Publication Year: - Title: Luxury Firms Adjust to the Era of Diminished Opulence Abstract: De Grisogono’s “Crazymals” collection introduced in Basel combines humor and craftsmanship to a luxury line. This pink flamingo ring is 18k gold, pink sapphires and colorless diamonds. Courtesy of De Grisogono

	Business at the March 23-30 Baselworld Fair was challenging for many exhibitors, even though luxury jewelry designers have been doing some serious rethinking and following the lead of the watch brands away from the blingy, gem-laden look to a more artistic approach. This was in evidence throughout the 2017 edition of Baselworld, which had its own clash with market realities this year.

	In addition to leading watch brands, the fair attracts top luxury jewelry brands and dealers of very high end gemstones – fancy color diamonds, colorless diamonds over 10 carats, and fine, untreated colored gems.

	Many fancy pink (including goods from Argyle’s three previous tender auctions), blue and yellow diamonds were available in the gemstone hall. Even the two largest Fancy Vivid violet diamonds in the market today were on display. In addition, a number of 10 carat-plus D Fl Type IIa diamonds; several Kashmir sapphires, ranging in price from $1 million to $7.5 million; and arrays of unheated Burmese rubies, including a necklace offered for $35 million, were spotted.

	While the array of such rare gems is unmatched by any venue in the world, buying was spotty. Some exhibitors with established clienteles, who were offering fine quality goods in the more mainstream market, made their sales goals. Most exhibitors at the extreme top end struggled. Also, the buyer count continued to slide this year as Chinese buyers, who had been aggressive luxury consumers, showed up in fewer numbers, and investors looking to buy rare gemstones have become wary of lofty prices.

	There were a variety of opinions as to why. Some felt that prices, which exceed $1 million per carat for fancy pink and blue diamonds, have peaked, making investors and extremely wealthy jewelry buyers reticent about buying. Others claimed that unsettled political and economic conditions in most major markets have made buyers skittish for the moment. Both camps, however, agreed that lowering prices on such goods was not an option because of the prices dealers had paid for such goods.

	Luxury jewelry houses have adapted to the mood today, stressing craftsmanship and design innovation in addition to the gem-intensive lines they are known for.

	De Grisogono, based in Geneva, introduced, among several newly-designed collections, a line of rings and pendants entitled “Crazymals,” which are quirky, amusing figures set with small diamonds, black diamonds and various colored gems.

	The company’s founder, Fawaz Gruosi, acknowledged the changes in the luxury market, but stressed that collections like Crazymals have the same attention to detail as high jewelry pieces. “In this collection, a little animal is a very sophisticated piece of jewelry,” he said.

	Another more traditional line is its India collection of necklaces and earrings featuring drop-shaped white opal, turquoise or onyx set in white gold and accented with diamonds set in a dense wild setting. As with the Crazymals, he pointed out the attention to craftsmanship that goes with each piece. Gruosi stressed that his company still does much of its business in very large diamonds – they sold a pair of 20 carat (ct) D Fl heart-shaped stones at the show.

	“These (major gems) will always have an appeal, especially as a financial asset,” he noted. “If something happens, [owners] can take these pieces anywhere in the world.”

	At this level – above eight million dollars – “You can only offer the absolute best and these goods are very, very difficult to find,” he said.

	Ian Harebottle, CEO of Gemfields, which owns Fabergé, said artistry and craftsmanship are more important than ever in the luxury market.

	“Large gems are becoming increasingly commoditized, so the way forward is to add value with craftsmanship and design,” he said.

	He cited the fine art market: “Some paintings sell for hundreds of millions of dollars. How much are the pigment, canvas and frame worth? And the most expensive diamond ever sold got only a fraction of what these works of art sell for.”

	Reena Ahluwalia, who created the Coronet by Reena diamond collection for Hong Kong-based Aaron Shum Jewellers, added another element. “The day when women dressed in formal attire wearing their jewels has passed for the most part,” she said. “Today they are less formal and want pieces that express their individuality that they can wear on the go.”

	Her Coronet collection features melee diamonds set into mobile elements to create scintillation, without using large gemstones.

	Other exhibitors employed carved, cabochon and drop-cut gem materials to create bolder, more fashion-oriented looks for wearable style in place of wearable wealth. For example, Paul Wild, of Idar-Oberstein, Germany, set drop-cut mandarin garnets into carved pink opal and similarly, cut aquamarines into carved green chrysoprase.

At Baselworld, Paul Wild of Idar-Oberstein, Germany offered a collection drop cut mandarin garnets set into carved pink opal for a necklace. Courtesy of Paul Wild. Photo Russell Shor/GIA

	Like the luxury market, the Baselworld fair itself has had to adjust to the era of diminished opulence. Between last year’s fair and this year’s, nearly 15% of exhibitors (some 200) pulled out. Nearly all of the international section, except for the Hong Kong contingent, was gone, as were many major Italian jewelry houses that populated the “Brand” hall. Several former exhibitors who attended the show as buyers said the increasing expense of the show, which has risen dramatically following the $500 million refurbishment three years ago, coupled with declining sales, made it impossible to remain.

	The fair created a special jewelry designers section with boutique-sized spaces for new and smaller companies in one of the large abandoned spaces, but with so many gaps in the exhibition areas, the decline was obvious.

	Still, fair management held firm at a contentious press conference during the opening, saying most of the companies that left did not meet show standards. Baselworld management relented by the end of the fair, however, and cut two days from the eight day show next year, lowering exhibitor costs accordingly.

	AUCTIONS

	The April 4 sale of the 59.60 ct Pink Star diamond to the Hong Kong-based retailer Chow Tai Fook for $71 million ends a long chapter for this stone – the most expensive ever sold at auction. Originally known at the Steinmetz Pink, after the first owner and polisher of the diamond, Sotheby’s sold the GIA-graded Fancy Vivid pink diamond for $82 million at its November 2015 Hong Kong sale. The buyer defaulted four months later, however, and the auction house was obliged to buy in the diamond for a reported $70 million.

	The diamond remained with the auction house until the April 4 sale. While this diamond now holds the price record for any gemstone, its per-carat price, $1.2 million, is half of what similarly graded diamonds have fetched in the recent past and less than one-third of the per-carat price of the previous record holder, the 14.69 ct Oppenheimer Blue that sold for just under $4 million per carat.

The GIA-graded 59.60 ct Pink Star diamond sold for $71 million at the April 4 Sotheby's auction in Hong Kong. Courtesy Sotheby's

	MARKET

	De Beers’ April cycle (sight) was valued at $580 million, significantly lower than the $660 million allocated at the April 2016 sale. The number may increase, however, as the company often sells goods outside the cycle system.

	De Beers said demand for rough was strong following a positive Hong Kong show. The company held the line on prices and there was no word of clients declining or deferring purchases. @chapter:27


Publication Year: - Title: GIA's Gübelin Gem Project: Various Gems, Barite - Cuprite Abstract: Brazilianite
Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA, courtesy Dr. E. J. Gübelin Collection
GIA Collection 33942

Among the collection assembled by Dr. Edward Gübelin are a number of uncommon gemstones from many worldwide localities. Documents, like the ones below, present information on gemstones that range from occasional use in jewelry to those that are quite rare and seldom faceted because of the lack of suitable starting material.

35345

			7.25 ct Barite
			France (PDF)

34335

			13.59 ct Barite
			Kenya (PDF)

34691

			11.91 ct Barite
			Namibia (PDF)

35344

			6.99 ct Barite
			The United Kingdom (PDF)

35167

			7.55 ct Barite
			The United States (PDF)

35337

			2.60 ct Bastnäsite
			Pakistan (PDF)

33928

			3.36 ct Benitoite
			The United States (PDF)

35170

			3.48 ct Benitoite
			The United States (PDF)

33927

			3.77 ct Benitoite
			The United States (PDF)

33936

			5.68 ct Beryllonite
			The United States (PDF)

35350

			7.82 ct Beryllonite
			The United States (PDF)

33939

			8.12 ct Beryllonite
			The United States (PDF)

35173

			13.80 ct Beryllonite
			The United States (PDF)

33942

			11.91 ct Brazilianite
			Brazil (PDF)

33948

			14.39 ct Brazilianite
			Brazil (PDF)

34271

			17.33 ct Brazilianite
			Brazil (PDF)

35311

			20.18 ct Brucite
			The United States (PDF)

35353

			1.32 ct Burbankite
			Canada (PDF)

35308

			33.52 ct Calcite
			The Czech Republic (PDF)

35416

			18.59 ct Calcite
			Mexico (PDF)

35415

			23.58 ct Calcite
			Mexico (PDF)

34439

			27.90 ct Calcite
			Mexico (PDF)

35429

			6.21 ct Calcite
			Spain (PDF)

35570

			9.01 ct Cassiterite
			China (PDF)

34788

			4.07 ct Cassiterite
			Sri Lanka (PDF)

35366

			1.97 ct Catapleiite
			Canada (PDF)

35361

			16.34 ct Celestite
			Madagascar (PDF)

35176

			11.52 ct Celestite
			The United States (PDF)

35313

			42.13 ct Cerussite
			Morocco (PDF)

35368

			1.34 ct Childrenite
			Brazil (PDF)

33792

			17.64 ct Chrysoberyl
			Brazil (PDF)

33799

			6.28 ct Chrysoberyl
			Myanmar (PDF)

33800

			5.13 ct Chrysoberyl
			Locality not stated (PDF)

34797

			5.25 ct Chrysoberyl
			Sri Lanka (PDF)

34792

			10.15 ct Chrysoberyl
			Sri Lanka (PDF)

34800

			16.02 ct Chrysoberyl
			Sri Lanka (PDF)

34313

			2.68 ct Chrysoberyl - Alexandrite
			Brazil (PDF)

33805

			3.43 ct Chrysoberyl - Alexandrite
			Locality not stated (PDF)

33809

			2.85 ct Chrysoberyl - Alexandrite
			Russia (PDF)

35557

			7.97 ct Cinnabar
			China (PDF)

35514

			19.87 ct Cinnabar
			China (PDF)

35521

			20.52 ct Cinnabar
			China (PDF)

35433

			1.52 ct Clinohumite
			Tajikistan (PDF)

35516

			5.42 ct Cobaltian Calcite
			The Democratic Republic
			of Congo (PDF)

35428

			7.93 ct Cobaltocalcite
			Spain (PDF)

34351

			7.78 ct Colemanite
			Kenya (PDF)

34405

			2.69 ct Cordierite - Iolite
			Madagascar (PDF)

34555

			10.14 ct Cordierite - Iolite
			Myanmar (PDF)

34802

			8.77 ct Cordierite - Iolite
			Sri Lanka (PDF)

35440

			4.73 ct Crocoite
			Australia (PDF)

35441

			5.40 ct Crocoite
			Australia (PDF)

34705

			16.64 ct Cuprite
			Namibia (PDF) @chapter:3


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Quench-Crackled Blue Synthetic Spinel Abstract: Figure 1. A 9.75 ct synthetic spinel, seen in GIA’s Bangkok lab, was proven to be treated by the quench-crackling method. Photo by Nuttapol Kitdee.

