Publication Year: - Title: St. Jude Kids Tour Inside Gems’ Magical World Abstract: St. Jude patients and their siblings had a chance to view gems with a microscope at the GIA GemKids event at the hospital. Kimberly Overlin, dean of students at GIA in Carlsbad, helped the children use the microscopes. Photo courtesy of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.

The world inside of gemstones can be magical – a journey through crystalline forms and colors – especially to the vivid imagination of a curious child.
Young patients at St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital in Memphis were guided inside this amazing world by a GIA team who brought gems and minerals to the leading medical facility, known for its treatment of childhood cancers and other pediatric diseases.
Families never receive a bill from St. Jude for treatment, travel, housing or food – because all a family should worry about is helping their child live, according to a St. Jude spokesperson.
“St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital is leading the way the world understands, treats and defeats childhood cancer and other life-threatening diseases. Our purpose is clear: Finding cures. Saving children,” a St. Jude spokesperson said. “Treatments invented at St. Jude have helped push the overall childhood cancer survival rate from 20 percent to 80 percent since the hospital opened more than 50 years ago.”
St. Jude’s board invited GIA to visit as an outgrowth of the Institute’s work with Jewelers for Children, a jewelry industry nonprofit organization that helps children in need, including at St. Jude and several other institutions.
“These are special kids and they were thrilled at what we brought for them,” said Judi Schechter, director of global business development and beneficiation for GIA, who accompanied the group on the November 2018 visit. The gems included 24 hands-on specimens such as pyrite, a ruby in zoisite matrix, green fluorite, several geodes, various types of quartz crystals, agates and an amber ring with an ant inclusion.
“The kids loved that amber ring with the ant,” said Kelly Bennett, who supervises GIA’s GemKids program. “And the pyrite was also a hit.”
The GIA team set up a table near the St. Jude cafeteria during time when the kids and their visiting families had some free time. Six microscopes, the gem specimens and GemKids educational workbooks, which the Institute provides to school children who participate in the on-campus program, were available for exploration.
The children could handle the crystals and other mineral specimens, but it was the microscope views that really brought the “wows,” as they viewed several synthetic sapphires, a synthetic emerald, a natural feldspar and quartz.
“Most of the kids had never looked at gemstones with a microscope, so it was all new and exciting for them,” Schechter said. “They got to look, touch and feel the gem specimens and look through the microscope to see inclusions and other internal features. It was all very hands-on.”

Judi Schechter, director of global business development and beneficiation for GIA, hugs a patient’s sibling at the event. Photo courtesy of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.
Kimberly Overlin, GIA’s dean of students, was also part of the GIA delegation and noted that about 50 children visited the table. “Most of them went away really enthusiastic,” she said.
The visit was organized through the GIA’s GemKids program, which is based in Carlsbad and provides an engaging gemology learning experience to local students aged 9 to 12 - nearly 5,000 students a year. GemKids programs are offered at its Carlsbad campus and several locations in Africa, including Botswana and South Africa. Using hands-on activities in a fun and interactive environment, the program is intended to instill a passion for the science of gemstones.

The GemKids website is a digital resource that teaches kids about gems and jewelry, including what different careers in the jewelry industry do and a glossary of gemological and jewelry search terms. There are also easy and interactive GemKids materials available online for students, parents and teachers.
While there are no specific plans to return to St. Jude, Schechter said the experience was “so heartwarming. We were all in tears – joyful tears—the entire time we were there.” @chapter:28


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Diamond-Shaped Cloud in Diamond Abstract: Figure 1: This 0.53 ct round brilliant diamond contained a unique cloud that resembled the profile view of a diamond. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 2.60 mm.

Diamonds can show some interesting surprises when examined by microscopy. Recently, the authors examined a D-color, 0.53 ct round brilliant diamond with an intriguing cloud inclusion that bore a remarkable resemblance to the profile view of a faceted round brilliant (figure 1). Due to the prominent diamond-shaped cloud under the table, the clarity grade of the stone was SI2 (figure 2).

Figure 2. The D-color, 0.53 ct round brilliant diamond has SI2 clarity due to a distinctive cloud inclusion under the table facet. Photo by Marco Martinez.
Photomicrography was used to chronicle the depth of the cloud, which indicated that it was three-dimensional and part of its center reached the diamond’s surface. When focusing through the inclusion beginning at the surface of the table facet, the cloud spanned ~320 microns of focal distance. This is not the first instance of a faceted diamond showing a cloud inclusion with diamond-related geometry. Gemologists have shown other natural diamonds with clouds resembling diamond octahedra (Winter 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 428–429; Renfro et al., Winter 2018 G&G, pp. 428–429). However, this is the first cloud with such a shape the authors have encountered.
The infrared absorption spectra showed a type Ia diamond with saturated concentrations of nitrogen. Photoluminescence maps were collected with 532 nm and 455 nm excitation. A false-color map corresponding with the normalized intensity of a peak at 700 nm (figure 3A) was detected almost solely within the cloud. This peak at 700 nm has been ascribed to nickel and can be seen in hydrogen-rich diamonds, particularly within hydrogen-rich clouds (e.g., Fall 2020 Lab Notes, pp. 416–419).
In the 455 nm PL map, we detected the H3 center at 503.2 nm (figure 3B), which is identified as an A-aggregate decorated with a vacancy. The especially dense area along the “girdle” showed a distinct chemistry as that portion of the cloud had an elevated 700 nm peak intensity (figure 3A) and an elevated H3 concentration (figure 3B). Figure 3C shows the intensity of the diamond Raman peak. The Raman signal detected within the cloud shows decreased intensity; additionally, the diamond outline in this map corresponds well with the image in figure 1 (as the presence of the cloud reduces the Raman signal reaching the detector). Prior research has shown that oftentimes such clouds form preferentially within the {100} growth sectors (W. Wang and W. Mayerson, “Symmetrical clouds in diamond – the hydrogen connection,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2002, pp. 143–152).

Figure 3. Photoluminescence maps were compiled from thousands of spectra (each pixel is 10 microns in size). A: Intensity of a peak centered at 700 nm (associated with nickel and often seen in hydrogen clouds). This peak intensity is normalized by ratioing to the diamond Raman peak. B: Intensity of the normalized H3 center at 503.2 nm; much of the cloud has a lower intensity than the surrounding diamond, but a portion of the “girdle” section of the cloud shows a higher H3 intensity. C: The map of the diamond Raman intensity corresponds well with the visual image, including the cloud resembling a diamond outline seen in figure 1.
While this diamond-shaped cloud formation may cause some concern over the natural origin of such an inclusion (see an example of a 3D subsurface laser engraving in quartz in Fall 2020 Micro-World, pp. 427–430), the cloud in this diamond appeared to be completely natural when examined in the microscope. Generally, the absence of inclusions or clarity characteristics increases the beauty and value of a diamond, but not always. In this diamond, the cloud’s presence adds beauty, value, and distinction. Thanks to an observant and skillful polisher, we get to see another “brilliant” example of an intriguing cloud inclusion in diamond. @chapter:11


Publication Year: - Title: Pearl Quality Factors Abstract: This collection includes a palette of beautiful cultured pearls. Besides round golden white loose cultured pearls, there’s a strand of well-matched round whites and a strand of oval pastel colors.

