for American socialite and collector Hélène Beaumont, sold for $3.6 million at Sotheby’s May 14 Geneva auction. Courtesy of Sotheby’s
DIAMOND TRACKING
There were a number of new diamond origin tracking services introduced at the JCK Las Vegas show in June. In addition to the GIA Diamond Origin Report, De Beers and Alrosa introduced their own mine-to-market diamond tracking; the Cullinan Diamond Report debuted as an identification system to track high-value, previously mined diamonds; and Sarine offered a service charting a diamond’s progress through the cutting processes.
LABORATORY-GROWN
The market for laboratory-grown diamonds continued to expand. About 50 companies exhibited at the JCK Show in Las Vegas, which was substantially up from last year, but prices were significantly lower ‒ 30% to 40% of comparable quality natural diamonds. This led to intense speculation about where this market was heading.
Forecasters like Bain & Co predict that laboratory-grown diamonds will account for about 15% to 20% of sales in five years, and this year they may have taken a long stride toward that goal. Analysts estimate that about 2 million carats of laboratory-grown diamonds will be produced this year. Since companies do not reveal their sales, it is impossible to know how many of these reached consumers.
In comparison, production of the 140 million + carats of natural diamond rough sold this year resulted in an estimated 25 to 30 million carats of polished natural diamonds. (This is calculated by noting that about 50% to 55% of rough mined is industrial and the remaining 70 million carats is cut to an average 35% to 40% yield). @chapter:30


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Fluorescence Spectroscopy for Colored Pearl Treatment Screening Abstract: Figure 1. Treated pearls (left) with a similar range of colors as naturally colored pearls (right). Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia.

Color is one of the most important value factors for pearls. Commonly applied treatment methods used to alter their color to increase commercial value include dyeing, irradiation, and bleaching. Unfortunately, the identification of some color treatments is challenging and time consuming. In this study, we tested the use of a fluorescence spectroscopy system to nondestructively inspect pearls by measuring their near ultraviolet (UV) response to visible fluorescence under mid-UV excitation.
When excited by deep to mid-UV (200 to 300 nm) light, naturally colored pearls emit a fluorescence band between 320 and 400 nm centered at 340 nm. This fluorescence feature may be attributable to the organic compounds contained within the nacreous layers (J. Hiramatsu et al., “Non-destructive assessment of the effects of heat and sunlight on akoya pearl quality,” Seibutsu Kogaku, Vol. 88, No. 8, 2010, pp. 378–383; F.W.J. Teale, “The ultraviolet fluorescence of proteins in neutral solution,” Journal of Biochemistry, Vol. 76, No. 2, 1960, pp. 381–388). It can be identified in all untreated pearls, corresponding to the UV absorption band around 280 nm (J. Yan et al., “Origin of the common UV absorption feature in cultured pearls and shells,” Journal of Materials Science, Vol. 52, No. 14, 2017, pp. 8362–8369).
Commonly applied color treatments such as dyeing and irradiation tend to damage or mask the conchiolin in the nacre, significantly reducing the fluorescence intensity. By evaluating the intensity of a pearl’s fluorescence in the UV region, it is possible to rapidly detect potential color treatments on pearls in a nondestructive manner.
A prototype fluorescence spectroscopy system was designed to measure the fluorescence signal in order to detect potential color treatments. A 275 nm UV light-emitting diode (LED) was used as the excitation source. The excitation light was guided by a bi-fabricated fiber probe to generate the fluorescence signal from the pearl sample, and the fluorescence signal was relayed by the same fiber probe to the detector. Finally, a spectrometer was used to disperse the fluorescence light emitted and monitor the response in the 300 to 700 nm range.
A set of 12 pearl samples was selected for evaluation. Figure 1 shows six treated-color pearls (left) and six naturally colored pearls (right). The samples included both freshwater and saltwater cultured pearls of colors frequently encountered in the market.

Figure 2. Fluorescence spectra of naturally colored and treated-color pearls. The horizontal axis represents the wavelength of the signal, and the vertical axis displays the signal level in normalized intensity.
Figure 2 shows the experimental results of this fluorescence measurement prototype. The horizontal axis indicates the fluorescence wavelengths from 300 to 550 nm while the vertical axis shows the normalized detector counts, which is the relative intensity of the signal normalized to the spectrometer’s integration time per millisecond. Based on the results, the six naturally colored pearls showed fluorescence signals in the UV region at least 2.5 times stronger than the six treated pearls. This characteristic feature may be a useful and rapid screening technique for gemological laboratories to detect color treatments in pearls. @chapter:14


Publication Year: - Title: Fall 1987 G&G Book Reviews Abstract: “Harry Winston, the Ultimate Jeweler, 2nd Edition”
By Laurence Krashes, 218 pp., illus., publ. by Harry Winston, Inc. (New York) and the Gemological Institute of America (Santa Monica, CA), 1986. US$75.00

“Alexandre Reza: Dreams of Yesterday, Realities of Today”
by Arlette Seta, 120 pp., trans. by Christine Jones, illus., publ. by Editions d'Art Monelle Hayot, Paris, 1985. US$50.00

“Crystal Growth Processes”
By J. C. Brice, 298 pp., illus., publ. by Blackie/HaIstead Press, Glasgow, 1986. US$61.95

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:24


Publication Year: 1993 Title: The Gemological Properties of Russian Gem-Quality Synthetic Yellow Diamonds Abstract: A group of gem-quality synthetic diamonds, grown in Russia using the "BARS" apparatus and now being sold for jewelry use, is examined. Study of seven yellow (five faceted, 0.11-0.51 ct) to orangy or brownish yellow as-grown samples, and three yellow to greenish yellow samples (all faceted, 0.14-0.21 ct) reportedly treated by post-growth annealing at high pressure and temperature, revealed distinctive gemological properties. These include: color and luminescence zoning, metallic inclusions, graining, and sharp visible-range absorption bands (some seen with a handheld spectroscope). @chapter:31


Publication Year: - Title: Mixed-Type Cape Diamond Abstract: Figure 1. This 2.16 ct Fancy orangy yellow diamond is a mixed-type IaA>B. Image by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

                      Natural yellow type Ia or “cape” diamonds, the most common of all colored diamonds, are identified by the N3 (415 nm) and N2 (478 nm) absorption lines in the UV-visible range. These defects produce the characteristic yellow hue, and the N3 produces the blue luminescence, so often observed in these stones. Weaker bands at 452 and 465 nm may also be visible (C.M. Breeding and J.E. Shigley, “The ‘type’ classification system of diamonds and its importance in gemology,” Summer 2009 G&G, pp 96–111).

The New York laboratory recently examined a 2.16 ct Fancy orangy yellow diamond (figure 1) with unusual features for a cape stone. When analyzed with a UV-Vis spectrometer, it exhibited an unexpected 480 nm band in addition to a cape spectrum, a defect usually associated with orange color (figure 2). Infrared spectrometry revealed a well-defined IaAB diamond, as opposed to the saturated Ia spectrum typically associated with cape diamonds. These abnormal features prompted further testing, and the DiamondView revealed zoned blue and yellow fluorescence (figure 3). Raman spectroscopy of the transparent, elongate crystal within the diamond, visible in the DiamondView, identified it as a colorless garnet, a common inclusion in cape diamonds.

Figure 2. UV-visible spectrum displaying “mixed” cape (red) with overlay of “normal” cape (blue).

Figure 3. The cape diamond’s DiamondView image displays blue and yellow fluorescence, along with an elongated crystal. Image by Paul Johnson.
While the specific structure of the 480 nm optical defect is not yet understood, it is known to be associated with yellow fluorescence (Y. Luo and C.M. Breeding, “Fluorescence produced by optical defects in diamond: Measurement, characterization, and challenges,” Summer 2013 G&G, pp. 82–97). The defect is also sometimes attributed to substitutional oxygen in type I diamonds. From our data and test results showing no evidence of laboratory-produced alteration, we can conclude that this stone is a natural and very rare example of a cape diamond mixed with a 480 nm band causing the orange component. @chapter:11


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Beryl and Glass Assemblage Imitating Emerald Abstract: Figure 1. Face-up, the assemblage displayed natural inclusions underneath the table. Large bubbles are also visible at the corners of the beryl core, a warning sign for the observant viewer. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

Assemblages of various materials have long been used as imitations of precious stones, with records dating back to Pliny the Elder’s Natural History (79 AD). Assembled stones commonly consist of two or more pieces of materials joined together in a parallel, layered fashion. Natural gem materials, such as spinel or garnet, are often used for the crown for the dual benefit of their durability and natural inclusions. The pavilion is typically composed of attractively colored, inexpensive materials such as glass or synthetic sapphire.