	Recently, GIA’s Bangkok laboratory examined an interesting 9.75 ct blue oval mixed cut (figure 1). Standard gemological properties included an RI of 1.728, with strong anomalous double refraction using the polariscope. The sample’s Chelsea filter reaction exhibited a strong red transmission, and absorption bands at 540, 580, and 635 nm were seen in the handheld spectroscope. The specimen fluoresced strong red under long-wave UV radiation and strong bluish white under short-wave UV. These properties are diagnostic features of cobalt blue synthetic spinel grown by the Verneuil (flame-fusion) process.

	Microscopic observation revealed tiny strings of gas bubbles and strong irregular graining, with many reflective fractures on one side of the sample (figure 2). The specimen appeared to have been heated and thermally shocked. This method, known as quench-crackling, typically involves the use of a dye to create a preferable color, but not in this specimen. While DiamondView imaging showed clear fractures similar to those found in quench-crackled treated material (figure 3), a PL spectrum of Cr3+ shifted from 685 to 689 nm was consistent with synthetic spinel (S. Saeseaw et al., “Distinguishing heated spinels from unheated natural spinels and from synthetic spinels,” GIA Research News, April 2009).

Figure 2. These reflective fractures were seen in the blue synthetic spinel. Photomicrograph by Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 2.5 mm.

Figure 3. DiamondView imaging of the synthetic spinel showed fractures typical of quench-crackled material. Photo by Charuwan Khowpong.

	Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was utilized for a trace element analysis. The results displayed high amounts of Co (up to 167 ppma), along with 1137 ppma Ti and 337 ppma Cr. Zn was found with a maximum of 6 ppma, and Ga was below the detection limit. This specimen contained higher amounts of Ti and Co than those previously reported in S. Saeseaw et al. (“Cobalt diffusion of natural spinel: A report describing a new treatment on the gem market,” GIA Research News, June 2015). We concluded that a quench-crackling technique was used to make the synthetic spinel appear more like a natural spinel. In such cases, standard gemological properties are useful for accurate identification. @chapter:12


Publication Year: - Title: The Nephrite Jade Road: Evolution of the Green Nephrite Market Abstract: Emperors’ stamps once symbolized highly centralized power. Almost all were made of nephrite jade, chosen for its unequaled rarity, durability, and beauty. They’re no longer in use, but today many of China’s organizations use nephrite stamps to depict major events. This is the official stamp of the 2010 Shanghai World Expo. It’s made of a piece of top-quality light green nephrite weighing 4.28 kilograms (about 9 lbs.). It was carved by Master Zhang Tiecheng to mimic the style of the stamp used by Emperor Qianlong, historically known as jade’s biggest fan. Courtesy of China Gems magazine.

	INTRODUCTION

	The Chinese character “Yu” is equivalent to the English term “jade,” but the term’s meaning has broadened to include both nephrite and jadeite jade. Some even use the word to refer to all beautiful rocks, demonstrating the significance of jade in the Chinese culture. Record-setting prices for jadeite jade jewelry have been in the industry news spotlight for the past 30 years. However, nephrite jade has been an important part of China’s jade culture for more than 5,000 years. And nephrite’s history on other continents goes back 4,000 to 5,000 years.

	The name jade had always applied to nephrite until jadeite jade was imported into China about 200 to 250 years ago. In China, jade symbolizes a connection between the living and the dead as well as power, wealth, and social class. Also used to fashion tools, jade is a part of every aspect of people’s lives.

	To display their pride in jade culture, the Chinese mounted nephrite jade into the award medals used in the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. It was the first time that gem materials were used on Olympic medals and it reignited an awareness of, and love for, nephrite jade.

The Beijing Olympics medals were mounted with nephrite sourced in Qinghai province, China. It was a highly successful promotion that drove up sales and facilitated the nephrite jade rush in Canada and Russia that occurred in 2009 and 2010. Courtesy China Gems Magazine.

	In China, nephrite names are based on color. White nephrite has always been and still is the most highly revered. Owning a piece of white, or “mutton fat,” nephrite is the dream of all jade collectors. Next on the popularity list is green nephrite. It has the same hue as the most valuable jadeite jade but it’s not as bright. The slightly weaker luster gives it a more conservative look. Green nephrite has attracted consumer attention due to the recently skyrocketing prices of white nephrite and good-quality jadeite jade.

The “Ban Zhi” ring was once worn on a man’s thumb and designed with a very thick shank to protect the skin during archery practice. It later evolved into a symbol of wealth and power. This one is attached to a beaded string for hanging on a belt. Courtesy Beijing Boguan Auction House.

	While very few people question China’s status as the largest nephrite jade market, the sourcing, manufacturing, and trading of the stone have never stopped evolving. Today, nephrite holds an exalted place in the Chinese market, motivating Canadian and Russian miners. Since Chinese green nephrite production keeps shrinking, the main products on the market are from these two sources. History, production, and trading policies, and the demand from China, combine to influence the modern green nephrite market.

	COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT SOURCES

	Green nephrite occurs along the contacts between serpentinite units and more silicic (rich in silica) rocks such as granitic intrusive bodies, argillite, chert, or greywacke in obduction settings, where continental and oceanic crusts collide (Harlow at al., 2005). Its formation results from metasomatic reactions promoted by the presence of calcium-rich hydrous fluid along the contacts (Harlow et al., 2005).

	Although deposits around the globe share a similar geological setting, there is no single formation model. Since serpentinite belongs to ophiolite belts and ophiolite is of oceanic origin, it’s only transported to land by subduction or obduction. Subduction and obduction occur during continental-oceanic collisions, so most ophiolite belts occur along old suture zones and current subduction zones.

Major green nephrite deposits form within serpentinite belts along old or still-active subduction zones. The three most commercially important deposits—in China, British Columbia, and Siberia—all have similar geological environments. Map adapted from Harlow and Sorensen, 2005.

	The most economically important green nephrite sources are located in northwestern China, British Columbia, and Siberia. They are all major suppliers for the China market.

	XINJIANG, CHINA

	Hetian, also known as Hotan, is located in northwestern China (Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region) and has always been synonymous with the best nephrite. The area is known for yielding the famous top-quality white “mutton fat” jade.

	Traditionally named “Hetian Jade” is mainly from the Kunlun (Karakoram) and A’erjin (Altai) Mountains. Most of the production from these two areas is white, light greenish white, or light green. Nephrite with a very obvious green hue is called “green nephrite” (“Bi Yu” in Chinese). Most green jade production is from the Manasi River Valley in the south of Jungar Basin. Primary deposits are located on the north slope of the Tian Shan (or Tien Shan) Mountains. In the trade it is called “Manasi green jade.

	Hetian is generally considered a source of the best-quality nephrite, while Manasi produces
	most of the green nephrite from Xinjiang. Manasi County is located in northwestern Xingjiang,
	along the Kunlun Mountains.

	The mining of Manasi green nephrite has a long history. During the Qing dynasty, it was completely controlled by the imperial court. In 1789, Emperor Qianlong ordered the closing of the area’s green nephrite mines. After that, the mines were dormant for more than 180 years. In 1973, the topic of green nephrite resources and mining was raised in a national meeting. This facilitated the reopening of the old mines and exploration in search of new resources.

	Local government support led to the establishment of a nephrite carving factory in Manasi County in 1974. That year, green nephrite production reached several tens of tons. The rough was transported to carving factories in southern China. Finished products mainly supplied the domestic market.

	BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA

	There are more than 50 nephrite occurrences in British Columbia (Simandl et al., 2000 ogden mine article), all distributed along the Cordilleran belt that extends from Alaska to California at irregular intervals along the continent’s margins (Leaming, 1995). This belt includes different regions of oceanic origin that contain the rocks necessary for green nephrite formation. These regions became part of the continent during subduction that occurred in the Mesozoic (Davis et al., 1978).

Nephrite deposits are distributed along a belt of ultramafic (igneous, with very low silica content) rocks that extends over 1,000 miles from the Canada-US border northwest through central and northern British Columbia, all the way to the Yukon border. Three clusters of nephrite deposits formed along this belt: southern, central, and northern clusters.

	Until the 1960s, almost all of the nephrite produced in British Columbia came from secondary deposits. With the rapid expansion of amateur lapidary activity after World War II, production in British Columbia’s jade fields picked up and they became the most important suppliers. About the same time, markets opened up in Germany and the Orient. Mining activity gradually depleted the secondary deposits, but increasing values led to further exploration. These efforts uncovered primary deposits adjacent to the Fraser River area in southern British Columbia, the Mount Ogden area in central British Columbia, and the Cassiar jade fields in the far north. Today, British Columbia is the main supplier for the China market.

The primary nephrite deposits in British Columbia are all located in highly mountainous areas. This is a view of the Jade Mountains in the province’s northwest corner. The extremely rugged terrain and harsh winters make nephrite mining very challenging. Courtesy of Jade West Group.

	Jade West Group, founded in 1981, is the biggest player in green nephrite mining and trading in British Columbia. Kirk Makepeace, the company’s founder, is an avid promoter of the stone. He started with a summer job as a jade driller. This involved flying into remote areas and spending summers in tents, with supplies brought by small planes every two weeks. Carrying drills in a backpack, he hiked the countryside in search of jade boulders. He drilled cores from them to determine potential quality. About three out of 100 boulders he drilled were of marketable quality.

	More than thirty years later, Jade West has become one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of green nephrite jade. The company owns and operates three out of the four active nephrite mines in British Columbia, including the famous Polar Mine near Dease Lake, and the Kutcho and Ogden Mountain mines. The Polar Mine’s high-quality production is known as Polar Jade in the trade.

Secondary deposits have been exhausted, so nephrite mining in British Columbia is now mainly mechanized. Costs are high, but the richness of the deposits still makes it a very rewarding business. Courtesy of Jade West Group.