                      The qualities that determine the overall value of a natural or cultured pearl or a piece of pearl jewelry are size, shape, color, luster, surface quality, nacre quality, and—for  jewelry with two or more pearls—matching.

Size: When other value factors are equal, larger pearls are rarer and more valuable than smaller pearls of the same type.

	The mollusk that produces South Sea cultured pearls is larger than the mollusk that
	produces Japanese saltwater cultured pearls. This leads to greater potential for larger
	sizes. - Gift of Bob & Maria Pratsch

	Cultured pearls come in a variety of sizes and South Sea cultured pearls are coveted for their large size. - Courtesy Paspaley
Shape: Round is the most difficult shape to culture, making it the rarest cultured pearl shape and—if all other factors are equal—also generally the most valuable. There are exceptions, though. Well-formed pear, oval, or baroque (irregularly shaped) cultured pearls are also prized by pearl lovers.

Different pearl types are held to different standards when classifying shape. Japanese saltwater cultured pearls are held to the strictest standards for shape. From top to bottom these strands are classified for shape as round, near-round, semi-baroque, and baroque.
Color: Natural and cultured pearls occur in a broad range of hues. There are warm hues like yellow, orange, and pink, and cool hues like blue, green, and violet. Pearls have a wide range of tone from light to dark. Pearl colors tend to be muted, with a soft, subtle quality.

	These Japanese saltwater cultured pearls display the white color most consumers associate with pearls. - Courtesy Paljoue International Inc.

	Cultured pearls can come in a variety of amazing colors. These Tahitian saltwater cultured pearls have a color intensity that’s almost like neon lights. - Courtesy Frank Mastoloni & Sons, Inc.
Pearl color can have three components. Bodycolor is the pearl’s dominant overall color. Overtone is one or more translucent colors that lie over a pearl’s bodycolor. And orient is a shimmer of iridescent rainbow colors on or just below a pearl’s surface. All pearls display bodycolor, but only some show overtone, orient, or both.

	These natural pearls from French Polynesia have a dark gray to black bodycolor. The middle pearl shows pink and green orient, while the overtone of the pearl on the left is mostly green.
The law of supply and demand determines the value of certain pearl colors at any given time. If supplies of high-quality pearls displaying a preferred color are low, their prices can rise to unusually high levels. Other complex factors, like fashion trends and cultural traditions, can influence color preferences.

Luster: Of the seven pearl value factors, luster might be the most important. Luster is what gives a natural or cultured pearl its unique beauty.

		Excellent – Reflections appear bright and sharp

		Very Good – Reflections appear bright and near sharp

		Good – Reflections are bright but not sharp, and slightly hazy around the edges

		Fair – Reflections are weak and blurred

		Poor – Reflections are dim and diffused

Within a pearl type, when other value factors are equal, the higher the luster, the more valuable the pearl.

	From top to bottom, these Japanese saltwater cultured pearls show excellent, very good, good, fair, and poor luster. The differences in the sharpness of the reflections between each adjacent strand are subtle but still noticeable.

	South Sea saltwater cultured pearls often have a beautiful satiny luster. - Courtesy King Plutarco, Inc
Surface quality: Like colored stones, most pearls never achieve perfection. Some might show abrasions that look like a series of scratches on the surface, or a flattened section that doesn’t affect its basic shape, or an irregular ridge that looks like a crease or wrinkle.

If surface characteristics are numerous or severe, they can affect the durability of the pearl and severely depress its value. Surface characteristics have less effect on the pearl’s beauty and value if they are few in number, or if they are minor enough to be hidden by a drill-hole or mounting.

Nacre quality: Luster and nacre quality are closely related. If the nucleus is visible under the nacre, or if the pearl has a dull, chalky appearance, you can assume that the nacre is thin. This affects the luster as well as the durability of the pearl.

	Good nacre quality often results in attractive luster, like the luster of these beautiful
	multicolored Tahitian cultured pearls. - Courtesy Armand Ascher Pearls, NY
Matching: Jewelry designers sometimes deliberately mix colors, shapes, and sizes for unique effects, but for most pearl strands, earrings, or other multiple-pearl jewelry, the pearls should match in all the quality factors.

	The white South Sea cultured pearl strand is well matched for all value factors. Even
	with its assorted hues, the multicolored strand is also considered well matched.
	- Courtesy Armand Ascher Pearls, NY @chapter:14


Publication Year: - Title: Cutting the ‘Imperial Flame’ Topaz Abstract: The Imperial Flame, a superb natural color Brazilian topaz, was fashioned from a 615 ct crystal recovered over 20 years ago. The finished piece measures 89.53 × 20.56 × 19.15 mm and weighs 332.24 ct. Photo courtesy Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry.

	One of the most spectacular gems at the 2016 Tucson show was a magnificent freeform 332.24 ct Brazilian topaz on display at the GJX booth of gem artist Alexander Kreis (Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry, NiederwoErresbach, Germany), which the Kreis family has named the “Imperial Flame.” Described by International Colored Gemstone Association (ICA) executive director Gary Roskin as a “showstopper,” this spectacular gem was cut from an exceptionally rare 615 ct crystal.

	Alexander Kreis specializes in unique cutting styles. He comes from a 500-year family tradition of gemstone cutting and jewelry making. The business is still a Kreis family affair: Alexander’s mother, Sonja, and sister, Vanessa, design the jewelry pieces that best complement his gems’ style, and his father, Stefan, procures the rough. Gems have been part of his life from an early age, as his father traveled the world dealing with rough stones. The young Alexander was fascinated by stories of faraway mines and the little bags of rough crystals his father brought back. This spurred him to pursue a traditional apprenticeship, where he learned the fundamentals of gem cutting. However, Alexander broke from tradition to follow his own unique appreciation for beauty. He strives to use the rough in a nontraditional way.

	Kreis always seeks the beauty in rough material. “Nowadays to find the right rough material is really challenging,” he notes. “Demand is growing for better material, especially in Asia.”