Figure 2. Left: All four glass sections of the pavilion assemblage are visible in reflected light. The small triangular segment is a protrusion from the opposite side. Photomicrograph by Tyler Smith; field of view 3.57 mm. Right: Metallic dendritic films supporting the natural provenance of the beryl core. Also visible are planar bubbles within the cement layer. Photomicrograph by Augusto Castillo; field of view 2.90 mm.

Figure 3. Face-up view under cross-polarized light displaying the inert reaction of the outer material and interference planes outlining the beryl core. Photomicrograph by Tyler Smith; field of view 14.52 mm.
A unique assembled 3.35 ct imitation emerald composed of five glass segments surrounding a rectangular beryl core (figure 1) was submitted to the New York lab. Microscopic observation revealed multiple nonparallel cement planes in the pavilion (figure 2, left). The crown was shown to be separated from the pavilion in a single piece, whereas the pavilion was composed of four asymmetrical exterior segments surrounding a sub-rectilinear pyramidal core. The core material contained inclusions typical of natural beryl, such as dark dendritic flakes (figure 2, right) and fingerprints. Large gas bubbles and internal chips were observed within the cement layers that accumulated at the beryl core’s corners. Standard gemological testing produced consistent refractive indices of 1.61 on both the crown and the four segments that made up the pavilion, a specific gravity of 2.99, and weak white fluorescence in the cement planes in long- and short-wave UV light. Under cross-polarized light, the outer material was singly refractive and displayed interference patterns along the interior join planes (figure 3). When immersed, the coloration was shown to be derived from the surrounding sections and joined by a colorless cement. This was further supported by ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectroscopy, which yielded a spectrum similar to manufactured green glass samples from our database. Raman microscopy of the crown and four pavilion segments produced amorphous spectra typical of glass. In addition to amorphous mounds, beryl peaks were detected in the core material, confirming prior suspicions.

Figure 4. Diagram showing the proposed model of the complex assembly of the composite stone. Final faceting is shown for simplicity. A: The first glass segment (green) is attached to the beryl core (gray). B: Both the core and the first segment are cut to make a flat surface for the second segment. C: The second segment (teal) is attached. D: The segments are again cut. E: The third segment (blue) is attached. F: The assemblage is shown rotated 180° for clarity. All current pieces are cut to create the surface for the final piece. G: The fourth and final segment (purple) is attached. H: Omitted for simplicity, the assembled pavilion would likely be polished flat to make room for the crown. Lastly, the crown (pink) is attached. The diagram was generated using Onshape CAD software.
Interestingly, the four glass segments in the pavilion assemblage are interlocked in a fashion that reveals a possible explanation of how the stone was manufactured. Based on visual observations, it appears the pavilion was constructed by a laborious multistep cut-and-glue process (figure 4). As a result of the iterant cutting, the first segment shares five sides that are parallel to the faces of the beryl core (four pyramidal faces and one basal). The number of faces parallel to the core decreases by one for each added glass segment. The asymmetry of the segments, parallel faces, and precise angles that match the sides of the core support the proposed model of ordered assembly.
The authors were not able to find any records of this type of assembled stone, and it was the first time one has been submitted to GIA’s New York or Carlsbad laboratories. Since all exposed surfaces were glass, it is assumed that the stone was fabricated relatively recently due to the sharp facet junctions and lack of wear. It is intriguing that an antiquated technique is updated in modern times, serving as a cautionary tale of the ingenuity counterfeiters employ. @chapter:9


Publication Year: 2017 Title: Wollastonite Blizzard Within Glass Abstract: Figure 1. Faceted manufactured glass beads measuring approximately 8 mm in diameter. Photo by Robison McMurtry.

A collection of lovely faceted blue beads was presented to author EAS during an annual meeting of inclusion specialists at the 2017 Tucson shows. While most specimens of interest highlighted in these meetings are of extraordinary naturally occurring minerals and gem materials—some of which have appeared in this column—these rather ordinary beads were intriguing for the veritable blizzard of translucent colorless needles and short euhedral crystals that filled each one. They created a beautiful optical effect, especially when illuminated from below (figure 1). Upon acquisition, the original owner had been told these were Russian synthetic quartz, and indeed their age and azure color suggested such an origin. It came as a surprise when standard gemological testing (refractive index of 1.518, specific gravity of 2.47, and the absence of birefringence) identified the beads as glass, making the internal scene even more intriguing for its natural appearance. Raman spectroscopy at GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory identified the beads as manufactured glass, and the majority of the needles as the calcium silicate mineral wollastonite (figure 2). Additionally, relatively small blocky crystals scattered among the needles were conclusively identified as diopside (see Summer 2010 Lab Notes, p. 144).

Figure 2. Transmitted light reveals a blizzard of transparent wollastonite needles within the glass host, an indication of devitrification. Interspersed among the needles are blocky crystals of diopside. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 2.03 mm.
Inclusions in glass such as wollastonite and diopside are indicators of devitrification, a process by which various components of the glass’s composition crystallize out when subjected to high temperatures and/or changes in temperature. The process varies according to the type of glass. This may also happen in natural glasses, as with obsidian, resulting in the attractive lapidary material known as snowflake obsidian, which sports white blooms of cristobalite crystals on a black background. Devitrified glass is also sometimes used to imitate natural gems, as seen in manufactured “meta-jade.” The beautiful blue inner world of these beads makes them a welcome addition to one’s library of inclusions. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 2002 Title: Characterization and Grading of Natural-Color Pink Diamonds Abstract: The GIA Gem Trade Laboratory (GTL) collected gemological data on 1,490 natural-color pink gem diamonds—both types I and II. While there was some overlap in gemological properties between the two diamond types, they did show differences in their color ranges, ultraviolet fluorescence, absorption spectra, and microscopic features. The color description terminology used for pink diamonds on GIA GTL grading reports is discussed and illustrated, with a separate commentary on red diamonds. @chapter:31


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Trapiche Emerald from Swat Valley, Pakistan Abstract: Figure 1. Six emerald wafers reportedly from Swat Valley, Pakistan, showing a trapiche-like pattern. They range from 0.83 to 0.38 ct from left to right, with a thickness of about 1.51 to 2.08 mm. Photo by Kaiyin Deng.
Trapiche emeralds are usually found in Colombia. Recently the authors received six emeralds reportedly from Swat Valley, Pakistan, polished as double-sided wafers, retaining their original hexagonal crystal habit and exhibiting a trapiche-like pattern (figure 1). These samples weighed from 0.38 to 0.83 ct, with a refractive index of 1.588–1.599 and a birefringence of 0.009–0.011.

Figure 2. The trapiche emeralds from Pakistan were mainly composed of four parts: a green rim, a light green area, six arms, and a nearly colorless core as illustrated in figure A. These arms appear dark under transmitted light (B) and show bright metallic luster under reflected light (C); field of view 8.48 mm. Illustration and photos by Yujie Gao.
Generally, these trapiche emeralds were composed of four parts from rim to core: a green rim, a light green area, six arms, and a colorless core, as illustrated in figure 2A. The rims had a highly saturated green color, and most were relatively clean except for several fractures and tiny fluid inclusions. The rims ranged from approximately 1 to 2 mm wide. Although the boundary between the green rim and the light area was not very sharp, a hexagonal boundary was visible. Six black arms spread in a hexagonal symmetric pattern, with each arm perpendicular to the hexagonal side. The colorless core usually had a hexagonal shape.