The Polar Pride boulder—called “the find of the millennium” by trade experts—was discovered in 2000. The 18-ton boulder was split in half for carving. Courtesy of Jade West Group.

	Nephrite mining in British Columbia is very challenging. Winters are long and harshly cold, and deposits are remote, so mining can only happen during the short summer season, about 60 days a year. Almost all of the secondary deposits are exhausted, so current mining is almost all from primary deposits. Transporting the heavy equipment to the mining sites is backbreaking work.

View Gallery

	British Columbia Nephrite Mining Gallery

	Jade West uses diamond-coated circular and wire saws and modern high-pressure hydraulic splitters to remove the nephrite from the mountain and saw it into pieces of a manageable size.  Nephrite’s excellent toughness makes it extremely difficult to break out of the rock. While blasting had been used in the past, Jade West no longer uses explosives.

	Nephrite deposits range from 12 inches to 12 feet wide. The wider deposits are very challenging to quarry. Nephrite boulders on the surface sometimes reach weights of 200 tons and are rarely under 100 pounds, but Jade West tries to limit the weight of its boulders to five tons, which is a reasonable size for them to mine, handle, and transport on trucks to the nearest town, about 100 miles away. The average weight is two tons, a size that satisfies most of the carving factories in China.

View Gallery

	Nephrite Mining in British Columbia Gallery

	Sophisticated exploration techniques and an understanding of the area’s geology are the keys to successful mining operations and lengthening of a mine’s productive life. Jade West Group invests a lot of capital in its exploration projects. The company adopted core drilling in 1975, and it’s still their most powerful and reliable exploration tool. They drill into the mountain with water-cooled diamond-tipped drills, then extract the cores and examine them to determine if the nephrite is of suitable quality to turn into a marketable finished product. Since the mining season is short, the miners must call on a great deal of experience when determining the areas from which they will take core samples.

View Gallery

	Exploration Gallery

	SIBERIA, RUSSIA

	Although it entered the China market only about 10 to 15 years ago, green nephrite from Russia has gained a great reputation because of its bright color and good transparency. Both white and green nephrite are mined in Russia. Some of the white stones can be of equal quality to the most sought-after “mutton fat” jade and can be sold for high prices in China. Green nephrite is more readily available than the white varieties.

	The first green nephrite boulders were discovered on riverbanks in Russia’s Sayan area in 1826. There were additional discoveries in 1851 along the Onot River. The first primary nephrite deposit was reportedly discovered in 1986 (Burtseva et al., 2015).

All of Russia’s nephrite mining areas have spectacular views of snow-capped mountains, valleys, and rivers. Courtesy Sibirgeology, Russia.

	Siberian nephrite mines are located in extremely remote areas of Russia, in the Eastern Sayan Mountains and the Dzhida areas to the southwest of Lake Baikal, along with the Parama massif to the northeast of the lake. The Sayan Mountains are geographically and geologically related to the Altai Mountains that cross northwestern China, northern Mongolia, and Southwestern Russia. Many people believe that this connection is the reason for the similar qualities of nephrite from China and Russia.

	The main green nephrite deposits in the Eastern Sayan Mountains and Dzhida areas are
	located to the southwest of Lake Baikal. The entire area covers more than 250 square
	kilometers. Map adapted from Burtseva et al., 2015.

	This chalice is fashioned in a style common to Faberge products. The nephrite was
	mined in Siberia a long time ago. Material of this quality is very hard to find today.
	Courtesy Jade West Group.

	The green nephrite mines that the Chinese are familiar with are almost all clustered in the Eastern Sayan Mountains. From 2005 until now, Chinese nephrite dealers have been sourcing much of their inventory from these mines. Located along the southern margin of the Siberian craton, this area covers over 250 square kilometers. The Russians have recognized and carefully studied more than 50 ultramafic rock units (Burtseva et al., 2015), almost all within the Ospa-Kitoi and Khara-Nur massifs.

	The three largest green nephrite mines include Ospa (known to the Chinese as #7 and #11 mines), Gorlygol (known to the Chinese as #10 mine) and Ulankhoda. There are 15 recognized nephrite veins in the Ospa deposit, more than 30 in Gorlygol, and more than 20 in Ulankhoda (Burtseva et al., 2015). Green nephrite formation occurs along the contact between serpentinites and metasomatized mafic and felsic dikes (Burtseva et al., 2015).

The terrain in the Siberian nephrite mining areas is extremely rugged. The best way to access these areas is by helicopter. Retired army helicopters are often hired to transport people and supplies to the mining sites. Courtesy Sibirgeology, Russia.

	The mining of Siberian green nephrite is extremely challenging due to a combination of harsh weather conditions and extremely rugged local terrain. The mining sites can best be accessed by helicopter in the summer or by heavy duty trucks along frozen rivers in winter. Explorers need to fly to Irkutsk, the nearest transitional city, and start from there. It takes at least four to five days to reach the mining sites. Retired six-wheel army trucks are the most available and reliable transport vehicles.

View Gallery

	Hard Journey to the Mine Gallery

	Russian geologist Dr. Sasha Sekerin was one of the earliest explorers of nephrite deposits in the Western and Eastern Sayan Mountains. Today, he remains a highly respected jade expert in Russia. Dr. Sekerin served as a research scientist in the Zemnoy Kory (Earth Crust) Institute in Irkutsk for over a decade until the Soviet Union fell apart. He then became a nephrite jade miner. Sasha and his colleagues began exploring the area in 1975 and have guided foreign explorers and nephrite investors to the area over the past decade.

Dr. Sasha Sekerin is highly respected as a nephrite jade expert in Russia. He began exploring the nephrite deposits in Siberia in the 1970s. After the Soviet Union collapsed he became a nephrite jade miner. Courtesy Sibirgeology, Russia.

View Gallery

	Nephrite Deposits in Siberia Gallery

	To mine the nephrite, miners inject expansion agents into fractures in the giant rocks. They limit the use of explosives to protect the nephrite from damage. After injecting the agents, they wait a year, during which natural temperature changes help to fracture the rocks and get them ready for the mining season. The miners label the rocks to avoid conflicting claims, but due to increasing demand and skyrocketing prices, some locals will risk extracting the labeled claims during the winter. Large extracted nephrite is sawn on-site so it’s a reasonable size for transport.

View Gallery

	Siberian Nephrite Mining Operations Gallery

	MARKET EVOLUTION

	North American nephrite tools found in British Columbia’s Cariboo region date back more than 4,000 years, but the region’s green nephrite did not find its way into the market until independent Chinese miners recognized it during the 1850s gold rush in California and British Columbia’s Fraser River area. They shipped nephrite boulders from both areas back to China for processing. Some of the top-quality material was taken by the imperial court and became part of its collection. Since then, British Columbia’s green nephrite has been imported continuously into China.

This map depicts the mine-to-market route of green nephrite. Canada and Russia are the two main suppliers to the Chinese market while China’s Xinjiang is a minor supplier. Almost all goods are processed in southern China, with Guangzhou as the hub. Finished products are sold mostly in China’s domestic market while a minor portion is exported to other countries.

	From 1885 to 1949, green nephrite from British Columbia was entering the China market through different channels, but the amounts were quite limited. The scarcity made this material quite expensive to obtain. In the early 1930s, one of four then-famous jade carvers created a premium carving using a huge piece of green nephrite rough from British Columbia. This rough was reportedly bought at an auction with a final price of 6000 silver dollars, China’s currency of the time. History’s best estimate of the average annual income at the time was about 250 silver dollars for people working in big cities such as Shanghai and Beijing. This meant that a normal city worker had to work for 24 years to make enough money to purchase nephrite rough.

Green nephrite from British Columbia is a very popular gem material for carving in China. This miniature folded screen features green nephrite panels mounted in wood frames. It mimics the full-size screen that is a typical traditional Chinese furniture piece used to maintain privacy in a certain area in a room. Courtesy Jade West Group.

	In the 1980s, Kirk Makepeace of Jade West Group was buying out failed jade mining companies. At that time, almost all the country’s nephrite was being exported to Taiwan. The Taiwanese market could not consume all the production and carved a lot of the material into trinkets and extremely inexpensive jewelry for the domestic market and for export. Mainland China’s market was not yet open and the inexpensive jewelry market provided enough demand to aid the development of the Canadian nephrite mining industry and allow it to dominate for almost 30 years. Mr. Makepeace recalls six- to eight-millimeter good-quality nephrite bead strands selling in the tourist stores of San Francisco’s Chinatown for five dollars each in the early 1980s.

Almost all of British Columbia’s production was exported to China, including Taiwan. Almost all carving and manufacturing take place in mainland China. Courtesy Jade West Group.

	Jade West Group began exporting nephrite into China in 1986 and found market resistance to accepting nephrite from Canada as jade. However, Mr. Makepeace had a strong feeling about the future of China’s nephrite market. He was quoted in a September 1987 National Geographic article on jade as saying, “My secret weapon is China. I’ve broken into that market. Last year I sold about 104 tons: 100 to China and only 4 to Taiwan.” After 2000, the demand from China increased dramatically as China’s growing middle class had more disposable income to spend.  Nephrite jade was a very affordable alternative to jadeite jade while still allowing much higher prices as compared to the decades when it was sold just as a trinket.

Since the Chinese are the main consumers of green nephrite, almost all of the carving designs are customized for this target group. Once in a while, a non-traditional feature will appear, such as the faceted beads in these bracelets. Courtesy Jade West Group.

	When Mr. Makepeace went to Hetian, he found that most of the green “Hetian nephrite” was actually from British Columbia. Local merchants sold them as Hetian jade to take advantage of the overwhelming historical reputation of that material and the higher price that was possible because of it (Glaude Adams, 2009).

	Today, both British Columbian and Siberian green nephrite are more respected in China. More and more dealers are willing to disclose the real origin of their inventory to consumers, but selling everything as Hetian jade is still quite common in local markets. In a local Hetian jade trading center, among the 500 to 600 shops, only five were carrying inventory made of Xinjiang Manasi green nephrite in 2012. Recent reports suggest that this situation is still about the same.

The green nephrite bangles in the China market are mainly from British Columbia and Siberia. It is very rare to see good-quality goods made of Xingjiang material. Courtesy Jade West Group.