	Which brings us to the spectacular topaz: According to the family, the crystal came from Brazil’s well-documented Ouro Preto topaz mines. Topaz has been recovered from this area of Minas Gerais for over 200 years, with the first discoveries recorded in 1768, when the Portuguese court of King Joseph I marked the discovery of the gem in their Brazilian colony with a “splendid celebration” (P.C. Keller, “The Capão topaz Deposit, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil,” Spring 1983 Gems & Gemology, pp. 12–20).

Today a bustling city and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Ouro Preto owes its prosperity, institutions, and beautiful baroque architecture to the mineral wealth—namely gold, tourmaline, and topaz—in the surrounding hills. Photo courtesy Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry.

	Today, as in the 1700s, topaz with this red, pink, or orangy yellow color component is rare and very valuable. One of the most sought-after colors is known as “Imperial” topaz, which most in the trade consider a medium reddish orange to orange-red. As noted in previous reports, only one to two percent of all the material recovered from Ouro Preto’s mines is of faceting quality, which makes the caliber of this crystal all the more remarkable. (see D.A. Sauer et al., “An update on Imperial topaz from the Capão mine, Minas Gerais, Brazil,” Winter 1996 Gems & Gemology, pp. 232–241).

	Although these topaz mines were once very active, there is no longer mining of any scale. To the best of the family’s knowledge, the crystal is “old production” mined at least 20 years ago. They first learned of it in September 2015 from an old acquaintance, an avid collector who believed Alexander could create something exceptional from the crystal.

Current production from Ouro Preto’s topaz mines is not as prolific as it was during the 1990s. Photo courtesy Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry.

	In September 2015, Stefan and Alexander Kreis traveled to Brazil to view the stone. When they saw the crystal, they immediately recognized it as something “truly exceptional” that might be fashioned into a “piece of the century.” As family member Carsten Kreis remarked, “It has the rare red color as the main part. But what makes it even more beautiful for us, is that it depicts the whole range of warm colors an Imperial topaz can have, and does so with an amazing intensity.”

	Alexander Kreis contemplates the original 615 ct Imperial topaz crystal. Photo courtesy
	Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry.

	The Kreis family acquired the topaz in December 2015. Before making a commitment to buy, they spent most of the previous four months analyzing the crystal to determine a fashioning plan. Although they briefly considered cutting the piece as three or more separate gems, their objective quickly became to cut the largest known top-quality Imperial topaz.

The original 615 ct topaz crystal from which Kreis fashioned the Imperial Flame. Photo courtesy Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry.

	From the outset, Alexander realized that the sheer size and clarity of the rough was astounding and that this combination, along with the range and intensity of colors, was “just unbelievable.” After much contemplation, Alexander finally decided to fashion the crystal into a single piece. This decision, he recalled, came “out of love for the mineral…as a sculpture it would be something that hasn’t been done before.”

	As a gem, topaz has an Achilles heel—its basal cleavage. As a result, cutters must exercise extreme care to avoid grinding the stone perpendicular to the cleavage plane. Inclusions might also cause the stone to break on the wheel. According to Sauer et al. (1996), weight recovery depends on the amount of inclusions in each crystal. Well-formed, fairly clean crystals yield up to 2 ct per gram (5 ct), or a recovery rate of 40 percent.

	Because of this inherent physical property, topaz—especially in larger sizes—is challenging to cut, giving every savvy cutter pause for thought. “Imperial topaz is very difficult to cut because the gem has a tension residing in it,” says Alexander. “Thus, we had a thorough look at it—especially for inclusions that could release that inner tension and lead to the crystal breaking.”

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	Alexander started the cutting process with the intent of retaining as much weight from the crystal as possible while striving for the highest level of artistry. “You want to waste as little material as possible and at the same time bring out the most of its potential beauty,” he explained.

	Fashioning the crystal took a total of eight days, spread across a period of three to four weeks. Alexander stopped the cutting process from time to time to make test carvings with smaller pieces of Imperial topaz in order to gauge the reaction of his cutting concepts on the Imperial Flame. There were three stages: sawing or trimming away any fractured or included material, grinding to preform and shape the solid crystal, and faceting along with carving the reflective, grooved surfaces. The exact cutting procedure, equipment, and polishing compounds Alexander uses are proprietary. Previous sources (e.g., Sauer et al., 1996) indicate that Brazilian topaz cutters use a 360 grit grinding wheel and a 600 grit faceting disk, polishing the stones on a lead/tin lap with Linde A (Al2O3) powder. From an original weight of 615 ct, the cutting process yielded a finished gem measuring 89.53 × 20.56 × 19.15 mm and weighing 332.24 ct, a finished yield of 54 percent.

	Regardless of the exact methods used, the finished piece is a spectacular crystal sculpture: a winning blend of geometric flat facets and curves bearing carved grooves that reflect and reinforce the red to rosy peach hues of the topaz many times over. The carving produces glittering reflections that enliven the lower portion of the sculpture and lead the eye to the blaze of red at the tip of the crystal. It is truly a special piece fit for a connoisseur or high-end collector.

	 “Is it for sale?” we asked.

	“Yes,” came the answer. “Price upon request!” @chapter:18


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Gem Characterization Abstract: Figure 1. The 3161 cm–1 series mid-IR feature, assigned to structurally bonded OH and associated with Mg2+, displays side bands at ~3352 and 3240 cm–1 in natural sapphires and at ~3277 and 3220 cm–1 in synthetic material. Natural sapphires also displayed CO2-related bands at ~2456 and 2418 cm–1.
3161 cm–1 Infrared Feature in Synthetic Sapphires
Gagan Choudhary and Sandeep Vijay
Gem Testing Laboratory, Jaipur, India
The 3161 cm–1 mid-infrared (IR) spectral feature (figure 1) is an important tool in the identification of unheated sapphires, especially in material from low-iron metamorphic environments such as Sri Lanka. This feature is a series of bands, composed of a strong peak at ~3161 cm–1 and smaller side bands at ~3075, 3240, and 3355 cm–1. A few researchers have attributed these features to OH groups involved in charge compensation with Si4+, while some have assigned them to structurally bonded OH, associated with Mg2+. The 3161 cm–1 series is more commonly observed in natural-color yellow sapphires than any other color of corundum; occasionally it is encountered in blues and pinks. These authors, however, have encountered a strong feature at ~3161 cm–1 in a few specimens of yellow synthetic sapphire grown by the flame-fusion (Verneuil) process. Their synthetic origin was determined on the basis of inclusion study, which revealed the presence of clouds of minute gas bubbles, along with some bomb-shaped gas bubbles, typically associated with corundum or spinel grown by the flame-fusion process. Milky zones of fine pinpoints and a “plato” effect were also present.
The 3161 cm–1 mid-IR feature in these synthetic yellow sapphires displayed side bands at approximately 3220 and 3277 cm–1, as opposed to 3240 and 3355 cm–1 in natural sapphires.
Agate Analysis by Raman, XRF, and Hyperspectral Imaging Spectroscopy for Provenance
Aaron Celestian1, Arlen Heginbotham2, Rebecca Greenberger3, Bethany Ehlmann3, Bibek Samanta4, Alyssa Morgan1, and Sergey Mamedov5
1Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
2J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
3California Institute of Technology, Pasadena
4University of Southern California, Los Angeles
5Horiba Scientific, Edison, New Jersey
The Getty Institute in Los Angeles recently acquired the Borghese-Windsor Cabinet (figure 1, left), a piece of furniture extensively decorated with agate, lapis lazuli, and other stones. The cabinet is thought to have been built around 1620 for Camillo Borghese (later Pope Paul V). It was traditionally thought that all agate gemstones acquired during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were sourced from the Nahe River Valley near Idar-Oberstein, Germany. While Brazilian agate began to be imported into Germany by the 1800s, it is possible that some was imported in the eighteenth century or earlier. A primary research goal was to determine if the agates in the Borghese-Windsor Cabinet are of a single origin, or if they have more than one geologic provenance.