Figure 3. Raman analysis identified these inclusions as magnetite. Peaks at 662 and 545 cm–1 agree with the two main peaks of magnetite, according to the RRUFF database, while peaks at 683 and 400 cm may be assigned to the emerald host.
Microscopic observation revealed that every arm contained many minute black platy inclusions. These small particles appeared dark under transmitted light (figure 2B), while they showed bright metallic luster under reflected light (figure 2C). Micro-Raman analyses (figure 3) identified these inclusions as magnetite. Peaks at 662 and 545 cm–1 were consistent with two main peaks of magnetite, according to the RRUFF online database (rruff.info), while peaks at 683 and 400 cm–1 may be assigned to the emerald host. Chemical analysis by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) on the sample shown in figure 2 revealed an iron content of 20,860 ppm (n = 3) in the light green area and 17,000 ppm (n = 3) in the rim. The difference in iron content may be due to the inclusions, since magnetite (Fe3O4) is mainly composed of iron and oxygen.
To our knowledge, there have not been many reports of trapiche emerald from localities other than Colombia. The trapiche pattern caused by platy magnetite inclusions could help advance our understanding of trapiche. @chapter:8


Publication Year: 2024 Title: Thirty Years Later: “The Royal Tapestry” Revisited Abstract: Emmanuel and Daniel Piat (right) examine “The Royal Tapestry” together for the first time at the Alfie Norville Gem & Mineral Museum. Photo by Robert Weldon.
Three generations of the Piat family gathered at the University of Arizona Alfie Norville Gem & Mineral Museum in Tucson on February 1 to see “The Royal Tapestry” (see Spring 2022 GNI, pp. 110–111) for the first time. The tapestry (see above) was created by French master jewelry house Cristofol Paris more than thirty years ago, with Maison Piat (Paris) procuring the gemstones and facilitating their cutting. Prior to the gathering, Daniel Piat was the only family member who had seen the completed tapestry.
The tapestry contains almost 27,000 emeralds, diamonds, rubies, and blue and yellow sapphires as well as 37.5 lbs of 18K gold. Its 122 × 71 cm (42 × 24 in.) dimensions, the same as those of an Islamic prayer rug, were specified by the royal family in the Middle East who privately commissioned it. More than 25 cutters matched the stone sizes within one-tenth of a millimeter. Cristofol Paris artisans spent more than 16,000 hours crafting the tapestry. Manufacturing a work of jewels that moved and flowed like a carpet or woven cloth required a form of prong setting, new at the time, that involved fewer “shared” prongs. Throughout the process, in a time before the advent of mobile phones and digital images, materials were shipped back and forth between Paris, Bangkok, Jaipur, and the Jura region of France.
The tapestry remained with the unnamed royal family until the early 2000s, when it was sold to a private collector. Prior to its exhibition in Tucson, it had been exhibited only in Hong Kong and London for one day each.
At the Alfie Norville Museum reception, board member Shelly Sergent touched on the origin of the tapestry concept and the process of transporting it from Zurich to Tucson. Daniel Piat shared the story of the tapestry’s creation, describing the challenges presented by the design and the immense amount of work and detailed craftsmanship it required. Eric Piat noted the difficulty of sourcing the gems in a strict range of colors. Daniel said that after more than thirty years, all of the gems are still perfectly seated in more than 106,000 prongs and 26,649 seats, calling it “an engineering feat never duplicated in the jewelry world today.” @chapter:21


Publication Year: 2015 Title: LPHT-Annealed Pink CVD Synthetic Diamonds Abstract: Figure 1. Three LPHT-annealed CVD synthetic diamonds: Fancy Deep brownish orangy pink 0.37 ct (top left), Fancy Deep brown-pink 0.31 ct (top middle), and Fancy brown-pink 0.25 ct (top right). Their DiamondView images (bottom row) show orange fluorescence with linear growth striations. Top left and middle photos by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia; top right photo by Jian Xing (Jae) Liao. DiamondView images by Kyaw Soe Moe.

Due to nitrogen vacancy and hydrogen complexes, as-grown CVD synthetic diamonds are usually brown, which are less desirable than other colors. Post-growth treatments such as high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) treatment and/or irradiation and annealing, are applied to these synthetics to create attractive colors. In the past, we have reported HPHT-treated and multi-step treated pink CVD synthetics. Recently, the New York lab examined three pink CVD-grown diamonds that were treated with the technique known as low-pressure, high-temperature (LPHT) annealing.

The 0.37 ct rectangle, 0.31 ct rectangle, and 0.25 ct round brilliant were graded as Fancy Deep brownish orangy pink, Fancy Deep brown-pink, and Fancy brown-pink, respectively (figure 1). They were classified as type Ib diamond containing single substitutional nitrogen atoms (Ns0) with absorption bands at 1130 and 1344 cm–1 (figure 2). The 0.37 ct sample contained a VS2-grade feather and a few burn marks on the main facets; otherwise, all three were very “clean.” The DiamondView images showed typical orange fluorescence and linear growth striations, which are caused by uneven uptake of defects along the growth steps (again, see figure 1). The orange fluorescence is usually observed in N-doped CVD synthetics.

Figure 2. These CVD synthetics are classified as type Ib with Ns0 atoms at 1130 and
1344 cm–1 (inset A). The LPHT annealing was revealed by C-H stretching bands, as seen
in inset B. Additional unknown bands were also observed (inset C).
The mid-IR spectra revealed post-growth LPHT annealing treatment. In figure 2, the absorption bands of C-H stretching at 2810, 2870, 2900, 2937, 2948, and 3031 cm–1 are created by LPHT annealing (see Y. Meng et al., “Enhanced optical properties of chemical vapor deposited single crystal diamond by low-pressure/high-temperature annealing,” PNAS, Vol. 105, No. 46, 2008, pp. 17620–17625). They were modified and shifted from the peaks of unstable hydrogenated amorphous carbon complexes and NVH– defects during the annealing process. The 3123 cm–1 (NVH0) band, which is a common defect in as-grown CVD synthetic diamonds and annealed out by HPHT treatment, is present. This defect was detected in LPHT-annealed CVD synthetics (again, see Meng et al., 2008). The 3107 cm–1 (N3VH), which can be created by HPHT annealing in CVD synthetic diamonds, is absent. Positively charged single substitutional nitrogen atoms (Ns+) were detected at 1332 cm–1. Additionally, unknown bands were also detected at 1353, 1362, 1371, 4335, 4523, 4648, 4673, 4727, 4886, and 5218 cm–1. A broad absorption band with absorption maxima at approximately 525 nm and sharp nitrogen-vacancy (N-V) centers at 575 nm (NV0) and 637 nm (NV–) in the visible-NIR spectrum are responsible for pink and orange color components in these samples (figure 3). The vivid orange fluorescence in DiamondView images are also attributed to N-V centers. The H3 center is observed at 503 nm. There are also unknown additional absorption bands at 419.5, 485.8, 495.1, 666.5, 685.4, 711.7, 753.1, 781.4, and 850.3 nm. Very strong N-V centers can be observed in the 514 nm PL spectra.

Figure 3. Absorption maxima at approximately 525 nm and N-V centers are responsible
for the pink color in these samples. The H3 center can be observed, along with many
unknown bands.
HPHT annealing can be achieved at temperatures ranging from 1800–2500°C and pressures greater than 5 GPa. High pressure is required in order to prevent graphitization, especially in natural diamond. In contrast, LPHT annealing is performed at temperatures 1400–2200°C and pressures below 300 torr (3.99 × 10–5 GPa, below atmospheric pressure) (again see Meng et al., 2008). Graphitization became significant above 2200°C. At temperatures above 700°C, vacancies started to move and were trapped at single substitutional nitrogen atoms, creating N-V centers; however, nitrogen atoms become mobile at temperatures above 1700°C, causing the N-V centers to anneal out. Therefore, strong N-V centers (which are much greater than the diamond Raman peak) in the 514 nm PL spectra of these samples suggested that they were annealed at temperatures below 1700°C. Lack of a peak at 3107 cm–1 is also suggestive of an annealing temperature below 1700°C. This upper temperature limit is further supported by presence of a band at 3123 cm–1, which can be annealed out at above 1800°C. Incorporation of H3 center occurs above 1500°C; thus, annealing temperatures for these samples can be proposed as 1500°C < T < 1700°C. According to Meng’s experiment, this temperature range can be correlated with pressure from 150 to 200 torr, with annealing time from 10 to 720 minutes.

Brown as-grown CVD synthetics have been changed to brownish pink by LPHT annealing for 15 minutes by Meng et al. (2008); they were also able to improve colorless CVD-grown diamonds by an average of three color grades. LPHT treatment may have created the attractive pink hue in these samples, although it could not completely eliminate the brown coloration. We expect to encounter more LPHT-treated diamonds in the future. @chapter:15


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Gemological and Chemical Characteristics of Natural Freshwater Pearls from the Mississippi River System Abstract: Figure 1. The natural freshwater pearls of various shapes and colors collected from the Mississippi River system, together with heelsplitter (Potamilus alatus, left), purple wartyback or purple pimpleback (Cyclonaias tuberculate, center), and bankclimber (Plectomerus dombeyanus, right) mussel shells. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

The Carlsbad laboratory received 854 natural freshwater pearls from Kari Anderson (Kari Pearls, Muscatine, Iowa), who stated that they were collected from the Mississippi River system (figure 1). Although the time and location of recovery and the mollusk species were not recorded, we were informed that all were recovered as a byproduct of the shelling business in the past couple of years. The samples ranged from 0.013 to 3.59 ct and measured from 1.63 × 1.19 mm to 9.87 × 8.52 × 5.89 mm. The shapes varied from baroque (the majority) to near-round, button, and oval. Many of the baroque pearls exhibited the unique “wing” or “feather” form (Anderson mentioned that the divers refer to these as “spike” pearls) typically associated with American natural freshwater pearls (J.L. Sweaney and J.R. Latendresse, “Freshwater pearls of North America,” Fall 1984 G&G, pp. 125–140). The wing pearls are elongated, with a roughly triangular shape, and usually taper to more pointed ends. Most possessed an uneven rippled surface along their lengths. The surface texture and shape of the wing pearls are identical to the lateral “teeth” areas found on the mussel shells that host these organic gems (figure 2, left).