	Siberian green nephrite first entered the China market in the early 1990s through the border trading town of Dongning in Heilongjiang Province, China. There are more than a hundred nephrite jade dealers doing business in Dongning. Between 2005 and 2011, due to the shortage of rough, the price of white nephrite skyrocketed from $500 to $10,000 a kilo, making it unaffordable for the majority of consumers. This opened the opportunity for large amounts of well-priced green nephrite to be imported into China. Between 2005 and 2008, Siberian green nephrite gained a lot of respect from Chinese consumers. Bangles and beads from the Ospa #7 deposit became a consumer favorite, while material from Gorlygol #10 was used mainly for carvings.

	This piece of green nephrite rough from Siberia possesses very intense color. It’s called
	“spinach green” in China and the trade considers it the best green nephrite color. Photo
	by Robert Weldon, courtesy Jade West Group

	As you’ve read, the nephrite market’s most important event was the Beijing 2008 Olympics, where the medals incorporated nephrite jade from China. The Chinese government created an educational and promotional campaign to explain its significance. This completely changed the market for nephrite in China, as demand and prices increased. Jade West’s price for top-quality rough nephrite from Canada was twenty dollars a kilo just before the Olympics. Today the top qualities sell for prices between $200 and $2,000 a kilo.

This Maori-style pendant is made of green nephrite from a Siberian deposit (#10). Although most of the production from this deposit is only good for carving, top-quality material can be used in jewelry. Courtesy Jade Factory and Jade Mountain.

	The Beijing Olympic Games also boosted the price of green nephrite imported from Russia, especially the nice-quality rough from the Ospa #7 deposit. After 2008, a mine-to-market green nephrite relationship formed between Russia and China. Siberian nephrite trading and carving centers were formed in Beijing, Ha’erbin, Henan and border towns such as Dongning and Manchuria.

	Realizing nephrite’s great economic potential, Russian miners and dealers keep raising the price of nephrite rough. At the same time, the Russian government limits the amount of nephrite being exported to China. Both factors put pressure on Chinese business owners and caused prices to jump even higher. At the beginning of 2013, Siberian green nephrite rough was imported at an average price of about US$500 to $650 a kilo. At the end of 2014, the average price in the Dongning market was about US$1000 a kilo. High-quality cat’s-eye Siberian green nephrite rough reached a price of US$50,000 a kilo in 2015, while the non-cat’s-eye top-quality material was priced at US$2000 a kilo.

	This necklace features top-quality cat’s-eye green nephrite cabochons. The apple-green
	color and the quality of the chatoyancy make this material a favorite of Chinese consumers.
	Courtesy Jade Factory and Jade Mountain.

	Siberian green nephrite now dominates the middle to high-end green nephrite market in China, while British Columbia material dominates the lower-end market. Though Xinjiang is historically the most important nephrite source, this is not true of green nephrite. The market share of Xinjiang green nephrite is very limited and can’t compete with Siberian and British Columbia products.

	PRODUCTION DICTATES MARKET SHARE

	Though Manasi green nephrite is a local product and bears the longest history in China, limited production gives it an awkward position in the current nephrite market. Annual production is about 40 tons, with a very low percentage of high-quality rough. This explains why it’s difficult to find Manasi jade jewelry, even in the local market in Xinjiang.

	Since 1973, annual production has ranged from one ton to about 35 tons. Between 1973 and 1978, production was pretty high, with an average of 15 tons per year. Between 1981 and 1988, annual production decreased to about 5 tons. Though Manasi jade and Hetian jade boast the highest reputation in China, they make up a minority of the market due to very limited production.

This Hetian green nephrite carving was fashioned by Master Carver Yan Guiming, and represents the best-quality material from Xingjiang, China. It is in the collection of the China National Arts & Crafts Museum. The rough came from a secondary deposit. Courtesy China Gems Magazine.

	.While demand from China has changed over the years, production from Canada has not changed dramatically. Canada exports about 400 tons of nephrite a year, a relatively small amount when compared to Myanmar’s jadeite exports, at 20,000 tons a year. Any price increase is primarily due to the domestic demand in China, rather than the nephrite pieces exported from Taiwan as inexpensive tourist souvenirs. Over the last 10 years, about 90 percent of Jade West’s production has gone to Mainland China, with approximately five percent to Taiwan and five percent to Vietnam and Thailand.

	Comparatively small amounts go to Germany and North America. The nephrite that goes to China is primarily for the Chinese domestic market. Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal and some other Southeast Asian countries buy nephrite for religious carvings of Buddha. Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest used nephrite as a tool but, unlike in China, never incorporated it in any culturally significant way. Canada’s domestic market consumes about five tons of rough a year, supplying a few local high-end carving artists.

	Half of the “Polar Pride” boulder recovered in British Columbia was carved into the famous
	4.65-ton “Jade Buddha for Universal Peace.” It was carved in Thailand over a two-year
	period. It is about 2.5 meters (about 8 feet) tall—the largest Buddha ever carved from
	gem-quality nephrite. Since 2009, the Jade Buddha has been on a tour of more than 15
	countries to inspire people to seek peace in their lives. Courtesy of Jade West Group.

	Before 1999, with limited average annual production of 20 tons, Siberian nephrite only supplied the Russian and European market. Between 2000 and 2002, annual production increased from about 40 tons to 100 tons.

	Before 2005, mining nephrite was not actually profitable for Siberian miners. This was due to the high mining, transportation, and processing costs, which contrasted sharply with the low price of the rough. The average price for Siberian green nephrite rough was only $1.5 to $5 a kilo, which in most cases didn’t even cover mining costs. In addition, only about 30 percent of the mined material had commercial value. Large-scale mining of nephrite did not happen in Siberia until after 2005.

In 2009, miners found a nearly five-ton green nephrite boulder along the Arahushun River in Siberia. Expansion agent was placed in the boulder, and after a year, miners split the cracked boulder into smaller pieces and transported them to the town. Photo courtesy of Jade Factory and Jade Mountain.

	After 2005, consumer focus switched to green nephrite due to the skyrocketing price of white nephrite. This suddenly made mining in Siberia very profitable, leading to an increase in production. From 2008 to 2010, annual production in Siberia increased from around 100 tons to about 500 tons. When #7 and #10 deposits were getting close to exhaustion around 2009 and 2010, main production came from newly exploited #37, #32 and #36 deposits. Green nephrite from these newer deposits is an increasing presence in the China market.

Nephrite jade expert Dr. Sasha Sekerin checks the quality of a giant piece of rough. Pouring water on the surface reveals the color better. Courtesy of Jade Factory and Jade Mountain.

	Overall, the green nephrite market in China is dominated by goods from Canada and Russia, with sporadic supplies from Xinjiang. Each source’s market share is dictated mostly by its production levels.

	CONSUMER PREFERENCES

	Although every source produces a whole range of materials with different qualities, there are some characteristics that are preferred by consumers. Color is green nephrite’s most important value factor. Chinese literature encompasses many different shades of green, and the preferred nephrite color is highly influenced by that for jadeite jade. Color, texture, and clarity are all important value factors that affect the price. In addition, different demographic groups have different tastes and preferences.

In this thin section of green nephrite from the #10 deposit in Siberia, the black dots are chromite and the whitish strips are parallel tremolite crystals. Courtesy Jade Factory and Jade Mountain.

	Green nephrite from all three main sources shares some features. The main mineral is tremolite. “Black dots” are common inclusions, determined by gemological research to be chromite. The Chinese trade term “waterline” refers to the whitish stripes that are, in fact, parallel tremolite crystals. Researchers think that the bright green is mainly caused by chromium ions, while iron ions also make a contribution.

	These bangles show different shades of green coloring. The bright green one is from Siberia
	while the dark green one is from the Ogden Mountain mine in British Columbia. Siberian
	materials generally have brighter color than those from Canada and China. Photo by Robert
	Weldon, courtesy Jade West Group.

	Manasi green nephrite normally has more “black dots” and slightly darker green color. Although top-quality Manasi jade can be compared to the top-quality material from Hetian and Siberia, it is very hard to find. The majority of the production is used for large-scale nephrite carvings rather than jewelry. Many Xinjiang dealers feel that it is hard to sell jewelry made of Manasi green nephrite because the price is fairly high, so they have less desire to spend money on Manasi inventory.

	Green nephrite from British Columbia usually has more “black dots” and “waterline” than Siberian material, although its top-quality goods can compete with the Siberian top quality. Most British Columbian production is priced to satisfy the middle to lower-end market. Some of the material contains some greenish dots that turned out to be chrome grossular garnet (Sun and Wang, 2014).

	The slightly darker green color of British Columbia nephrite actually falls into the color variety called “spinach green” in the trade. It is a slightly grayish or bluish green that is favored by older consumers and people who prefer a more conservative look. Spinach green has always been the most-desired green nephrite color. Though it’s not as bright, it matches very well with nephrite’s conservative image in the Chinese market.

	The whale tail design is made of Siberian green nephrite, while the base is carved from
	British Columbia material. When viewed together, the differences in color and color
	distribution are clearly visible. Courtesy of Jade West Group.

	British Columbia’s most famous green nephrite is Polar Jade from the Polar Mine. The mine’s green nephrite has a brighter green color than other British Columbia materials. Its Chinese name loosely means “jade from the Arctic circle,” which has become a successful name for promotional purposes. The Jade West Group, which owns and operates the mine, says that its production has become very limited.

The beads in the strand are from the Polar Mine in British Columbia. Polar Jade is considered the best of British Columbia’s green nephrite production. There is no active mining going on there at the moment, making the available goods even more valuable. The rough is from Wyoming, US, where mining has also ceased. This rough represents its best-quality material. Courtesy Jade West Group.

	Of the three main sources, top-quality Siberian green nephrite can have very fine texture and the vivid green color that’s especially favored by young consumers. Because it tends to have fewer “black dots” and well-distributed color, modern green nephrite items usually seen in auctions are mostly made of Siberian materials (per Ao Yan comment).

	The general impression among consumers is that Siberian green nephrite is generally higher in quality than material from Xinjiang or British Columbia. Its market price is correspondingly higher. According to Nikki Makepeace, the sales manager of Jade West Group, the manufacturing cost for Siberian material is a lot higher than that for Canadian or Chinese materials. When they send the Siberian material to China for fashioning, it often costs five to six times more than the British Columbia nephrite.

This suite of 18 arhats—followers of Buddha—was carved from Siberian green nephrite. The color distribution in top-quality Siberian green nephrite can be extremely even, as seen in the absence of black dots in these figures. Courtesy Beijing Boguan Auction House.