Figure 1. Left: The Borghese-Windsor Cabinet on display at the Getty Center, being imaged by the hyperspectral analyzer (center, on tripod). Right: This Brazilian agate from Rio Grande do Sul is part of the NHMLA collection. Transect A-A′ is where the Raman map was collected. Photos by Arlen Heginbotham (left) and Aaron Celestian (right).
Both quartz and moganite will crystallize together as agate forms, but moganite is not stable at Earth’s surface and will convert to quartz over tens of millions of years (Heaney, 1995; Gíslason et al., 1997; Moxon and Rios, 2004). Thus, older agate contains less moganite. Agate from Idar-Oberstein is Permian in age (around 280 million years old), while agate from the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul generally formed during the Cretaceous (around 120 million years ago). It is thought that Rio Grande do Sul would have been a primary source of material exported to Europe because it is one of Brazil’s oldest and largest agate producers.
When examining the cryptocrystalline parts of agate from comparative collections, Brazilian agates from the collection of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (NHMLA; figure 1, right) had 8% or higher moganite concentration, whereas the Idar-Oberstein agate (on loan from the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History) had less than 2% moganite. The moganite distribution in the agate is heterogeneous, likely due to different growth stages and changing geological conditions during agate formation. Using the Raman maps, we were able to isolate the areas that contained moganite + quartz and measure the ratios in those specific bands (figure 2). This narrow-band approach to determining quartz to moganite ratio, when compared to broad-brand and whole-sample approaches, was shown to be more reproducible in distinguishing Brazilian from German agates.

Figure 2. Raman analyses of two Brazilian agates (blue) and two German agates (red) in the diagnostic region between 400 and 550 cm–1 show the strongest peaks for quartz at 463 cm–1 and moganite at 501 cm–1. These data were taken from narrow-band analysis (summing all spectra in the narrow agate bands that contained quartz + moganite). Each band was used as a separate analysis. Note the strong moganite presence in the Brazilian agates.
These same agates from the Brazilian and German localities were then taken to Caltech to collect hyperspectral imaging data (on a custom-built Headwall Photonics co-boresighted visible/near-infrared and shortwave infrared sensor). Imaging data were compared to the NHMLA laboratory Raman and X-ray fluorescence analyses, and correlation analysis of combined datasets from the three different experimental procedures allowed us to establish a unique characterization pattern for the different localities.
REFERENCES
Gíslason S.R., Heaney P.J., Oelkers E.H., Schott J. (1997) Kinetic and thermodynamic properties of moganite a novel silica polymorph. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 61, No. 6, pp. 1193–1204, http://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(96)00409-7

Heaney P.J. (1995) Moganite as an indicator for vanished evaporites: A testament reborn? Journal of Sedimentary Research, Vol. 65, No. 4A, pp. 633–638, http://dx.doi.org/10.1306/D4268180-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D

Moxon T., Ríos S. (2004) Moganite and water content as a function of age in agate: An XRD and thermogravimetric study. European Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 269–278, http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/0935-1221/2004/0016-0269
Beryllium Heat Treatment of Blue Sapphire from Sri Lanka
Sutas Singbamroong1,2, Panjawan Thanasutthipitak1, Thawatchai Somjaineuk3, and Nazar Ahmed2
1Department of Geological Science, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
2Dubai Central Laboratory Department, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
3Chanthaburi Gem and Jewelry Manufacturer Association, Chanthaburi, Thailand
Since at least 2000, corundum has been subjected to a beryllium (Be) heat treatment technique in Chanthaburi, Thailand. For this study, samples of transparent to translucent milky-white to yellow, purple to violet, and light to medium blue sapphires from Sri Lanka (metamorphic origin) were heat treated with Be in three types of furnaces (gas, electric, and fuel) at various temperatures and in both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres. The technique of Thai gem heating specialist Thawatchai Somjaineuk was used to intensify blue color, improve clarity, and distribute uneven color. Somjaineuk’s technique has been used to enhance Sri Lankan corundum with a milky/silky appearance since 2004, and supplies approximately 50 kg of beryllium-treated blue sapphire per year to the gem market.
The samples were studied after each step of heating for basic gemological properties, spectroscopic properties using ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopy, and chemical composition using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The corundum samples were first heated in a traditional O2/LPG mixed-gas furnace to about 1500°C for two hours in an oxidizing atmosphere. The white to yellow and light to medium blue sapphires turned colorless, whereas the purple to violet sapphires became pink. The second step of heating was performed with Be in an electric furnace at about 1700°C for 48 hours in an oxidizing atmosphere. After this process, the milky/silky colorless sapphires became a more transparent yellow, while the pink sapphires turned orange-pink. These stones were enhanced in the final step by reheating in a fuel furnace at about 1700°C for 72 hours in a reducing atmosphere. All samples became blue with light to strong saturation and tone.