Figure 2. Left: A mussel shell and pearl showing a strikingly similar appearance. The elongated wing pearl’s shape resembles the shape of the lateral “teeth” on the shell. Right: Iridescent rainbow surface colors, or orient, creating a beautiful shimmering appearance; field of view 7.19 mm. Photos by Diego Sanchez (left) and Artitaya Homkrajae (right).
The pearl colors also varied widely in hue, tone, and saturation. The range of hues included very light pink, purplish pink, orangy pink, brownish orange, and brownish purple to brown. Many displayed a pronounced orient effect (iridescence or multiple colors on or below the surfaces), creating a beautiful shimmering appearance (figure 2, right). Moreover, some exhibited high metallic-like surface reflections that resulted in excellent luster. Classifying the colors was often quite complex, as the overtone and orient were strong enough to affect the actual bodycolor and the combinations produced different colors when viewed from different angles. Experience has shown that in most cases a pearl’s color is directly related to the mussel species and the color of the shell’s interior, though water environment and the nutrients available during formation also play an important role. The heelsplitter (Potamilus alatus), purple wartyback or purple pimpleback (Cyclonaias tuberculate), and bankclimber (Plectomerus dombeyanus) mussel species shown in figure 1 possess pink and purple interior surfaces. All have been known to produce pearls with desirable color.
The lightly colored samples exhibited moderate to strong yellow or bluish yellow fluorescence when exposed to long-wave ultraviolet radiation (365 nm), while the darker samples exhibited the same colors with weaker intensities. X-ray fluorescence imaging was used to help check the growth environment. The majority of the samples fluoresced weak to strong greenish yellow due to manganese content, thus confirming their freshwater origin. As with the long-wave UV reactions, the darker samples displayed weaker reactions, and this fluorescence quenching is related to the concentration of coloring pigments present (H. Hänni et al., “X-ray luminescence, a valuable test in pearl identification,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 29, No. 5/6, 2005, pp. 325–329). A few of the samples also exhibited a moderate to strong orangy reaction in some surface areas.
One hundred samples encompassing a broad range of colors, shapes, surface qualities, and sizes were selected in order to study their internal structures and trace element concentrations using real-time microradiography (RTX) and laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), respectively. The baroque pearls showed growth structures that followed their shapes. The number and visibility of these structures varied from pearl to pearl. In certain orientations the growth structures resembled “linear features” in some wing pearls. Dark organic-rich and void centers were observed in some of the symmetrically shaped samples (i.e., button and oval). Although void structures could be considered characteristic of non-bead cultured (NBC) pearls, the voids in these samples appeared ovoid and relatively small (e.g., figure 3) and unlike the “twisted” void-like structures typically encountered within freshwater NBC pearls. Chemical compositions were analyzed using the same parameters published in a recent study (A. Homkrajae et al., “Provenance discrimination of freshwater pearls by LA-ICP-MS and linear discriminant analysis (LDA),” Spring 2019 G&G, pp. 47–60). Three ablation spots were tested on each sample, and results for the 22 elements selected are shown in table 1. The majority contained high Mn content, as expected for freshwater pearls and corresponding with the X-ray fluorescence results seen from the majority. Only one sample showed Mn levels below 100 ppmw in two spots at 89.7 and 64.2 ppmw, which is unusual for this pearl type. Yet both spots matched positions for freshwater pearls in the ternary diagram of Ba, Mg, and Mn (see Homkrajae et al., 2019), indicating a likely freshwater origin. Chemical data for the analyzed spots, especially the four discriminator elements Na, Mn, Sr, and Ba (bolded in table 1), showed results comparable with those of the American natural (USA-NAT) pearls group previously reported. The majority of the analyzed spots fell within the same region as the USA-NAT group in the Sr and Na content plot (figure 4). Furthermore, the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) method developed during the previous study discriminated 70% of these samples as USA-NAT.

Figure 3. RTX images of a 0.27 ct oval pearl showing a growth ring with an ovoid feature in the center. Void structures may be encountered in natural and non-bead cultured (NBC) pearls, but this small void is unlike the twisted void-like structures typically observed in freshwater NBC pearls.

Figure 4. The majority of the analyzed spots (USA-LP) fell within the same region as those from American natural (USA-NAT) pearls in the chemical plotting of Sr and Na content reported in Homkrajae et al. (2019). Red spots represent results for American cultured (USA-CUL) pearls and green spots equate to Chinese NBC (CH-NBC) pearl samples.

Pearls exhibiting six different colors—pink, purplish pink, orangy pink, pinkish purple, brownish orange, and orangy brown—were selected in order to study their spectroscopic characteristics. Apart from the brownish orange sample, each possessed orient. The analysis was conducted on the most homogeneously colored area of each sample. Raman spectroscopic analysis with a 514 nm argon-ion laser revealed aragonite peaks at 701, 703, and 1085 cm–1 along with strong polyene peaks between the approximate ranges 1119–1126 and 1503–1508 cm–1. UV-Vis reflectance spectra were recorded from 250 to 800 nm, and each spectrum revealed a clear absorption feature at about 280 nm, possibly associated with the protein conchiolin and usually observed in nacreous pearls (figure 5). The reflectance patterns of the pearls are associated with the bodycolors, and the reflectance levels decreased as the sample color became more saturated. The samples with a pink component showed reflection minima in the blue to yellow range corresponding to their bodycolors, with a reflection minimum centered around 506 nm. The results corresponded with previous findings on natural-color freshwater cultured pearls from Hyriopsis species (S. Karampelas et al., “Role of polyenes in the coloration of cultured freshwater pearls,” European Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2009, pp. 85–97; A. Abduriyim, “Cultured pearls from Lake Kasumigaura: Production and gemological characteristics,” Summer 2018 G&G, pp. 166–183). Surface observations and spectroscopic studies did not reveal any sign of color treatment, which indicates the pearls’ natural color origin.

Figure 5. UV-Vis reflectance spectra of six representative pearls revealed a clear absorption feature at approximately 280 nm that is likely associated with the protein conchiolin. Each spectrum showed absorption features in the visible region related to the pearl’s bodycolor. The samples with pink component revealed a similar absorption feature from blue to yellow range and centered around 506 nm. The intensity of the absorption increase is related to saturation of the colors. The spectra are vertically offset for clarity.
The Mississippi River and its tributaries are renowned for the diversity of native American mussels found in their waters. The extensive variety of species from the Unionidae family continues to produce a variety of colored natural pearls. This was a great opportunity to study and document the gemological and chemical characteristics of these unique freshwater natural pearls. The data collected enlarges GIA’s pearl identification database and will provide useful reference material in the years to come. @chapter:14


Publication Year: - Title: Mogok Series, Part 2: The Expedition, the Mines, and the People Abstract: Gem expeditions are about the people, the place, and the stones. This photo shows a variety of gems being offered at an open-air Mogok market. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.

	The Expedition
We spent most of December 28 traveling to Mogok, then started early on December 29 and worked late, a common schedule throughout the entire stay. During our time there, we visited numerous mines, markets, cutters, gem painters, and areas of interest like temples and pagodas. Our primary focus was gem mines and markets, performing what Vincent refers to as “doing gemology with your eyes and not your ears,” meaning you get information firsthand at the source, and not secondhand by listening to others.

During this expedition, we visited ruby, sapphire, spinel, and peridot mines. We visited all the gem markets in the Mogok Stone Tract area at least once, and most of them multiple times. In an interesting twist, Vincent discovered rough lapis lazuli in the Mogok gem market. When we inquired about this, the dealers said the mine was local and gave us approximate directions.

This led to a midday search for the mine. The original information got us to the right area, but not to the mine itself. We came upon a friendly farmer who turned out to be a former gem miner. At first, there was confusion about what stone we were looking for, and he took off on his motorbike only to bring back the wrong material. That led to his understanding of what we were really after, and he led us on a hike up a hill and through the brush to a lapis lazuli tunnel mine. No one was working it when we arrived, but we were able to confirm that a hard-rock primary lapis lazuli mine existed in the Mogok Stone Tract. (There will be more information about this surprising find in a future report.)

	With the help of this young farmer, the authors were able to locate a primary deposit
	of lapis lazuli in the Mogok Stone Tract. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.