	The best Siberian material comes from the Ospa #7 deposit. Its green color is well distributed and it has fewer black dots and super-fine texture. Unfortunately, resources from the original deposit were mostly exhausted in 2010. Though geologists predict that there is still about 1,000 tons of material remaining, the depth of the ore bodies makes it too expensive to extract. In 2009, miners started extracting green nephrite from a neighboring deposit. Its production is similar in quality to the #7 material.

	CARVING AND MANUFACTURING

	The carving of nephrite has a history that goes back thousands of years. The craft reached its peak during the Qing dynasty. Emperor Qianlong, the biggest fan of both jadeite and nephrite jade, transported the best rough from Xinjiang province to Yangzhou, a town in Southern China, for carving. Yangzhou craftspeople have always been considered the best nephrite jade artisans, owing to generations of history-making jade carvers. Today, the best-quality green nephrite is still carved in Yangzhou, even though the manufacturing and carving capacity in Guangzhou is a lot higher and their craftspeople are very good.

A carver in Guangzhou is carving a piece of green nephrite from British Columbia. The plaque displays traditional Chinese themes and patterns. Courtesy Jade West Group.

	Before nephrite from Siberia and British Columbia became more respected in China, many master carvers refused to carve these foreign materials. Today, due partially to increased knowledge and understanding of the sources, the situation has changed. The quality of green nephrite from Siberia and British Columbia is now highly respected and appreciated by carvers all over China.

View Gallery

	Traditional Carvings Gallery

	When describing the carving of nephrite, Kirk Makepeace explained the differences between carvings sold in China and those exported for the Western market. The Chinese carvings are closely related to the country’s culture, executed with a high degree of passion and skill. They typically depict traditional Chinese themes and often are highly detailed.

	Their themes are not appreciated as much in the West, so carvings for that market display a much simpler, less labor intensive carving style and themes that are more marketable in the West. The Western designs are often based on native Inuit soapstone carvings. Western people also like to use nephrite that is not gem-quality in their home decor. Mr. Makepeace said that appreciation for nephrite is increasing in the North American market. People have come to a much greater understanding of what nephrite is and place a higher value on it today.

View Gallery

	Nephrite Jade Decorations Gallery

	TRADE STANDARDS

	Since China is the main market for nephrite jade, the local industry has tried for decades to establish a grading standard. However, due to the complexity of the material, this is still a work in progress. One recent change in the national standard of gemstone names is to broaden the definition of “Hetian Jade.” Chinese dealers take advantage of the fact that the name is fairly well-known by selling almost all their nephrite inventory as “Hetian jade” in order to increase their profits. Meanwhile, actual top-quality Hetian nephrite is extremely rare.

	Green nephrite from Siberia and British Columbia can be of higher quality but because it is not from Xinjiang, the price differences might not be equivalent. The new national standard allows all green nephrite to be named “Hetian Jade” on reports. The effect of this change is still unknown. It will take a while for the trade and consumers to provide informative feedback.

This strand is composed of high-quality, Siberian nephrite beads. Courtesy Jade West Group.

	The constantly increasing price for nephrite in general has forced source areas to develop local grading standards. The most recent is the Manasi green nephrite grading standard issued by the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Quality Supervision Bureau. The standard applies to the green nephrite mined in Xinjiang. Its purpose is to further regulate the local rough nephrite market. This standard uses color, texture, and clarity as the main value factors for evaluating Manasi green nephrite into four different grades: Excellent, Good, Fine, and Poor.

	Jade West grades nephrite for their customers using AAA, AA, A, B, and C categories. Triple A is applied to the most expensive bracelets and pendants and accounts for 3 percent of the company’s production. Most of the jewelry from Jade West’s production is AA to A, with carvings often fashioned from the B and C grades. The carving-quality material represents about 70 percent of production and sells for $20 to $30 dollars a kilo in rough form. Lower grades are used for translucent tiles, burial caskets, and a wide variety of industrial or ornamental uses. The industrial grades have more muted color and higher concentrations of black inclusions, which are often magnetite and fractures. A similar rough-grading system also works for Siberian green nephrite rough.

This carved bangle is made of AA-grade Siberian green nephrite. Courtesy Jade West Group.

	TRADING IN CHINA

	Owing to the fast-growing gem and jewelry market in mainland China, there are multiple sales channels for green nephrite. These include wholesale trading centers, retail stores, online sites, and auction houses.

A buyer checks the quality of a piece of white nephrite jade at the preview of an auction. Courtesy Beijing Boguan Auction House.

	Large jade trading centers usually carry both nephrite and jadeite jade of different shapes and sizes. Trading centers in China that specialize in nephrite jade are mainly clustered in the areas close to the source in Xinjiang. In Urumqi, there are over 1,300 individual nephrite businesses in five major trading centers, local street markets, and more. Xinjiang dealers trade in goods from all different sources. Trading centers and retail stores in the border towns near Russia deal mainly in imported Siberian nephrite. Large jade markets in Guangdong carry both jadeite and nephrite jade and they source material from all over the world.

	Retail stores specializing in nephrite are more and more common in major cities. Although their sales still can’t compare to trading centers, many business owners already realize the importance of branding even for nephrite jade. Unlike the sales-oriented trading centers, retail stores have much more flexibility to develop special displays and consumer services. Nephrite branding is primarily dedicated to passing on the nephrite culture.

Branded nephrite jade is still not quite as common as jadeite jade or other gemstone jewelry. Jade Factory is a nephrite jade jewelry brand that operates stores both overseas and in mainland China. Courtesy Jade Factory and Jade Mountain.

	Along with the rapid development of e-commerce in every field, online jade trading platforms and websites for individual businesses are also quite common. Because there is still no universal grading standard for jade, there are many problems associated with online jade purchases. Buyers have to be extra cautious when buying jade online unless they know they are dealing with a trustworthy source. Commercial-quality or lower-quality jade jewelry still makes up the bulk of online sales. Consumers prefer to see the jade in person and up close in most cases.

	Auction houses are an important selling channel for higher-end goods and antiques. Major auction houses such as Christie’s and Sotheby’s have seen record-setting nephrite jade pieces. Many are antiques, so historic value adds to the value of the material itself. Top-quality and important imperial court-related pieces can compete with the prices of high-end jadeite jade.

View Gallery

	Nephrite Auction Pieces Gallery

	Besides these major auction houses, there are quite a few others that specialize in modern jade items. This very special selling channel can only be found in China. The auction houses cater not only to rich consumers, but also to ordinary consumers and jade collectors.

	One of those auction houses is Beijing Boguan Auction House. Since its founding in 2006, Boguan has held more than 100 auctions with 28 different themes. Their focus is on modern jade carvings and jewelry. Many of the buyers are collectors at different levels and many are simply jade lovers. The most recent auction, held in Beijing on April 12, 2015, realized total sales of about US$1 million. These auctions provide a platform to connect master carvers with ordinary buyers and collectors.

You do not have to be incredibly rich to bid in an auction. This auction, hosted by Beijing Boguan Auction House, was held on the ground floor of a big shopping mall in Beijing. Buyers are very passionate about this type of auction. Courtesy Beijing Boguan Auction House.

THE FUTURE

	Kirk Makepeace predicts a promising future for nephrite mining in British Columbia. His nephrite business involves his entire family. The most important factor, in his opinion, is the growing appreciation for nephrite and the growing desire to keep rough prices high enough to offset the increasing cost of mining. Although environmental regulations for mining gemstones are getting stricter he does not see them as a challenge for his operation.

	On the other side of the globe, the Chinese government also places strict regulations on mining nephrite to keep the resource sustainable and the mines environmentally friendly. Siberian miners also realize the economic value of their nephrite resources and have already started to stabilize production, trying to get the best benefit for local development.

After more than 30 years, Kirk Makepeace is still excited by his nephrite jade business. This passion has been passed on to his daughter Nikki, a GIA graduate who now shares duties with her dad. The entire family is involved in the business and they have confidence in the potential of this gem material. Courtesy Jade West Group

	However, the bureaucratic requirements are increasingly time-consuming and expensive. Costs of labor, fuel, and transportation are also constantly on the rise. These are the problems that all source areas are facing. The rise in revenue from mining nephrite must continue as operations go deeper into the mountains.

Siberian miners have high expectations for their green nephrite resources. While never easy, mining has become harder and more competitive. They hope for a prosperous market in China and rising prices to help keep mining profitable. Courtesy Sibirgeology, Russia

	Nephrite jade has been appreciated in the Orient, especially China, for thousands of years. Many people are working hard to preserve jade culture and to pass it on to future generations. To support this heritage, a stable supply is necessary. For this reason, limited production of nice green nephrite has forced the Chinese market to move past its traditions and embrace supplies from Canada and Russia.

Buyers have become increasingly interested in auctions of jade carvings and jewelry. Consumer support is the main force driving the desire to keep the green nephrite road connected and well maintained. Courtesy Beijing Boguan Auction House

	At the same time, the quality of imported green nephrite has gradually given those sources their own growing reputations, winning consumers over. Chinese investors also go all over the globe to find new resources to fulfill domestic demand. With overseas materials coming in and Chinese material going out, the jade road formed over the past three decades will be well maintained and further developed as the Chinese market keeps growing. @chapter:37


Publication Year: - Title: Books: Jewels of Ancient Nubia Abstract: By Yvonne J. Markowitz and Denise Doxey, 184 pp., publ. by Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2014, $45.00

                      Nubia, known as Kush in antiquity, was a flourishing civilization for more than three millennia. It encompassed an area from south of Egypt to northern Sudan. Among the thousands of Nubian archaeological remains, their jewelry and personal adornment items stand out for their beauty, elegance, innovation, and technical mastery.

Modern-day knowledge of the kingdom is limited to accounts contained in ancient Egyptian records. Even though Nubia was a rival and a frequent enemy, the Egyptians referred to it as “the gold lands” for its precious metal and mineral resources. The Nubians themselves left very few written accounts, and their language is yet to be deciphered and translated. Appreciation of this fascinating culture later suffered the Eurocentric favoring of Ancient Egypt, and the modern world has known little about the region until recently. Jewels of Ancient Nubia provides the first comprehensive introduction to Nubian history through its artifacts.