Figure 1. UV-Vis spectra of a violet sapphire before treatment (A), after a first heating in a reducing atmosphere (B), after a second heating with beryllium in an oxidizing atmosphere (C), and after a third heating in a reducing atmosphere (D).
The combination of the color appearance, the absorption spectra analyzed after oxidation with Be and reduction heating (figure 1), and the chemical data suggest that Be and/or Mg trapped-hole yellow color centers—created during oxidation heating with Be—were made inactive after reduction heating. The blue coloration is mainly caused by strong broad absorption bands of Fe2+/Ti4+ intervalence charge transfer (IVCT) mechanism without Fe2+/Fe3+ IVCT. However, chemical data were analyzed for those samples and showed relatively high Mg and Be concentrations in comparison with the Ti composition, which does not fit well with the model that indicates [Ti4+] > [Mg2+ + Be2+] causes blue coloration. This heating technique is still not well understood. Further experiments and analyses are being carried out to confirm the role of beryllium in blue sapphires.
Gemological and Spectroscopic Characteristics of Australian Sapphires
Yafen Xu and Jingru Di
Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Although Australia has assumed a major role in the production of sapphire, research on this material has not been comprehensive. This study aims to analyze the gemology and spectroscopy of Australian sapphires and provide a theoretical basis for their treatment.
Under the optical microscope and other conventional instruments, hexagonal color zones were blue and yellow. Healing fissures and inclusions were extremely common. Raman spectroscopy showed that the inclusions were two-phase: CO2 and H2O with sapphire, rutile, zircon, diaspore, and amphibole, among others. Sulfur on the healing fissures indicated that S was filled during transportation. The IR spectra of the Australian sapphires typically revealed a 3310 cm–1 absorption peak (figure 1, left). This absorption feature is related to structural OH groups within the sapphire and revealed that these samples grew in reducing conditions. LA-ICP-MS indicated that the Cr/Ga ratio was less than 1 and the Fe/Ti ratio was generally 10–100 (figure 1, right), the typical ratio of magmatic sapphire. The iron content was between 3230 and 9431 ppm. Color varied with the content of Fe, Ti, Si, and Mg. UV-Vis absorption peaks (figure 2) at 377, 387, and 450 nm were caused by the d-d electronic transition of Fe3+ and Fe2+-Fe3+ in the region with less Ti; the absorption band centered at 559 nm in the yellow-green region indicated the charge transfer of Fe2+-Ti4+→Fe3+-Ti3+ and higher Ti content in this area. Fe2+-Fe3+ charge transfer often occurs together with Fe2+-Ti4+→Fe3+-Ti3+ charge transfer and causes the wide absorption band at 700–800 nm centered at 754 nm. The center may shift with different ratios of the charge transfer of Fe2+-Fe3+ and Fe2+-Ti4+→Fe3+-Ti3+.

Figure 1. The absorption band of 3310 cm–1 in IR spectra (left) and the Cr/Ga versus Fe/Ti ratios (right) indicate that the Australian sapphires are magmatic and grew in a reducing environment.

Figure 2. The UV-Vis spectra of the color zones in sapphire A-4 (left) and A-2 (right) are different because of different chromogenic ions (pairs).
REFERENCES
Kan-Nyunt H.-P., Karampelas S., Link K., Thu K., Kiefert L., Hardy P. (2013) Blue sapphires from the Baw Mar mine in Mogok. G&G, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 223–232, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.49.4.223
Yimiao L., Tao C. (2015) Gemmological characteristic of ruby and sapphire from Muling, Heilongjiang Province. Journal of Gems & Gemology, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 1–7.
A Grading Method of Jadeite Jade Transparency Based on Digital Image Analysis
Danlu Cui
Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
In the jadeite jade market, transparency is an important feature judged by experienced practitioners observing with the unaided eye under reflected light. However, this method is easily influenced by subjective factors.
This research simulates human observation of characteristics that could help in judging jadeite transparency through certain visual information features. This approach could allow gemologists to evaluate transparency rapidly while effectively avoiding subjective factors, especially under the same test conditions used to judge jadeite jade color.
Some promising research results have been obtained, through comparing the lightness value of each image pixel in jadeite jade pictures and then using the maximum between-class variance method (OSTU) to obtain a binarization threshold. Thus, the image data is classified into a relatively bright area and a relatively dark area. When a beam of light is directed across an oval-cut jadeite jade with different degrees of transparency, different results are obtained from the images.

In oval-cut jadeite jade with a high degree of transparency, a beam of light arrives at the underside and then converges in the other side of its curved surface, forming a relatively bright area.
In oval-cut jadeite jade with a medium degree of transparency, a beam of light is divided into two parts—one part reflected at the point of incidence or absorbed during the light transmission, and the other part arriving at the underside and then converging in the other side of its curved surface. Therefore, the brightness of the whole image is even.
In oval-cut jadeite jade with a low degree of transparency, most of the light is reflected at the point of incidence or absorbed. Little light reaches the underside, and therefore a relatively dark area forms at the other side of the curved surface.

Based on these three characters, oval-cut jadeite jade with different degrees of transparency can be judged objectively and automatically.
Inclusion Characteristics of Wax-Like Amber After Hydrothermal Treatment
Yamei Wang1,2 and Yan Li1 (presenter)
1Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
2Gem Testing Center of China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Amber products can be hydrothermally treated (figure 1) in order to improve the transparency of the material. In this process, an abundance of tiny nano- or micro-sized bubbles penetrate the amber in the presence of an aqueous solution (with some catalyst) through controlling the temperature and pressure and selecting an inert atmosphere environment (figure 2). After the treatment, the inner layer of the weathered skin of rough amber material will generate a layer with various thickness of a yellowish white or greenish yellow “hydrothermally treated skin” or a corrugated crust containing pores. The finished amber shows residues with white hydrothermally treated spots of various sizes, which may enter into the amber’s interior or remain on the finished surface. The treated wax-like amber displays abundant gas-liquid inclusions with small and dense flat or disc-shaped bubbles accompanied by tiny stress fracture patterns. The bubbles are uneven in size and densely distributed, forming a cloud-like effect. Because the infrared spectra data of the experimental samples before and after the treatment showed little difference, identification required the support of statistical FTIR data. A series of comprehensive tests are needed to identify hydrothermally treated amber, including the diagnostic evidence of the crust-like skin containing spots.

Figure 1. Variations in the appearance of amber samples before and after hydrothermal treatment: sample 1, sample 2, and sample 3. Note that there was no weight change in the amber before and after hydrothermal treatment. Photos by Yamei Wang.

Figure 2. A: Sketch of the pressure furnace used for hydrothermal treatment. B: Evaporation of H2O steam on amber in the chamber under inert atmosphere. C: Hydrothermal treatment from bubbles in the flowing water. Illustrations by Yan Li.
Interesting Inclusions in Peridot from Jilin, China
Zhiqing Zhang, Min Ye, and Andy H. Shen
Center for Innovative Gem Testing Technology
Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Recently we received 50 gem-quality rough peridot from the Yiqisong Nanshan olivine ore district, a new mineral occurrence in Dunhua City in China’s Jilin Province. These peridot crystals exhibit a yellowish green hue, rather high transparency, and some visible inclusions. Study of the inclusions showed interesting results (figure 1 left, A–D).