	The Mines
For anyone who has witnessed colored stone mining around the world, the gemstone deposits at Mogok are a real treat. Several types of mining are conducted, varying to suit each particular deposit. We observed both alluvial mining of the gem-bearing gravel, called byon, and hard-rock mining of rubies and spinels from the marble itself.

Much of the easy-to-reach byon at the valley floor has been mined. Today, mining is spreading on the hillsides and mountains around Mogok and Kyatpyin and beyond. Alluvial, open pit, cave and crevice, vertical shaft, and tunnel hard-rock mining are all being performed, often within relatively close proximity.

The gem-concentrated gravels were more prevalent in the wide valley floors, such as those around Mogok and Kyatpyin, where gem-rich gravel layers were found once the overburden was removed. in deposits located on hillsides or along streams in V-shaped valleys, gemstones are more widely dispersed in the ground, as there the sedimentation process is not as efficient as it is in wide U-shaped valleys. In such areas, miners in search of gems wash most of the ground they remove.

Often in open-pit operations, large marble boulders are removed to reach the gem-bearing gravels underneath. These gravels often contain concentrations of gems. The boulders might also be crushed in search of the ruby and spinel inside.

We saw some traditional pit mines with the classic four-foot width; however, these are not nearly as prevalent today as they were in the past. Today, there are fewer small-scale operations than there were 10 years ago, when co-author Vincent Pardieu first visited Mogok. Most of the mining is on a larger scale, with open-pit operations that use excavators and other equipment to move the marble boulders, and water cannons to blast the lighter overburden away from gem gravels.

An interesting Mogok Stone Tract mining method follows caves and crevices in the marble. The gravels are removed along with the rocks that cover them, and everything is washed to recover gemstones. Mining often involves a combination of following the natural caves and crevices and blasting to further exploit the deposits.

Some of these mines are incredibly deep, plunging hundreds of meters, and they can yield the richest gem concentrations of all. The mining conditions can also be the most dangerous, as the deep mines and their surroundings are often wet. Imagine navigating makeshift wood ladders that are damp and rotting, and negotiating the wet, slippery marble as you descend hundreds of meters. Going down into one of these mines makes you appreciate the enormous effort and risk involved in bringing colored gemstones to the market.

View Gallery

	Mining for Gemstones in Mogok Valley
There are also classic tunnel mines in the area, where miners work their way through the rock, creating tunnels as they remove it for crushing and washing. They commonly use explosives to blast the tunnel walls. This is risky for the gemstones, but Burmese miners have optimized the technique by using locally made explosives composed mainly of black powder and gelatin-type mining explosives. These materials have low shock power, enough to break the marble while doing minimum shatter-type damage to the gems. It seems more economically viable than using more powerful explosives like dynamite. Miners in Mogok have demonstrated a high degree of skill at using such explosives.

Every type of mine needs water to wash the gravel and separate gems from worthless rock. The principle is always the same: Use water and take advantage of higher gem density to wash away the lighter material. This is often accomplished with jigs—devices used to separate ore from gem materials—that were originally designed in Australia by tin miners, then made their way to Thailand and then Myanmar.

View Gallery

	Washing the Gem-Rich Byon

	The People
The people of Myanmar are friendly, and this is especially true in Mogok. Everyone we dealt with radiated a genuine curiosity and friendliness. This was true of the people we met and talked to in the gem industry as well as everyone we interacted with in town. As mentioned, Myanmar is a diverse country, and this is also true of Mogok. Most of Mogok’s original population is Shan, but over the centuries ruby mining has brought in people from outside the area and beyond. Myanmar is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the world, and Mogok’s diverse population is fascinating, consisting of Shan, Burmese, Lissu, Karen, Kachin, Chinese, and Nepalese. The Gurkha of Nepalese descent make up one of the most fascinating groups in Mogok. Many of the traders we saw in the markets were Gurkha.

	We saw the young Gurkha trader on the left at most of the gem markets we visited. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
The Gurkhas arrived in Myanmar fairly recently, most of them settling into the country during the period of British rule. At Mogok, many were employed by the British to guard the mines. Gurkhas served in World War II with the British and were later an important component of the Burmese army. They have striking features and are easily spotted in the gem markets of Mogok.

Almost all of Mogok’s ethnic groups participate in the gem trade, either as miners or traders, or even in the cottage cutting industry.

	The Kanase Women
Perhaps the most interesting and arresting group involved in Mogok’s gem industry are the kanase women. No matter how careful the washing operation, there are always some gemstones overlooked in the discarded rock; these are called tailings. Mogok ruby mining tailings are white marble. By local tradition, locals have the right to search through these tailings and keep the gemstones they find. During the British mining period, this activity was restricted to women in an attempt to limit theft. Now these women can be seen sorting through tailings at the mines, and selling their finds at the open gem markets.

	The kanase women were very friendly, but also tough negotiators. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
At almost all the mining operations we visited, we saw kanase women hauling away tailings from the washing jigs and going through the pieces of marble. They would break the marble up into tiny pieces with hammers, looking for rubies or spinels. They actually crushed the marble into dust so that no gem, no matter how small, could escape them.

One of the most striking images seen in this remarkably visual part of the world was the sight of the Kanase women at Baw Lone Gyi. The scene was an amazing array of color and contrast. The women removed large quantities of white marble from a washing area by pushing it with scrapers from a platform onto an open-bed truck. The truck took the marble a short distance to the area where the women would crush it with hammers into marble dust.

What made the scene so remarkable was the sight of the kanase women’s colorful attire and traditional hats, viewed against a sea of white marble with an incredible blue sky overhead and lush green vegetation and traditional wooden houses in the background. It was truly one of the most stunning sights I have ever experienced at a mining area.

	The colorful attire of the kanase women against the white marble and blue sky at Baw Lone Gyi made a striking scene. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
The women commonly wore painted or cone-shaped hats, and their attire was often colorful as well. They sometimes brought their small children with them, and the children played near their mothers while they crushed the marble and worked through the tailings.

	At Baw Lone Gyi, mothers worked hard while also tending to their children. Photo by Andy Lucas, ©GIA.
The kanase women offered us rubies and spinels, often still in the broken marble. They always proved to be astute negotiators. They would hold up the rough ruby or spinel crystal with its striking red color against the white marble host rock and offer it to us as prospective buyers. We also observed their traditional method of placing small crystals in their mouths for safekeeping while continuing to sort through the marble.

We thoroughly enjoyed our trips to the Mogok mines, and our visits to the region's gem markets (covered in part three) were equally enchanting.

View Gallery

	The Kanase Women @chapter:25


Publication Year: 2024 Title: Electroformed Gold Bracelet Abstract: Figure 1. The electroformed gold bracelet submitted as 14K solid gold. Photo by Rambod Bahadory.
GIA has provided a service for validating mounted gemstones in jewelry for decades. Recently, these services have been expanded to include precious metal items (rings, necklaces, and bracelets) to ensure their authenticity and ensure the metal is as stated. The service is intended to protect both buyer and seller.

Figure 2. The hallmark is not actually stamped onto the metal but is on a separate disk adhered to the inside of the bracelet. Photo by Rambod Bahadory.
As part of this service, a gold bracelet measuring 8 inches in circumference and 1.25 inches wide and weighing 41 g was recently examined in the Carlsbad laboratory (figure 1). It was submitted as 14K solid gold, but initial observations raised suspicion. The bracelet felt too light and almost hollow, and there was a significant contrast in textures: a matte finish on the inside surface of the bracelet compared with the wavy, shiny exterior surface. The bracelet had a 14K hallmark, which appeared to be stamped or engraved onto a different metal piece that was glued or otherwise adhered to the bracelet (figure 2).

Figure 3. An area where the gold plating has flaked off from the bracelet is shown in the circled region. Photo by Rambod Bahadory.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of the shiny exterior surface gave a result of 17.99K gold, and no subsurface material was detected that would indicate plating. Additional testing of another smooth surface yielded a result of 22.47K. Further analysis under brighter lighting conditions revealed areas where gold plating had flaked off from the piece (figure 3). We believe this wavy texture of the gold was used intentionally to hide the poor quality of the finish and the flaking gold plating, as shadows can often mask imperfections on initial sight.
A wax or resin material was observed under the plating, and we concluded that the bracelet had been created using electrodeposition to electroform the piece. Electroforming is a method of adding a thick gold plating, sometimes as thick as 200 microns, to a wax, resin, ceramic, or organic material base. Thick plating and electroforming may not be detected by XRF methods alone, and additional testing may be necessary to detect the application of these processes. We believe this wax- or resin-filled electroformed bracelet was being sold as solid 14K gold with the intention to deceive the buyer. This example demonstrates the importance of testing and verification services such as GIA’s jewelry verification service. @chapter:26


Publication Year: 2006 Title: Faceting Transparent Rhodonite from Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia Abstract: Transparent rhodonite is considered one of the most difficult of all gems to facet because of its perfect cleavage and brittle, uneven fracture. This article describes a technique for successfully faceting gem rhodonite that was developed through experiments on eight crystals from the North mine at Broken Hill, New South Wales. This was accomplished through a systematic structural, crystallographic, and optical analysis and the use of a nonconventional faceting approach—the “greasy lap” technique. This method uses a mixture of petroleum jelly and diamond grit to charge a non-embedded lap, allowing the diamond grit to “roll free” during the lapping process. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 2015 Title: Rough Diamond Fragment with a Large Green Cleavage Surface Abstract: This 2.02 ct rough diamond displays prominent green coloration along an internal cleavage surface. Such coloration is thought to result from the presence of a natural radioactive solution within the cleavage. Photo by James Shigley.