The book features items made of gold, silver, and electrum (a natural gold and silver alloy) that illustrate the resources and the sophisticated goldsmithing techniques of the Nubian civilization. Similarly, local gems such as quartz, amazonite, ivory, mica, and malachite were used in many forms. There seems to have been an interest in lapis lazuli and carnelian beads, possibly influenced by the neighboring Egyptians. To the modern observer, the most outstanding jewelry pieces were created by glazing clear quartz. Faience, an ancient type of ceramic adopted from Egypt, was used to glaze quartz beads. In particular, they mastered the blue glazing technique, not only on beads but also on quartz sculptures and crystals. Quartz presumably held a deep religious significance for Nubians. These fascinating objects are beautifully photographed for the book and offer a visual delight.

It is fascinating to learn about the ancients’ degree of sophistication in creating imitation gems. Yet some of the descriptions of gemstones, minerals and rocks do not justify the detailed research of the subject. For example, the term “amethystine” is outdated, yet surprisingly used in this modern publication. A number of mineral and rock descriptions given in the glossary are inconsistent with modern mineralogical and gemological terminology. But given the significance of this subject, the nomenclature issues do not detract from the importance of this publication and the quality of the authors’ work. Jewels of Ancient Nubia deserves a place in any gemologist and jewelry historian’s library. @chapter:25


Publication Year: 2022 Title: “Electromagnetic Wave” Inclusion in Mong Hsu Ruby Abstract: An electromagnetic wave-like pattern of whitish dust in Mong Hsu ruby. Photomicrograph by Narint Jaisanit; field of view 1.70 mm.
Recently the author examined a vivid red 1.18 ct cushion-cut ruby. This ruby contained several inclusions, such as distinctive hexagonal zoning with a blue core, a cloud of snowflake-like particles, and ladder-like particles. These inclusions combined with chemical analysis indicated a geographic origin of Mong Hsu, Myanmar. Interestingly, fiber-optic illumination revealed an electromagnetic wave-like pattern of particles (see above). Although whitish particles are common in Mong Hsu rubies, this electromagnetic wave pattern is truly unique. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Pinctada maxima Pearls from Operated Mollusks, Sudoite in Ceramic-Age Caribbean Jewelry, Persian Turquoise Field Report, and More Abstract: We invite you to cozy up with the new Fall edition of G&G! Travel to Western Australia as we continue the series on Pinctada maxima pearls, this time with a focus on cultured pearls harvested directly from operated marine mollusks. Then let two historical articles transport you back in time with the discovery of Ceramic-Age objects fashioned from sudoite in the Lesser Antilles and a look at the state of Iran’s Neyshabur turquoise mine, the source of treasures dating back to the Neolithic period.
“An examination of lapidary craft from five archaeological excavations in the French West Indies has revealed the use of a rare gem material: sudoite.”
This issue opens with part two in a three-part series on Pinctada maxima pearls. Artitaya Homkrajae and fellow GIA researchers investigate the internal structures of 86 saltwater cultured pearls collected directly from operated mollusks off the coast of Western Australia. Real-time microradiography and X-ray computed microtomography revealed several broad growth structural types, some of which may overlap with their natural counterparts. This study illustrates some of the challenges laboratories face, as the distinction between non-bead cultured and natural pearls is not always clear.
An examination of lapidary craft from five archaeological excavations in the French West Indies has revealed the use of a rare gem material: sudoite. In the second article of this issue, Alain Queffelec and coauthors provide a mineralogical and geological analysis of nine sudoite objects to understand the provenance of the material and the trade networks of Amerindian cultures from the Early Ceramic period.
Next, Philippe Belley and Aaron Palke compare trace element chemistry and visible light absorption spectra of two purple gem spinels from Luc Yen, Vietnam, and Badakhshan, Afghanistan. Their study presents the first reported example of a saturated purple color in spinel attributed to chromium and cobalt.
Historically, the Neyshabur mine has produced the majority of Iranian turquoise, which possesses a unique color and quality and has been prized by civilizations dating back to the Neolithic period. In this field report, Bahareh Shirdam and coauthors uncover the current state of the Neyshabur mine and document the different techniques used to extract this vivid blue to green gem turquoise.
Highlights from the Lab Notes section include a unique emerald cabochon with two distinct chatoyant bands, the creative use of manufactured glass to imitate star sapphire, and zircon with unusual color-change behavior when viewed under different illuminants. Explore the inner beauty of gemstones with the Micro-World section, featuring a stunning apatite crystal floating over a cloud of silk in a star sapphire, a diamond with an octahedral-shaped cloud inclusion resembling a six-pointed star, and hematite reminiscent of a blossoming rose in aquamarine. In Gem News International, you’ll find a study on mabe pearl cultivation in the French territory of Mayotte, as well as a report on Fura Gems’ inaugural auction for rough untreated Mozambican rubies, and much more.
We hope you enjoy the latest issue of Gems & Gemology! @chapter:14


Publication Year: 1983 Title: Winter 1983 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Australia: First Consignment of Rough Sold through Central Selling Organization
            The CSO Starts a Quarterly Journal
            Improvement Expected in the World Diamond Market
            Japan Removes Import Duty on Diamonds
            Le Grand Coeur d’Afrique
Colored Stones
            India Puts a Ban on Rough Gem Exports
            Opal Production Falls 60% in Australia
            Yogo Sapphire
            Zoisite from Sri Lanka
Synthetics and Stimulants
            More Information on C-Ox
            Synthetic Diamond
Miscellaneous
            New French Postage Stamp for Collectors
Announcements
            Accredited Gemologists Association Meets in Tucson
            American Gem Society Celebrates its Golden Jubilee
            American Gem Trade Association Holds Gemstone Congress
           30th Annual Gem and Mineral Show in Tucson
            Reward Offered for Info about Stolen Jewels in Santa Barbara
            Necklace Featured on G&G Fall 1982 Cover Stolen in Los Angeles
Exhibits
            American Museum of Natural History

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:24


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Low-Temperature Heating of Mogok Ruby, Copper-Diffused Feldspar, Porcelain-Treated Turquoise, and the Work of Gem Artist Chi Huynh Abstract: Welcome to the Winter 2022 issue of Gems & Gemology! This issue concludes our volume year with studies on identifying treatments in various colored gemstones and a field report on the inspiring work of an award-winning gem artist.
“Many types of solid inclusions in Mogok ruby samples…were sensitive to heat treatment at lower temperatures between 600° and 1100°C.”
In our lead article, E. Billie Hughes and Wim Vertriest examine the difficulty of detecting low-temperature heat treatment in ruby. Using careful microscopic examination, they observed that many types of solid inclusions in Mogok ruby samples, including calcite, mica, spinel, and zircon, were sensitive to heat treatment at lower temperatures between 600° and 1100°C. Additionally, Raman analysis of calcite and spinel inclusions provided complementary evidence of low-temperature heat treatment.
Next, Qingchao Zhou and colleagues present their findings on identifying copper diffusion treatment in red andesine feldspar, which has been in question for more than a decade. Conducting experiments on both colorless labradorite and light yellow andesine feldspar to modify their color, the authors studied the samples’ fluorescence characteristics and verified that strong fluorescence provided key evidence of treatment.
A team led by Liying Huang contributes our third article, which distinguishes a newer treatment technique used to mimic the color and luster of high-quality untreated turquoise. Known in the Chinese trade as “porcelain-treated” turquoise, this material can be identified by its surface features in combination with low specific gravity, strong luster, and trace element chemistry.
In our final feature article of this issue, Tao Hsu and coauthors profile the groundbreaking work and artistry of Chi Huynh, the designer behind Galatea: Jewelry by Artist. During a visit to the Galatea store and workshop, Huynh shared several of his innovative designs and patents, along with stories of inspiration as an artist and pioneer in the jewelry industry.
G&G’s regular columns continue to offer exciting gemological findings from all over the world. Highlights from Lab Notes include an extraordinarily large cat’s-eye emerald reportedly from Brazil, details of pearl submissions to GIA labs worldwide, and the largest extraterrestrial peridot examined at GIA to date. Observations of fascinating gemstone inclusions are captured in the Micro-World section, sharing a glance at spiral-like “horsetail” inclusions in demantoid, a bluish green omphacite crystal in a Fancy brown-pink diamond, aegirine crystals in two rare samples of poudretteite from Mogok, and more. Colored Stones Unearthed returns in this issue, focusing on gem minerals that form in magmatic environments. Finally, in Gem News International, catch up on the latest information from around the globe, including the observation of an extremely rare hellandite inclusion in a ruby from Mogok and coverage of the 2022 Geological Society of America annual meeting.
We hope you enjoy the latest issue of Gems & Gemology! @chapter:6


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Demantoid from Baluchistan Province in Pakistan Abstract: Figure 1. These nine Pakistani demantoids showed dodecahedral form, magnetite inclusions, and asbestiform chrysotile masses on some crystal faces. The smallest stone (bottom left) is 5.2 mm wide, and the largest (top left) is 9.9 mm wide. Photo by Don Mengason.

              Demantoid garnet can be broadly divided into two petrogenetic groups, namely skarn-hosted and serpentinite-hosted demantoid. Those in the latter group represent the classic localities in the Russian Urals and at Val Malenco, Italy, in addition to sources such as Iran’s Kerman province and the Kaghan Valley area in the Hazara district of Pakistan. The serpentinite formations hosting these demantoids are the result of relatively low-grade hydrothermal/metamorphic alteration of ultramafic parent rocks.

Nine demantoids reportedly from a new deposit in the Khuzdar area in Pakistan’s Baluchistan province were recently examined in GIA’s Carlsbad lab (figure 1). The material was bought by one of these contributors (VP) from a gem merchant based in Peshawar, Pakistan.

The nine rough samples described here (1.74–3.73 ct) all exhibited well-developed crystal faces with typical dodecahedral form. Their color ranged from yellowish green to green, with yellow cores in a few samples. Each showed anomalous birefringence, often with a well-defined “octahedral” pattern (figure 2).

Figure 2. This demantoid is viewed through a polished window that is roughly parallel to the (110) crystal face. The sample was photographed with cross-polarized lighting and immersed in methylene iodide to highlight the anomalous birefringence. The sample measures 8.8 mm across. Photomicrograph by Aaron Palke.
Several of the garnets had fibrous (asbestiform) masses of chrysotile adhering to one or more crystal faces, confirming their origin in a serpentinite deposit. Windows were polished into several of these samples for microscopic examination of their internal features. Inclusions of chrysotile fibers (i.e., horsetail inclusions) are concentrated around the rim and radiate out toward the crystal faces (again, see figure 2). The cores of many samples were marked by a field of opaque, equant black inclusions initially presumed to be chromite (figure 3), a commonly observed inclusion in serpentinite-hosted demantoid.