Figure 1. Left: “Lily pad” inclusions with patterns of decrepitation halos are typical in peridot (A). Deep-colored minerals are exposed on the host’s surface with brownish impregnation, or appear ochre with a columnar, schistose form (B). Blocky and schistose green diopside appears on or near the surface (C). Brownish green enstatite is discernible (D). Right: The spectrum of mineral A matched diopside, B matched lizardite, and C matched enstatite. Double or triple peaks near 823 and 855 cm–1 occur in the peridot, not the inclusions.
For precise observation and accurate testing, the crystals were windowed and doubly polished. Comprehensive microscopic and Raman spectroscopic analysis indicated the following typical inclusions: “lily pads,” round transparent inclusions, strongly colored minerals with or without healed secondary fractures, green crystals of enstatite and diopside, and a rare dark mineral inclusion of lizardite, identified by Raman spectroscopy and by referencing the RRUFF database (figure 1, right). Further gemological research is being carried out on these samples, and more data will be published in a full article.
IR Absorption Spectrum of Type Ib HPHT-Created Diamonds as an Indicator of Their Growth Conditions
Viktor Vins1, Alexander Yelisseyev2, Dmitry Bagryantsev1, and Alex Grizenko3
1Velman, Ltd., Novosibirsk, Russia
2Sobolev Institute of Geology and Mineralogy SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
3Lucent Diamonds, Inc., Los Angeles
Donor nitrogen atoms are the simplest crystal lattice defect, and their one-phonon absorption spectrum is well studied. The spectrum shows two main features: a main band at 1130 cm–1 and a narrow peak at 1344 cm–1. The absorption intensity and exact position of these two peaks give information about diamond growth conditions and crystal lattice perfection. In particular, our results showed that a decrease in growth rate corresponded to a decrease in the μ1130/μ1344 absorption intensity ratio. The ratio decreased from 2 to 1.5 in samples grown in the Fe-Ni-C system and from 1.64 to 0.95 in samples grown in the Fe-Co-C system. Since the μ1130/μ1344 ratio is sensitive to growth conditions, it could serve as a criterion for diamond quality, showing the content of impurity defects as well as the amount of internal tensile stress.
Studying isotopically modified diamonds is also informative. For example, if the carbon part of the growth system was 50% 12C graphite and 50% 13C graphite, an isotopic shift at 1344 cm–1 was observed, while the main band at 1130 cm–1 did not shift. The samples containing 15N isotope, conversely, revealed a 15 cm–1 shift toward long wavelengths of the 1130 cm–1 band, whereas the 1344 cm–1 peak remained at its frequency. It can be concluded that the 1130 cm–1 band is associated with the resonant vibrations of the N-C bond, while the 1344 cm–1 peak is related not to the donor nitrogen atom but to local vibrations of the carbon atom, which is bonded to the unpaired electron of the impurity nitrogen. The position of the Raman peak on the spectra taken at different points of the sample with 47% 13C showed that the biggest shift of the diamond peak (ν = 1312.8 cm–1) was seen in parts of the crystal immediately adjacent to the seed region. The Raman peak varied from 1321.1 to 1322.5 cm–1 in other parts of the sample, which corresponds to 25 ÷ 27% of 13C. The full width half maximum (FWHM) of the Raman peak was the largest (7.8 cm–1) at ν = 1312.8 cm–1. In all other points it ranged from 6.2 to 7.4 cm–1. In addition to an unusually high μ1130/μ1344 intensity ratio, which in “traditional” nickel-containing diamond ranges from 1.5 to 2.0, this indicates that isotopically modified diamonds have a rather imperfect crystal lattice. This could be caused by internal stress resulting from the incorporation of an isotope with a larger atomic size than that of 12C.
This work was supported by grant 16-05-00873a from the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and by the state assignment project 0330-2016-0006.
Laue X-Ray Backscatter Spot Patterns: A Novel Way of Identifying Various Gemological Crystals
Hollis Milroy and Sandra Hektor
University of Toronto
Although Laue X-ray backscatter imaging of crystals dates back to the 1920s, the application of this technique to the study of gemology is very much a new concept. This study investigates the use of Laue backscatter spot patterns (also called Laue-grams) to positively identify several gem crystals of varying crystal structure and atomic complexity. Approximately 50 exposures were taken using a tungsten filament running at 2000 W (50 kV × 20 mA), with the resulting Laue backscatter images captured on medical X-ray film. Using a high-resolution scanner, the spot patterns from the developed film were compared to computer-generated models, which agreed with the film images to a high degree of accuracy.

Figure 1. Laue backscatter spot patterns for two single-crystal samples. A: Yellow tint lab-grown single crystal diamond. B: Single-crystal tungsten in [110] orientation. Photos by Hollis Milroy.
Exposure times and crystal orientations relative to the X-ray beam axis were varied. Control exposures were run to ensure background effects (e.g., from the sample holder) did not contribute at all to the spot patterns.
The advantage of the noninvasive and nondestructive Laue backscatter method is that material can be identified from any orientation of the crystal. This is helpful when gemstones are embedded in jewelry or other materials such as rocks. Furthermore, anomalies from crystal impurities will appear on the film proportionately: The spot pattern of the predominant material will appear most visible and thus always easily determinable. For instance, the small impurities that produce different-hued gemstones will not affect the produced spot pattern from the underlying crystal structure.
Multifunction Spectrometer for Color Grading and Identification of Diamonds and Gemstones
Yan Liu
Liu Research Laboratories, South El Monte, California
A multifunction dual integrating sphere spectrometer has been developed for color grading and identification of diamonds and gemstones. The spectrometer has nine functions: spectral reflectance measurement, spectral transmittance measurement, color measurement, UV fluorescence measurement, photoluminescence (PL) measurement, color grading of gemstones, color grading of colored diamonds, color grading of jadeite, and grading of alexandrite effect. The color grading by artificial intelligence and the fine spectral measurement of PL at room temperature are particularly useful for gemological laboratories and the jewelry industry. The artificial intelligence for color grading includes a neural network and a fuzzy logic algorithm. The PL measurement is calibrated by a NIST-traceable lamp to measure the relative spectral distribution of photoluminescence, and a mathematic algorithm is developed to obtain a fine PL spectrum at room temperature. In addition, the photoluminescence measurement can amplify a weak spectrum up to 1,000 times for gemological research and identification purposes. The function for color grading of jadeite has adjustments for color area percentage and shape curve for accurate color grading of carved pieces. The grading of alexandrite effect is calculated under five standard CIE illuminants: A, D65, F3, F7, and F11. The spectrometer can be used to perform most tasks of color grading, spectroscopic identification, and research in advanced gemological laboratories.
Nephrite from Luodian, Guizhou Province of China
Quanli Chen1, Xianyu Liu1, 2, Haitao Wang3, Wenjing Zhu1, Sujie Ai1, and Zuowei Yin1
1Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
2College of Jewelry, Shanghai Jian Qiao University, Shanghai
3School of Jewelry, Guangzhou College of South China University of Technology, Guangzhou
In recent years, a new variety of nephrite has been discovered in Luodian County in Guizhou Province, China (figure 1). It lacks greasy luster but possesses a distinctive “porcelain” luster and a fine texture. The white samples tend to show a more or less gray hue.