A colorless 2.02 ct flattened diamond crystal fragment (see above), from Mr. Rowan Beach of San Francisco, was examined at GIA’s Carlsbad lab. The fragment exhibited a large bluish green internal surface that was readily visible without magnification. Initially thought to be a colorful mineral inclusion, it proved to be a radiation-induced coloration along the internal surface. When a diamond is irradiated (during laboratory color treatment or occasionally in nature), carbon atoms are removed from their normal position in the diamond lattice; this creates what scientists call the “GR1” optical defect (i.e., a vacant atom position in the lattice). The presence of this defect causes the diamond to selectively absorb light toward the red end of the visible spectrum, while the remaining portions are transmitted through the diamond and, when recombined, seen as a green or bluish green color. The GR1 optical defect can be removed in the lab by heating the diamond to over 600°C; this heating changes the green color to yellowish brown. The added energy allows a carbon atom to again occupy the vacant lattice position.

Green or bluish green color in diamonds is most often the result of exposure to a source of radiation in a geologic environment near the earth’s surface. The source of exposure could be a nearby grain of a radioactive mineral that gives rise to a small “radiation spot” on the outer surface. Conversely, the source could be a radioactive solution that was able to penetrate surface-reaching cleavages in the diamond. In both cases, the source produced alpha-particle radiation, which has a limited penetrating distance in diamond. As a result, the radiation spot or stain is confined to a zone close to the radioactive material. Such radiation stains are not uncommon in diamonds, though they are often removed by the faceting process.

The presence of a large green internal radiation stain indicates that this diamond was irradiated in a near-surface geological environment where temperatures high enough to modify the GR1 were unlikely. This means that the irradiation took place in the crust after the diamond was transported up from the mantle by the kimberlite magma eruption. Although the geographic origin of this rough diamond is uncertain, it is one of the more intriguing examples of a natural “radiation-stained” diamond we have seen. @chapter:11


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Interesting Metallic Platelets in a Brazilian Paraíba Tourmaline Abstract: Figure 1. A 2.52 ct oval modified brilliant Paraíba tourmaline. Photo by Adriana Gudino.
The authors recently examined the 2.52 ct saturated green oval modified brilliant shown in figure 1. The gemological properties, as well as trace element analysis using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry, confirmed this gem was a Paraíba tourmaline from Brazil.

Figure 2. Left: The skeletal formation that usually indicates very rapid growth of the mineral. Right: Skeletal formations showing a cross-hatch pattern. Photomicrographs by Shiva Sohrabi; fields of view 1.26 mm (left) and 2.95 mm (right).
Microscopic observation revealed interesting metallic dark gray dendritic inclusions (figure 2). The metallic inclusions were similar in shape to previously documented native copper inclusions in Paraíba tourmaline (E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Volume 1, 2008, Opinio-Verlag Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, p. 167). Metallic inclusions with a dendritic pattern and similar brassy color in a Brazilian Paraíba tourmaline were previously identified as native copper (F. Brandstätter and G. Niedermayr, “Copper and tenorite inclusions in cuprian-elbaite tourmaline from Paraíba, Brazil,” Fall 1994 G&G, p. 181). Because the inclusions in figure 2 are different in color from those previously documented, they are probably not copper. However, Raman analysis was unsuccessful in identifying them. Based on their morphology and color, the authors speculate they could be ilmenite, which has been observed as skeletal inclusions of a similar color in gems such as emerald. These are the first examples of dark gray skeletal metallic inclusions the authors have encountered in a Paraíba tourmaline. @chapter:5


Publication Year: 1999 Title: Observations on GE-Processed Diamonds: A Photographic Record Abstract: As of august 1999, GIA staff members had examined 960 natural diamonds that had undergone a new process, developed by the General Electric Company (GE), that removes some or all of the color of a diamond. Distributed exclusively by Pegasus Overseas Limited (POL), an Antwerp-based subsidiary of Lazare Kaplan International (LKI), the diamonds are referred to as GE POL or Pegasus diamonds in the trade. These GE-processed diamonds look like untreated diamonds; however, careful examination has revealed that some of them exhibit subtle features that usually are not present in natural-color diamonds. This article presents demographic information on 858 (of the 960) GE-processed diamonds that had been incorporated into the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory database as of July 15, 1999, and describes some of the unusual internal features that were seen. As recently stated by GE, the procedure used involves high pressure and high temperature and, to date, is effective only on certain high-purity and high-clarity diamonds @chapter:31


Publication Year: 1983 Title: The Identification of Turquoise by Infrared Spectroscopy and X-Ray Powder Diffraction Abstract: A combination of infrared spectroscopy and X-ray powder diffraction methods is suggested for the identification of natural, treated, and synthetic turquoise as well as imitation turquoise. Both techniques require powdering only a very small quantity of the specimen (approximately 3 mg), which means minimal damage to the piece. New experimental results on treated turquoise and imitation turquoise are given. @chapter:4


Publication Year: - Title: Bench Tip #8: How to Use the Conduction Soldering Technique Abstract: Conduction soldering technique

The soldering process, used extensively in all aspects of jewelry manufacturing and repair, joins two or more pieces of metal together—and when done properly, will result in a virtually undetectable seam. A better understanding of the soldering process can help you decide how to approach a particular soldering project.

Solder is a metal, usually quite similar to the original (parent) metal of the piece you are working on, that melts at a temperature slightly lower than the original. It is natural to think of the solder as a kind of glue that is heated up to hold two pieces together. But thinking about it this way can lead to problems: If you point the soldering torch directly at the piece of solder to melt it, the solder will overheat, boil, and oxidize. Many times it will stubbornly refuse to melt into the joint, regardless of the amount of heat applied.

For this reason, you can solder precious metal by using a technique called “conduction soldering.” In this process, the parent metal is heated to a point close to its melting temperature. That heat is transferred to the piece of solder, which is drawn into the joint by a process called "capillary action." This makes a strong solder joint by properly bonding the metal.

Follow these important steps to prepare for successful soldering:

Prepare the joint. The two pieces of metal to be joined should fit together well. Soldering works best when the pieces are in full contact with one another. Solder should not be used to fill gaps, because that will lead to weak and detectable joints.

	Do not point the torch directly at the solder. From inside the ring, gently move the flame back and forth below the joint. The heat will be conducted upward, and when the joint area is the proper temperature, the solder will flow.

Use a “firecoat” and flux. Firecoat is a protective coating placed on the surface of the jewelry object to prevent surface oxidation. Soldering without firecoat will often cause discoloration (firescale) that can be very difficult to remove.

Apply the flux directly onto the joint prior to soldering. This chemically cleans the metal surface so the solder can bond with the parent metal.

	Heat from beneath the joint draws solder in to bond with the parent metal (ring shank). The bottom illustration shows the finished ring with no visible solder seam.

After the joint is prepared, heat the object using the conduction soldering technique explained above. Remove the heat as soon as the solder melts—overheating can cause the solder to boil, which will result in a pitted appearance and weak solder joint.

With practice, you can achieve strong and attractive solder joints on your precious metal jewelry. @chapter:26


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Quarterly Crystal: Garnets in Aquamarine Abstract: Figure 1. This aquamarine crystal plays host to several orange garnet crystals. Photo by Angelica Sanchez.

For this quarterly crystal, we examined a transparent light blue-green hexagonal prism of aquamarine beryl terminated with a flat pinacoid (figure 1). The crystal weighed 26.16 ct with corresponding measurements of 25.93 × 11.64 × 9.08 mm. This aquamarine reportedly came from the Shigar Valley in the Skardu district, Gilgit-Baltistan territory of Pakistan, an area known to produce gemmy aquamarine crystals.