Figure 3. These magnetite and fibrous chrysotile inclusions are typical of the demantoids from this study. Field of view is 2.0 mm. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro.
However, laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analysis of one of these grains that had breached a polished surface showed Cr below the detection limit (2 ppm Cr). The analysis showed the almost exclusive presence of Fe, with minor Mg and Mn and trace amounts of other elements. This indicates that the opaque black inclusions in these demantoids are actually magnetite. This assignment was further confirmed by Raman analysis on another grain and the attraction of several of the garnets to a handheld magnet. LA-ICP-MS analysis of the host demantoid also revealed very low Cr concentrations from below the detection limit to approximately 10 ppm. This was in stark contrast to the typically Cr-rich serpentinite-hosted demantoid from other deposits. Along with the presence of magnetite instead of chromite, this probably indicated the absence of significant Cr in the ultramafic protolith. While the internal features were very similar to those in other serpentinite-hosted demantoid, the presence of magnetite instead of commonly reported chromite was a surprising feature of this newly described material. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Greenish Blue Glass Imitating Gem Silica Abstract: Figure 1. Two oval and one marquise cabochon of greenish blue glass samples ranging from 2.17 to 2.60 ct. Photo by Min Ye.

Gem silica, also known as “chrysocolla chalcedony,” is considered the most valuable variety of chalcedony. Its attractive blue to bluish green color is generated by finely disseminated minute inclusions of chrysocolla. The main sources include Taiwan, the United States, Mexico, Peru, and Indonesia. For years, gem silica has been especially popular in Taiwan. Due to the pleasing saturated blue color of Taiwanese material, which is among the world’s finest, it commands a premium price. At the same time, the current lack of production in Taiwan is driving prices substantially higher. Thus, imitations and treatments are gradually emerging in the marketplace, confusing customers. Recently we obtained three polished specimens from a gift shop in Taidong County, Taiwan (near the locality of the gem silica mine), that appeared to have good quality of color and transparency (figure 1). The merchant claimed they were gem silica mined in Taiwan, but they were subsequently identified as glass imitations.

Figure 2. Left: Numerous gas bubbles of various sizes were typical internal features of the three samples; field of view 1.28 mm. Right: Many small dimples could be found on the polished surface; field of view 3.70 mm. Photomicrographs by Min Ye in overhead lighting (left) and oblique illumination (right).
Standard gemological tests showed the following properties of the three samples: color—uniform greenish blue; diaphaneity—translucent; spot RI—1.48; SG—2.48 to approximately 2.57; fluorescence—inert to long-wave UV radiation, weak greenish white to short-wave UV radiation. Actual gem silica, meanwhile, has the following properties: color—commonly uneven; spot RI—1.54; SG—approximately 2.63. Examination with a gemological microscope revealed numerous obvious gas bubbles of different sizes (figure 2, left). In the case of the marquise sample, numerous gas bubbles led to a relatively low specific gravity. When viewed with oblique incident light, many small dimples were visible on the polished surface (figure 2, right). In addition, there were some small conchoidal fractures along the bottom edges of samples. In order to gain a more thorough understanding, further advanced analysis was carried out.

Figure 3. Representative infrared reflectance spectra of the three samples (green trace) were compared with the reference spectra for glass (blue trace) and natural gem silica (red trace, collected by the author). The diagnostic reflected peak of the glass sample is near 1065 cm–1, quite different from the gem silica peaks. The spectra are offset for clarity.

Figure 4. Typical UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of the three samples (green trace) were compared with those of Cu2+-doped glass (blue trace) and natural greenish blue gem silica (red trace, collected by the author). In the typical plot for the glass samples, the absorption band around 760 nm is assigned to Cu2+. Two weak absorption bands in the glass imitation at 424 and 439 nm might be related to trace amounts of iron, while the 690 nm band is possibly due to the presence of chromium. The spectra are offset for clarity.
FTIR reflectance spectroscopy showed a main reflected band at approximately 1065 cm–1 (figure 3), consistent with the characteristic spectrum of glass (see Fall 2019 GNI, p. 443–445; T.B. Wang et al., “Relationship between the frequency of the main LO mode of silica glass and angle of incidence,” Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 119, No. 1, 2003, pp. 505–508). Chemical analysis by LA-ICP-MS detected multiple elements: Si (averaging 617000 ppmw), Na (averaging 151000 ppmw), Al (averaging 101000 ppmw), Ca (averaging 24900 ppmw), K (averaging 19600 ppmw), Ba (averaging 17800 ppmw), Pb (averaging 3840 ppmw), Mg (averaging 2580 ppmw), Fe (averaging 1620 ppmw), Cu (averaging 5940 ppmw), and Cr (averaging 716 ppmw). This composition identified the three samples as silicate glass, which is decidedly different from gem silica (whose majority component is silica and chrysocolla, a copper silicate). UV-Vis-NIR spectra of the specimens presented a strong broad absorption band around 760 nm (figure 4), revealing Cu2+ as the coloring agent. In addition, two weak absorption bands at 424 and 439 nm might have been related to trace amounts of Fe3+, while the 690 nm band was possibly due to the existence of Cr3+ (see W. Thiemsorn et al., “Redox ratio and optical absorption of polyvalent ions in industrial glasses,” Bulletin of Materials Science, Vol. 30, 2007, pp. 487–495; V. Vercamer, “Spectroscopic and structural properties of iron in silicate glasses,” PhD thesis, Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris VI, 2016, pp. 97–145).
Combining all the evidence, the three greenish blue samples were confirmed to be artificial glass colored by an unknown copper additive. Gas bubble inclusions were the diagnostic feature for identification, and FTIR spectra were also helpful. This case is a reminder that customers need to be cautious when purchasing gemstones, even near the geographic source. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Tremolite and Diopside Bead with Unusual Texture and Color Abstract: Figure 1. This 6.39 gram barrel-shaped bead was unusual for its texture and color. Photo by Yanjun Song.

In recent years, Buddhist prayer beads have become increasingly popular in Chinese jewelry. These beads are made into a variety of shapes from many kinds of gem materials.

At the 2015 China International Jewelry Fair in Beijing, a barrel-shaped bead with unusual green and white color (figure 1) attracted our interest. The bead weighed 6.39 g and measured approximately 30.5 × 10.8 × 10.5 mm. The hydrostatic specific gravity (SG) was 3.05, but it was difficult to obtain individual spot RIs from the white and green areas. The entire sample was inert to both long-wave and short-wave UV. The infrared reflectance spectrum (figure 2) of the whitish mineral indicated tremolite, with characteristic peaks at 1093, 988, 902, 743, 676, 529, and 470 cm–1, while the greenish mineral’s spectrum matched that of diopside, with peaks at 1060, 979, 921, 681, 511, and 410 cm–1.

Figure 2. IR spectroscopy identified the whitish mineral in the bead as tremolite (red
trace, peaks at 1093, 988, 902, 743, 676, 529, and 470 cm–1) and the greenish one as
diopside (blue trace, peaks at 1060, 979, 921, 681, 511, and 410 cm–1). The spectra
are offset for clarity.
Raman spectra of the white and green areas (figure 3) were obtained using 785 and 532 nm laser excitation, respectively. Peaks at about 1058, 1028, 754, 673, 394, and 224 cm–1 indicated tremolite, while those at 1013, 667, 559, 393, and 326 cm–1 were consistent with diopside.

Figure 3. Raman spectra of the barrel-shaped bead. Left: Peaks at 224. 394, 673, 754, 1028, and 1058 cm–1 were indicative of tremolite. Right: Peaks at 326, 393, 559, 667, and 1013 cm–1 were consistent with diopside.
Tremolite and diopside are common gem materials in the jewelry trade. Both occur in nephrite, where tremolite is the main mineral and diopside is an accessory mineral. This was the first time we had encountered diopside rather than tremolite as the major mineral when both occurred within the same sample. @chapter:5


Publication Year: 1992 Title: Kilbourne Hole Peridot Abstract: This little-known source of gem-quality peridot, located in southwestern New Mexico, produces small but brilliant gems. Kilbourne Hole peridot is found in the explosion debris of a 180,000-year-old volcano, usually in elliptical "xenolith bombs." Kilbourne Hole peridot has a greater color range than the San Carlos, Arizona, material and an additional characteristic inclusion. Although the deposit is not being mined commercially, thousands of carats of gem-quality peridot have been found there. @chapter:1


Publication Year: - Title: Report Check - 2215478947 Abstract: gia report number
2215478947

date of issue
Feb. 16, 2021

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LABORATORY-GROWN DIAMOND REPORT - COLOR IDENTIFICATION

Laboratory-Grown Colored Diamond Report - Color Identification

REPORT DETAIL

TREATMENT
GROWTH METHOD
COUNTRY OF ORIGIN

Round Brilliant

Measurements

Dimensions listed as “minimum diameter – maximum diameter x depth” for round diamonds and “length x width x depth” for fancy-shaped diamonds.

9.65 - 9.72 x 6.34 mm

Weight

Weight given in carats, recorded to the nearest hundredth of a carat. One carat is equal to 1/5 of a gram.

2.50 carat

COLOR

Grade

Assessment of the presence of color including hue, tone and saturation when compared to GIA Master Color Comparison Diamonds.

Fancy Light Yellow

Distribution

Evenness or unevenness of color seen face-up using standard viewing procedures.

Even

COMMENTS

Comments

This is a man-made diamond produced by HPHT (High Pressure High Temperature) growth process. No evidence of treatment was detected.

INSCRIPTION(S)

Inscription(s)

GIA 2215478947

*This GIA Laboratory-Grown Diamond Report describes color and clarity specifications on the same scale as the GIA Diamond Grading Report for natural diamonds. The specifications do not correlate to nature’s continuum of rarity. To learn more about laboratory-grown diamonds, including how GIA differentiates them from natural diamonds visit GIA.edu/GIALGDR

Feb. 16, 2021

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Learn More About Colored Diamonds

Explore colored diamonds history, research, quality factors, and more in the GIA Gem Encyclopedia.