Figure 1. Map showing the location of the Luodian nephrite deposit.
Samples with a white to bluish white colors were studied via X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), ICP-MS, and FTIR. The results reveal that Luodian nephrite (figure 2), whose SG ranges from 2.77 to 2.90 and is slightly lower than that of Hetian nephrite, is mainly composed of tremolite, and parts of the samples contain a small amount of quartz. The chemical constituents of Luodian nephrite are SiO2 (56.75–59.01 wt.%), MgO (23.69–25.03 wt.%), and CaO (11.25–12.00 wt.%, lower than the standard value of tremolite).

Figure 2. These nephrite pieces are from Luodian County in Guizhou Province, China. Photos by Quanli Chen.
Among the trace elements of Luodian nephrite, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, and Co show higher relative mass fraction, with Ti ranking top (relative mass fraction: 2.05–4.52 × 10–8). The content of these elements is exceptionally low in Hetian white nephrite, which may shed some light on the gray hue of Luodian nephrite. Light rare earth elements are relatively concentrated, and Eu shows both positive and (more frequently) negative anomalies. Compared with Hetian white nephrite, the total content of rare earth elements of Luodian nephrite is higher, especially the elements La, Nd, Sm, Tb, and Er, indicating that the ore-forming environment is different between the two localities.
Observing the microstructure characteristics using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that the tremolite in Luodian nephrite has a mainly fibrous crystalline structure, and the various microstructure features of the aggregate are based on the different aggregation modes of fibrous tremolite. Therefore, the fibrotic range, geometric size, form combination, interaction of the tremolite, and tightness of polymerization are the basis of quality in Luodian nephrite.
“Raindrop” Turquoise from China
Ling Liu, Mingxing Yang, Yan Li, Yalun Ku, Jia Liu, and Zenmin Luo
Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Recently, a new type of turquoise with randomly distributed spots (figure 1A) from Hubei Province, China—where there are abundant gem-quality turquoise mines—has become popular with jewelry consumers and collectors. The material is called “raindrop turquoise” because of the unique inclusions with blue, blue-green or (rarely) yellow color. The raindrop-like inclusions and the substrate always display a similar hue, but the color of the raindrop-like inclusions is much deeper, and their transparency and hardness are higher.

Figure 1. A: The circle-shaped inclusions were unevenly distributed in this piece of raindrop turquoise. Photo by Yalun Ku. B: Inclusions seen in one of the samples from this report. The sample measures 21 × 18 × 6 mm. C: Backscattered electron imaging of the sample shown in figure 1B revealed that the gray area between the raindrop and the substrate is distinct. D: A lighter and narrower (~10 μm) line observed in the vein of the sample is pure carbon-fluorapatite.
It appears that so-called raindrop turquoise has not been well studied. Several typical specimens from the jewelry market were systematically investigated for their mineral compositions and spectral characteristics using micro-XRD, micro-FTIR, Raman, and electron microprobe analysis. The raindrop inclusions (figure 1B) were mainly composed of turquoise and fluorapatite, while the substrate was mainly turquoise. The Raman spectra of the raindrop inclusions showed the characteristic peaks of turquoise, with strong and sharp peaks at 965–968 cm–1 caused by PO43– of fluorapatite. In addition, a weak shoulder at 1070 cm–1 was observed in some samples because of CO32– replacing PO43– (Awonusi et al., 2007). The micro-FTIR spectra of the raindrop inclusions showed double weak peaks near 1460 cm–1 and 1430 cm–1, resulting from the asymmetric stretching vibration of CO32– (Fleet, 2009). The backscattered electron images (figure 1C) showed that the gray between the raindrop and the substrate was distinct, indicating the difference in their mutual mineral phases. Some raindrop inclusions kept the perfect hexagonal shapes of apatite (again, see figure 1C). In addition, a lighter and narrower line (~10 μm) was also observed in the vein of the sample (figure 1D). The chemical compositions of the raindrops and veins were Al2O3, P2O5, CaO, CuO, FeOT, and F, while the narrow line mainly consisted of P2O5, CaO, and F.
From the X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman results, the raindrop and vein inclusions are mixed with turquoise and fluorapatite, while the lighter and narrower line is pure carbon-fluorapatite. Hence, the deeper color of raindrop-like inclusions can be attributed to the mixture of turquoise and fluorapatite/carbon-fluorapatite.
REFERENCES
Awonusi A., Morris M.D, Tecklenburg M.M. (2007) Carbonate assignment and calibration in the Raman spectrum of apatite. Calcified Tissue International, Vol. 81, No. 1, pp. 46–52, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00223-007-9034-0

Fleet M.E. (2009) Infrared spectra of carbonate apatites: v2-region bands. Biomaterials, Vol. 30, No. 8, pp. 1473–1481, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.12.007
Tianhuang Stone—The Most Valuable Seal Stone in China
Tao Chen1, Yungui Liu2, and Quanli Chen1
1Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
2State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Tianhuang stone, from the village of Shoushan in Fujian Province, is the most precious Chinese seal stone. It has a profound cultural heritage in China and is quite expensive. Therefore, systematic research on the identifying gemological and mineralogical characteristics of Tianhuang stone has important value implications. Tianhuang stone mainly has a yellow color, though it can sometimes be white, red, or black. Most Tianhuang stones have weathered skins, red cracks, and “turnip” inclusion veins.