Figure 2. The garnets in the aquamarine were identified by Raman analysis as spessartine. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 9.40 mm.
Magnification revealed numerous intense orange syngenetic garnet crystals near the base of the aquamarine. Raman analysis of the well-formed garnets identified them as spessartine (figure 2).
Garnet inclusions in beryl are rare. Having the opportunity to study this euhedral crystal gives us further insight into the pegmatitic origin of this aquamarine and its locality. @chapter:10


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Book Review: Handbook of Spectral Lines in Diamond, Volume 1: Tables and Interpretations Abstract: The author has documented both published and unpublished results of more than 2,500 entries assigned to more than 400 optical centers. He includes information on spectral lines for natural diamonds, both treated and untreated, as well as synthetic diamonds, HPHT and CVD. He also explores a variety of impurity defects in diamond: nitrogen, boron, hydrogen, and silicon, among others.

The collection of data is presented in 203 tables, in which the author provides an interpretation and analysis of spectra and the assignment of structures to the optical centers. Tables in the appendices include historical, existing, and new names of defect centers or lines in diamond.

Reviewed by GIA Library Staff
Carlsbad, California @chapter:11


Publication Year: 2011 Title: UV-Vis-NIR Reflectance Spectroscopy of Natural-Color Saltwater Cultured Pearls from Pinctada Margaritifera Abstract: Natural-color saltwater cultured pearls from Pinctada margaritifera were studied by diffuse reflectance UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy to identify the absorption features associated with their various colors. Nine patterns observed in the visible range demonstrated that individual colors are caused not by one pigment but by a mixture of pigments. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2024 Title: Beryl from Newfoundland, Canada Abstract: Figure 1. Emerald and beryl specimens from Newfoundland, Canada. The chip on the right has a distinct green rim in this position, on its lower right edge. Photo by Emily Lane; courtesy of Art Gardner and Terry Russell.

Figure 2. In situ emerald and beryl from Newfoundland. The primary crystal shows a lively green hue. The crystal on the lower right shows strong concentric zonation with a green rim and a white core. Photo by Emma Hutchinson Photography; courtesy of Art Gardner.
Prospectors Art Gardner and Terry Russell recently discovered concentrically zoned beryl [Be3Al2(Si6O18)] in central Newfoundland, Canada, along the Bay D’Espoir Highway, and sent preliminary findings to GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory. The green rims of these beryls were often sufficiently green to be considered emerald. The outer rims were bright green or pale green, and the cores were very pale green or white (figures 1 and 2). Most zones had low transparency. They formed hexagonal columns at the 1–3 cm scale, associated with mica-quartz-feldspar veins and minor tourmaline, calcite, biotite, fluorite, pyrite, and arsenopyrite. Some stones were suitable for polishing and setting in jewelry, especially as cabochons. An individual specimen may have zones that fit into the definitions of emerald and white beryl, with the brighter greens at the rims.
Canada is host to a number of gem minerals, including emerald from Yukon and the Northwest Territories (G. Giuliani et al., “Emerald deposits: A review and enhanced classification,” Minerals, Vol. 9, 2019). This beryl deposit on Newfoundland Island is within the Great Bend Complex of ophiolites. The mica-quartz-feldspar veins hosting the beryl are found within a host rock rich with scheelite [Ca(WO4)]. Other pegmatitic dikes are regularly found within the bedrock, and a ~450 km belt of beryl-bearing pegmatite dikes extends across the island from east to west. This discovery adds another locality to Canada’s gemological map.

Figure 3. UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum of the first crystal on the left in figure 1. Absorption bands are seen at 420, 615, and 835 nm, and a low but sharp peak at 956 nm.
The ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) absorption spectrum of the green zone in the leftmost crystal in figure 1 displayed absorption bands at 420 (Fe3+), 615 (V3+, Cr3+), and 835 nm (Fe2+) and a sharp but low absorption peak at 956 nm (H2O) (figure 3). These are due to the combined effects of vanadium and iron, with minor influence of chromium. These features are common in emerald.

Figure 4. Cesium vs. lithium for emerald from worldwide localities, demonstrating the unique chemistry of Newfoundland (NFL) emeralds. Worldwide emerald data from GIA laboratories.

The beryls’ chemistry, as determined by laser ablation−inductively coupled plasma−mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), is unique from other worldwide deposits; both the white cores and green rims had elevated lithium and cesium (figure 4). The lithium and cesium values are within the range expected more of a beryl from a lithium-cesium rich pegmatite, such as many morganites or goshenites. The green coloration is primarily due to vanadium, with minor chromium, which are both chromophores of emerald (table 1). The magnesium is consistently higher than iron, as expected for emeralds (R.E. Henry et al., “Crystal-chemical observations and the relation between sodium and H2O in different beryl varieties,” Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 60, 2022, pp. 625–675). The magnesium and transition metals are higher in the green rims than in the white cores, which have higher lithium. However, the cesium is higher in the green rims. This is likely due to the near-mutual exclusivity of beryllium site and aluminum site cation substitutions, preventing significant lithium substitutions when there is a high level of magnesium and transition metals (R.E. Henry et al., “Predicting the crystal structure of beryl from the chemical composition,” Canadian Journal of Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 61, No. 4, 2023, pp. 873–897). As magnesium and iron require charge balancing, sodium and cesium can serve this purpose; while cesium is associated with lithium in geologic environments, it does not have the same crystal-chemical constraints as lithium in beryl.
These beryls’ formation at the intersection of an ophiolite and a pegmatite is consistent with conditions required to create emerald as it brings together a source of vanadium or chromium with a source of beryllium. The goshenite cores are a feature that have been seen in emeralds from some other localities, including Russian emeralds.
Due to their uniquely high cesium and lithium, emerald zones of beryl from this locality are easy to differentiate. Should gem-quality specimens come to the market, a method is in place to confirm their origin as Newfoundland. Efforts are underway to continue exploration for additional gem material. @chapter:2


Publication Year: - Title: Spring 2022 G&G Available Now Abstract: A variety of topics are in store for you in the Spring issue of G&G. The first article provides a comprehensive summary of mineral, chemical, and spectroscopic investigations of Schneckenstein topaz. The second article concludes the investigation into the early mining history of the Habachtal emerald deposit in Austria with a look at the era between World Wars I and II. This issue also marks G&G’s return to the Tucson gem shows in early 2022 and the debut of an exciting new section: Diamond Reflections.
GEM TOPAZ FROM THE SCHNECKENSTEIN CRAIG, SAXONY, GERMANY: MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND LUMINESCENCE
The lead article by Manuela Zeug and coauthors provides a mineral-chemical and spectroscopic characterization of yellow topaz from the Schneckenstein crag in Saxony, Germany. This study utilizes excitation-emission spectroscopy to explain the photoluminescence behavior of the material, which appears virtually inert under common UV sources.
HISTORY OF EMERALD MINING IN THE HABACHTAL DEPOSIT OF AUSTRIA, PART II
Karl Schmetzer details the mining history of Austria’s Habachtal region to conclude this two-part series. This article presents research using largely unpublished materials from Austrian and German archives to illustrate the mining problems and the success or failure of those involved with emerald recovery in the era between World War I and World War II.
LAB NOTES
GIA laboratory staff members present their latest findings in the Lab Notes section, including a natural type Ia diamond that changed from Fancy Dark yellowish brown to Fancy Deep yellow-orange with HPHT processing, three green and yellow diamonds over 5 carats colored by nickel impurities, a record size for a CVD laboratory-grown diamond, and unusual laser drill holes in an HPHT-grown synthetic diamond.
MICRO-WORLD
The Micro-World section, dedicated to the inner world of gemstones, features an apatite before and after oiling, a large red garnet crystal within an aquamarine, magnificent cube-shaped cavities and purple fluorite in hyalite, and a complex fluid inclusion in topaz.
DIAMOND REFLECTIONS
The debut of Evan Smith’s new G&G column explores the connection between deep-focus earthquakes, those originating below the rigid tectonic plates, and diamond growth. If these two processes are related, then modern-day earthquakes have the potential to produce valuable diamonds of large sizes. Future installments of this section will appear on a periodic basis.
GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL
Finally, GNI correspondents from around the world report on market updates, interesting and noteworthy finds, and interviews with dealers, cutters, and designers, in more than 30 pages of coverage from the 2022 Tucson gem shows. Other highlights from the section include an unusual repair of a natural emerald, inclusions and spectroscopic features of yellowish green enstatite, and the discovery of davemaoite in a diamond from the earth’s lower mantle.
The Spring issue also contains the 2022 Gems & Gemology Challenge. Score 75% or better, and you’ll receive a certificate of completion; earn a perfect score, and your name will be listed in the Fall 2022 issue. Online entries for the Challenge must be submitted by Monday, August 1, 2022. @chapter:20


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Xenomorphic Olivine Inclusion in Diamond Abstract: This three-spoke radial inclusion of olivine owes its unique morphology to the extreme temperature and pressure applied to it. This mineral inclusion forced to adopt the shape of its host is an example of xenomorphism. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 2.25 mm.