Learn More @chapter:31


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Trade Fair & Play Fair, Says Gem Trade Abstract: Consumer confidence and globalization have led to increasing public awareness of how goods are manufactured and where they are sourced. The article discusses how the colored gemstone industry is taking steps to create conditions that are fair and decent for miners and others involved in the industry, just as the global diamond industry has done through the Diamond Development Initiative and the Kimberley Process. The Fair Trade Gems project was launched by the Columbia Gem House, the first jewelry industry company to join the Fair Trade movement. The Quality Assurance and Fair Trade Gems Protocols created by this project were designed to increase the standard of living for the miners and gem cutters and also promote environmental protection, fair labor practices, and health and safety standards. Protecting the quality and integrity of the product is an important feature of the Fair Trade Gems program, which extends protections to consumers, who deserve to know exactly what they are buying.

Abstracted by Michele Kelley @chapter:38


Publication Year: 1996 Title: Enstatite, Cordierite, Kornerupine, and Scapolite with Unusual Properties from Embilipitiya, Sri Lanka Abstract: Gem-quality enstatite, cordierite, kornerupine, and scapolite with unusual properties have been recovered from alluvial deposits in the region of Embilipitiya, Sri Lanka. The occurrence of almost pure, completely colorless, enstatite appears to be unique in the world. The cordierites are also usually colorless and nonpleochroic. The diversity in the properties of kornerupine is mainly due to variations in the ratio of magnesium to iron. The strong “canary" yellow fluorescence of scapolites from this locality has not been observed in scapolites from other sources in Sri Lanka. @chapter:5


Publication Year: - Title: Books: Ruby & Sapphire: A Collector’s Guide Abstract: By Richard W. Hughes, 384 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by the Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, 2014, $99.00.

Ruby & Sapphire: A Collector’s Guide has surpassed my grandest expectations. Richard Hughes’ eloquent prose, combined with magnificent photos, is a masterful tribute to the people from faraway lands who find and fashion these gems to brighten our world. This book is an indispensable treasure trove of information that will serve as a guide to help navigate the gem underworld. It also rivals any coffee table book, featuring beautiful photos that Hughes, his wife, and their daughter captured over many journeys together.

As Hughes notes in the foreword, his focus is on the relationship between people and gems, which he calls “humanistic gemology.” While many artisanal small-scale miners toil for years without success, he explains, some do strike it rich, instantly elevating them and their families into a new realm of existence. As Hughes points out, however, wealth does not always bring happiness and can often be fleeting. One of my favorite sidebars is the legend of Darky Garnet, who arrived in Rubyvale, Australia, with only a wheelbarrow full of worldly possessions. Garnet struck it rich, lived like a king, shared his wealth with friends and strangers, and left penniless with only his wheelbarrow and the shirt on his back. He is celebrated to this day with an annual tribute one must read to believe.

The first chapter features colorful illustrations and photos of ancient frescos, mines, and jewelry dating back hundreds and even thousands of years. Hughes suggests that Sri Lankan traders brought rubies and sapphires to Europe in early Greco-Roman times, making them the earliest stones of value tendered for international trade and commerce. Today, a gemstone’s value is defined by its beauty, rarity, durability, and transportability. This chapter continues with the varied and abundant history associated with the search for and fashioning of corundum. Ruby and sapphire were frequently mistaken for other gems such as spinel and lapis. It was not until the advancement of mineral science in the 17th and 18th centuries that these two members of the corundum family were fully understood. Another major obstacle in the understanding of gems relates to nomenclature, or “wordsmithing” as Hughes aptly puts it; these issues still exist in the trade today. Hughes states that until the early 19th century, the word “oriental” was used as a prefix to describe gems that could achieve a higher polish because of their superior hardness. Thus oriental topaz actually referred to yellow sapphire, while oriental amethyst referred to purple sapphire. In 1805 Rene Just Haüy formally combined these and other sapphires, along with ruby, into the group now known as corundum.

The chapter on source countries takes the reader on an incredible adventure to ruby- and sapphire-producing countries, providing a virtual tour of these fascinating locales. Hughes begins with a clear, concise explanation of the geologic forces that led to the conditions required for gemstone mineralization. Fascinating details are provided about the people, mining, and production in the major corundum sources: Southeast Asia, Central Asia, Australia, Africa, and North America.

Hughes then shares many secrets of the trade to help collectors make educated decisions. Details of what to look for in color, clarity, cut, and country of origin are clearly conveyed, but the reader is encouraged to always go with personal preference. In the case of ruby, the market tends to favor stones with a more intense color, but Hughes advises not to overlook those of slightly less saturation that might offer more brightness and versatility. A sidebar titled “Clarifying Clarity” provides delightful insight on how to judge a gem’s internal issues. He suggests that the budding collector “develop perspective” through research, visits to auctions and gem shows, and networking with jewelers and dealers. One of the most interesting excerpts features renowned mineral and gem dealer William Larson expounding on his vast connoisseurship of crystals. Larson shares how his passion for minerals, which began when he was just a boy, has grown into one of the finest private collections of specimens in the world. He offers his suggestions on building a meaningful collection.

One of my favorite sections examines left-brain objective pricing vs. right-brain subjective preference. A graph comparing recent auction results, coupled with gem photos, gives a colorful dimension to the author’s message. Understanding gem value is one of the most difficult things to master. Auction results, scattered throughout the book, provide the reader with tangible examples of some of the finest gems and jewelry sold over the past two decades, such as a 6.04 carat Burmese ruby which sold in 2013 for over US$3.3 million, and an 8.91 carat Kashmir sapphire which sold in 2012 for over US$1.3 million. He also includes wonderful sections on judging stars and cabochons, fancy-color sapphires, and suites.

Chapter four delves into the internal world of forensic gemology, balancing out the book’s earlier focus on people, places, emotion, and lore. Hughes explains the skills and instrumentation needed to identify synthetics, treatments, and country-of-origin characteristics. Well-deserved tribute is paid to the artistic skills and scientific knowledge required to properly capture, identify, and apply microscopic observations. The benefits and drawbacks of gem treatments are also clearly discussed.

Another valuable tool in the gemologist’s arsenal is a reference library. Chapter six gives direction on how to accumulate a useful and refined gemological library. As always, Hughes provides a generous and detailed bibliography, recommending numerous volumes and journals. In the final chapter, many of the amazing photos featured throughout the book are beautifully grouped to help communicate the subtle nuances that make up the diverse corundum family.

Throughout, Richard Hughes spices up the book with his colorful style, personal anecdotes, quotes, and fascinating sidebars. Every gemologist, dealer, connoisseur, collector, and gem enthusiast should own this indispensable work. @chapter:25


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Flame-Like Surface Structure in a Nacreous Atypical Bead Cultured Pearl Abstract: Figure 1. A white button-shaped atypical bead cultured pearl weighing 8.15 ct and measuring 11.73 × 11.35 × 9.03 mm. Photo by Gaurav Bera.
GIA’s Mumbai laboratory recently received an atypical bead cultured pearl with a unique surface appearance. The white button-shaped pearl weighed 8.15 ct and measured 11.73 × 11.35 × 9.03 mm (figure 1).

Figure 2. Rounded depressions forming the flame-like structure. Photomicrograph by Nishka Vaz; field of view 0.4 mm.
Viewed under 40× magnification, the surface exhibited typical fine nacreous overlapping aragonite platelets, but a distinct pattern similar to the flame structures observed in some porcelaneous pearls was also noted (Summer 2021 Lab Notes, pp. 152–153). These flame-like features were formed due to the presence of relatively opaque, frosty white rounded depressions on the pearl’s surface. Although rounded, they seemed to be oriented longitudinally and were more tapered toward the base and apex and broader along the sides of the pearl (figure 2). Also observed on the surface were small white spots with slightly elongated comet tails that flowed tangentially to the circumference of the button. The base and apex of the pearl lacked the whitish subsurface opaque features that produced the flame structure effect, and these two areas appeared more translucent than the other parts of the pearl.
Under long-wave ultraviolet radiation, the pearl showed a strong yellowish green reaction, and a similar but weaker reaction was noted under short-wave ultraviolet radiation. The deep-UV (<230 nm) radiation of the DiamondView instrument revealed a clear bluish reaction, with the surface showing a chalky white flame-like structure extending from the apex center across the pearl. Raman analysis of the pearl’s surface using a 514 nm excitation showed a doublet at 701/704 cm–1 as well as peaks at 1086 and 1464 cm–1 characteristic of aragonite. The photoluminescence spectra revealed high fluorescence, with a maximum centered at approximately 620 nm.

Figure 3. XRF reaction of the pearl, with the sides appearing brighter than the base and apex.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry revealed a low manganese level of 16.9 ppm and a higher strontium level of 1577 ppm, indicative of a saltwater environment. However, when exposed to X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, the pearl exhibited a moderate yellowish green fluorescence with a higher intensity toward the sides but a weaker reaction on the base and apex (figure 3). Saltwater pearls are usually inert when tested by this method, while freshwater pearls and saltwater bead cultured pearls with freshwater shell nuclei tend to fluoresce weak to strong yellowish green. In the case of bead cultured pearls, a thinner nacre usually produces a stronger reaction; conversely, the thicker the nacre, the weaker the reaction.

Figure 4. Left: RTX image of the pearl’s internal structure with a large linear feature. Right: μ-CT image showing a freshwater-type linear feature in the center and a faint boundary (arrow).
Real-time microradiography imaging (RTX) revealed a long, complex linear feature in the center typically associated with non-bead cultured pearls (figure 4, left). When viewed under X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT), the linear feature looked very similar to those often observed in freshwater non-bead cultured pearls. A faint boundary was also seen around the central linear feature (figure 4, right) and other growth rings. All these observations, together with the XRF reaction of the pearl and the saltwater chemistry, were indicative of an atypical bead cultured saltwater pearl with a freshwater pearl used as its nucleus (P. Kessrapong and K. Lawanwong, “Atypical bead cultured Pinctada maxima pearls nucleated with freshwater non-bead cultured pearls,” GIA Research News, April 6, 2020). The nacre thickness overlying the freshwater non-bead cultured pearl nucleus ranged from approximately 1.09 to 1.90 mm. The thicker nacre was positioned near the base and apex and the thinner nacre toward the sides. This aligned with the XRF reaction observed, as a thinner saltwater nacre will allow more fluorescence from the freshwater pearl nucleus to pass through the nacre layers, while thicker nacre masks the reaction.
Over the years, GIA has encountered similar atypical bead cultured pearls with sizeable freshwater non-bead cultured pearls used as a nucleus (Spring 2023 Lab Notes, pp. 74–76). However, the presence of flame-like structures seen on nacreous pearls is a very rare phenomenon. This combination of interesting culturing along with the unique surface features make this pearl noteworthy. @chapter:14