The author recently examined a faceted diamond that contained an oddly shaped near-colorless crystal with a low-relief tension crack surrounding it. The inclusion was identified by Raman spectroscopy as olivine, a rather common inclusion in diamond. The remarkable thing about this particular example was its shape, which consisted of three spokes intersecting at approximately 120° (see above). This is not the shape one would typically associate with the orthorhombic mineral olivine, but there is an explanation for the unusual morphology of this inclusion.
As diamonds form at extreme temperature and pressure conditions, they can impose their morphology on syngenetic minerals that become included in them. When a guest mineral adopts the host diamond’s morphology, this is known as xenomorphism. The triangular morphology seen here suggests that the olivine inclusion is oriented parallel to an octahedral crystal face of the host diamond crystal. This is one of the most unusually shaped inclusions observed in diamond examined by the author. @chapter:32


Publication Year: - Title: The Curious Life of Patrick O’Shea: From Ballistics Detective to Gemologist and Jewelry Designer Abstract: Patrick O’Shea’s curiosity and interests led him down many paths throughout his life, but they all came together when he became a jewelry designer. Photo by Ayano Hisa for GIA

Patrick O’Shea’s life sounds a lot like a Dan Brown novel.
He was a ballistics detective for 19 years with the New York City Police Department who played a part in 10,000-plus felony/homicide investigations. A longtime member of the Free and Accepted Masons. A student of history and esoteric symbols, who also had an informal partnership with an expert in symbols who plied his knowledge to crack seemingly unsolvable crimes.
O’Shea’s unusual journey continued with a GIA Graduate Gemologist® diploma and a career that evolved into designing custom-made jewelry for the Masons that showcases the group’s sacred symbols.
“We live in a universe surrounded by a language far more eloquent than words. I use signs and symbols – the language of this alphabet – to represent the glorious mystery surrounding us,” O’Shea said of the imagery that informs his jewelry designs.
But before our story can go further, we must revisit O’Shea’s past.
Born in the Bronx, O’Shea spent nearly two decades on the police force as a ballistics detective on the mean streets of 1980s South Bronx. Days were spent going from one homicide scene to the next. When his fellow detectives were perplexed by evidence at a crime scene, O’Shea and Dr. Marcos Coronas, a New York City police detective and professor of comparative religions, cults and symbology, would examine it, looking for clues like tattoos, drawings, a ring, books – anything that might shed light on the reason for the crime.
“Sometimes Coronas would say, ‘That’s nothing. It’s a symbol for protection against bad luck. Other times he would say, ‘This is a clear message that the murder was an act of revenge.’ Or, ‘These guys are up to something really bad,’” O’Shea said.

O’Shea’s ring for members of the New York City Police Department Club who are Masons displays many meaningful icons, such as the American eagle presiding over the imagery, which stand patriotism. The windmill refers to the Dutch origins of New York and the Indian and pilgrim stand for the inhabitants of early New York. The nightstick stands for equality and the angle of its placement means, “The job isn’t finished.” Individuals who want to wear the ring must be active or retired New York City police department officers and Master Masons. Courtesy of Patrick O'Shea
#TEXT#

O’Shea’s last years on the force were spent as an expert ballistic wounds witness for the court. After his retirement, he became a bodyguard for New York’s wealthy.
“When the Great Recession of 2008 hit, all my clients started handing me their jewelry for safekeeping,” he said. “They figured if they trusted me to protect their lives, I could also protect their valuables.”
O’Shea already had an interest in gems and jewelry – he used to sell silver jewelry on the side when he was a detective – and his new work inspired him to study with GIA. He was far into his coursework in 2015 when his wife was diagnosed with cancer, so he put his studies aside to care for her. By the time he could resume it, he had exceeded the allotted completion time and had to start all over again. He finally passed his 20-stone exam after several attempts at GIA in Carlsbad.
“The classes at GIA in Carlsbad were astounding,” O’Shea said. The opportunity to handle gems and study them under the helpful eye of an instructor made it possible for him to turn theory into skill. He also noted that his work as a ballistics detective, which involved viewing bullets in a variety of lighting environments, prepared him well for gem identification.
The gemological adventure resumed. But his first attempts to break into the industry were unsuccessful.
“I was an Irish-looking cop and I’m trying to talk to nice Hasidic men who wouldn’t acknowledge my presence,” he said. “Then I went to the GIA Alumni Association.”
An older gentleman, Rabbi David Altman, was speaking at the meeting. O’Shea had a detective’s hunch that Altman was a Freemason. His intuition was correct and the two became friends. Altman’s family had been in the gem trade for generations and began to introduce O’Shea to his business associates in the Diamond District.
“All of the sudden, I could do business on 47th Street,” O’Shea said.
Good fortune struck again when O’Shea was walking through the Diamond District wearing a ring he made that was stamped with Masonic symbols. A passerby – Jilber Ezgilioglu, also a Mason – immediately, recognized them and the two began chatting. Several conversations later, they became creative partners: O’Shea a gemologist and Ezgilioglu a master craftsman in old-world jewelry manufacturing techniques.

This piece (approx. 35 millimeters by 30 millimeters), created to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the founding of Free Masonry in England, jumpstarted O’Shea’s career as a designer. It is rich in symbolism: the double-headed eagle is an ancient symbol for the nobility of rule, with one head standing for wisdom in temporal affairs and the other for spiritual wisdom. The Latin words engraved on the banner can be translated as “God and my moral rightness.” The sword represents justice; the triangle represents geometry; and the sun represents the light of the Deity. Courtesy of Patrick O’Shea
O’Shea founded Happy Diamond Guy Masonic Rings in 2014 and began to design jewelry earnestly. Then a big break came. The Sovereign Grand Commander of the Northern Jurisdiction of Scottish Rite Masonry asked to O’Shea to make a pendant for his wife to wear to the celebration of the 300th anniversary of the founding of Free Masonry in England. He designed a double-headed eagle with spread wings – a dramatic creation that turned heads.
“People loved the piece and posted pictures of it on social media. All of the sudden, I started getting calls from Masons around the world – Japan, New Zealand, Canada – asking if I could make pieces for them,” O’Shea said.
And so a successful business was born.
O’Shea gets a steady stream of requests from fellow Masons to make custom Masonic rings, and bracelets and earrings for their partners. All O’Shea’s work is custom, but he and Ezgilioglu are considering creating a line of less elaborate, more affordable Masonic jewelry.
As part of their business, O’Shea and Ezgilioglu (and occasionally Altman) visit jewelry stores that are selling colored stones in bulk. Jewelers who specialize in diamonds – even in the Diamond District – often know little about colored gemstones, according to O’Shea. Thanks to his GIA education, which he described as “overwhelmingly informative,” O’Shea is able to sort through the thousands of carats worth of gems placed on a table, separating the beautiful stones they want to buy from the inferior ones and simulants.
O’Shea has earned such a reputation for his expertise that diamond dealers frequently contact him to evaluate a pouch of colored stones they have in their office. Other storeowners have O’Shea visit their shops to evaluate gems they come upon in their travels.
If O’Shea ever needs assistance in an area outside his expertise, he turns to his Rolodex, which is filled with GIA business cards.
“One thing GIA taught me was how to separate a great stone from a good stone, from a poor stone. You can’t just figure this out; you’ll just be guessing. You need an education for this, and GIA is the place to get it,” O’Shea said.

In one of O’Shea’s rings for the Masons, the “G” stands for the Great Architect of the Universe and geometry – the “noblest of sciences” – among other things. The compass, with a 0.10 ct sapphire center, stands for discernment and wise conduct. The ring is 14K yellow gold with two-plus ct diamonds and a 14K white gold compass. Courtesy of Patrick O'Shea
O’Shea remains deeply loyal to his Masonic roots and its philanthropic activities. The Masons in New Jersey, his current state of residence, adopted dyslexia as its cause and provide free schools and a free training program for schoolteachers. O’Shea’s chapter has gone further, raising enough money to donate a building for the children.
And O’Shea’s design business continues to grow. He notes that all his work is built for the ages, made with superior workmanship and materials so the pieces can be passed down from father to son.
“I consider myself extremely lucky. I’m the go-to guy for Masons in Northern New Jersey,” he said. “I’m also making jewelry for the upper echelons of the Masons. It’s a beautiful thing.”
While Dan Brown continues to write best-selling novels riddled spun around symbols, O’Shea is turning the symbols of Masonry into Masonic Jewelry. The gemological adventure continues. @chapter:16