Figure 1. A: This 58 g yellow Tianhuang seal stone was sold at a Chinese auction from 2017. B: Weathered skin on the surface of a Tianhuang stone. C: Fine and white “turnip” veins. D: Red cracks extending into a Tianhuang stone from its surface.
According to X-ray diffraction and FTIR results, Tianhuang stone can be divided into three types: dickitic, nacritic, and illitic. Dickitic-type Tianhuang stone can be further divided into ordered dickitic and disordered dickitic. Illitic-type Tianhuang stone is usually composed of 2M1 illite and a small amount of 1M illite.
The weathered skin and matrix have the same mineral composition. LA-ICP-MS results suggest that iron content is higher in the skin than in the matrix. These findings, along with total iron analyses, indicate that the yellow color of Tianhuang stone is caused by Fe3+ ions in the crystal structure of dickite, nacrite, or illite. Red cracks are caused by iron minerals that entered along the cracks. The iron minerals display three forms: thick film-state, short needles, and film or fine granular, as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The “turnip” vein is a kind of fine, white spiderweb inclusion in Tianhuang stone, which has no obvious boundary between matrix and vein. SEM, energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS), and laser Raman microspectrometry results show that turnip vein is composed of svanbergite.
Unusual “Vorobyevite” Beryl from Afghanistan
Yang Hu and Ren Lu
Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Beryl is an important gem species that includes goshenite, aquamarine, emerald, heliodor, morganite, and red beryl varieties. An unusual blue beryl sold as “vorobyevite” or “rosterite” is sometimes seen on the market. This crystal has a special hexagonal tabular morphology, sometimes concave, convex, or fibrous-like on basal pinacoids. The material is mined from the Deo Darrah, Khash, and Kuran Wa Munjan districts in Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan. It most likely formed in granitic pegmatite, as evidenced by the associated dark blue tourmaline and spherical muscovite aggregates (figure 1, left). Characteristics of an Afghan vorobyevite sample and the use of the term are discussed here.

Figure 1. Left: A 16.5 × 13.2 × 7.5 mm vorobyevite with tourmaline and muscovite aggregate from Afghanistan, a 31.3 × 25.2 × 7.3 mm pale blue Chinese aquamarine, and a 22.1 × 15.5 × 7.8 mm dark blue Burmese aquamarine. Right: A two-phase inclusion hosting a round bubble in the vorobyevite. Field of view 0.37 mm. Photos by Yang Hu.
This sample was pale blue with a yellow hue in the center. Parallel intergrowth and a hexagonal growth texture were shown on a two-sided basal face. Dichroism was medium, appearing pale blue along the ordinary (o-) ray and blue along the extraordinary (e-) ray. The fluorescence response was inert to both long-wave and short-wave UV. The sample had a refractive index (RI) of 1.570–1.575 and a specific gravity (SG) of 2.53. Abundant two-phase inclusions with various shapes were observed (figure 1, right). All of these gemological properties were in agreement with aquamarine.
LA-ICP-MS analysis showed that alkali content in the form of Na and Cs (Cs2O 0.03–0.04 wt.%, and Na2O 0.07–0.08 wt.%) was relatively low according to our chemical database of all beryl varieties, classified as “low-alkali” beryl in agreement with the dominance of type I water in structural channels revealed by Raman and IR spectra. In addition, Ge Sn, Nb, and Ta were relatively rich compared with aquamarine from other origins. Due to few substitutions in the Al octahedral and Be tetrahedral crystal site, this Afghan sample was identified as “normal beryl.” UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy showed absorptions of Fe ions (FeO 0.56–0.60 wt.%) at 372, 425, 600, and 820 nm, and the blue color was stable under sunlight. Therefore, the blue color was attributed to Fe ions rather than natural or artificial irradiation. A yellowish area in the center of the sample indicated that the blue color was natural.
The term “vorobyevite” was first applied to colorless to yellowish rose beryl containing large amounts of lithium and cesium (Cs2O 3.04 wt.% and Li2O 1.43 wt.%) from Lipovka, Russia (Yakubovich et al., 2009). The term “rosterite” designated a cesium beryl of colorless or pink color from Elba, Italy, almost synonymous with “vorobyevite” (Hänni and Krzemnicki, 2003). But neither term is officially accepted by the International Mineralogical Association or normally used for a beryl variety. Based on gemological, spectroscopic, and chemical characteristics, we confirmed this Afghani vorobyevite belonged to the beryl species, specifically the low-alkali aquamarine variety. However, similar tabular beryls from Mogok (Myanmar) and Sichuan (China) with a pale blue to dark blue color (see figure 1, left) were identified as “alkali-rich” aquamarine in our study. Although the tabular morphology in this Afghan sample was quite uncommon, tabular morphology is not a criterion for identifying vorobyevite or rosterite.
REFERENCES
Hänni H.A., Krzemnicki M.S. (2003) Caesium-rich morganite from Afghanistan and Madagascar. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 28, No. 7, pp. 417–429.

Yakubovich O.V, Pekov I.V, Steele I.M, Massa W., Chukanov N.V. (2009) Alkali metals in beryl and their role in the formation of derivative structural motifs: Comparative crystal chemistry of vorobyevite and pezzottaite. Crystallography Reports, Vol. 54, No. 3, pp. 399–412, http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/S1063774509030067
Young Blue Sapphires from Muling, China
Yimiao Liu and Ren Lu
Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
The area around Muling, a small town located in northeastern China, produces attractive corundum in a wide variety of color, clarity, and sizes (Liu and Lu, 2016), along with gem-quality pyrope, zircon, and black spinel. Some of its facet-quality sapphires (figure 1) are comparable to those from the finest sapphire localities in the world.

Figure 1. This 0.53 ct natural, untreated blue sapphire from Muling, China, shows desirable blue color and saturation. Photo by Yimiao Liu.
Sapphire from Muling is mostly extracted from alluvial (or secondary) deposits. Information on genesis, general formation environment, and deposit type is still incomplete and being researched to support efficient exploration.
Muling is distributed along the northern section of the Dunhua-Mishan Fault, which is a lithospheric extension between the Xing-Meng orogenic belt and the Pacific subduction zone (Ling et al., 2017). The volcanic eruptions of the Dunhua-Mishan graben began at about 44.9 Ma and ended about 5,140 years before the present (Wang et al., 2001). Gemstones were found in the placer derived from Miocene (5.3–23 Ma) basalt, which is regarded as the gem carrier. The corundum-bearing layers underlie a few meters of soft sandy clay and fertile topsoil.
This study arose from a preliminary examination of 14 faceted and 74 rough corundum from the Muling deposits. During examination of the internal characteristics, we found zircon inclusions in three blue sapphires. As one of the best geochronometers, zircon provided an initial estimate of the formation age through U-Pb dating methods.
Zircon inclusions were identified by laser Raman spectroscopy. Euhedral crystals with no evidence of surface corrosion or oxidation could indicate that the zircon inclusions within the host sapphire were syngenetic and nearly unaffected by radiation (called “high” zircon in gemology). Therefore, the ages obtained on zircon inclusions are in equilibrium with the initial formation time of the host sapphire.
U-Pb dating analyses of zircon inclusions were conducted using LA-ICP-MS at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan. Due to the small size of the target inclusions (approximately 150 μm × 50 μm) and unavoidable interference from common lead, only some subsets of information could be preserved for the age calculation. The analyses of zircon inclusions gave 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 8 to 10 Ma (i.e., Miocene). Being completely enclosed within the host sapphires, the transparent euhedral zircons were protected throughout their history from interaction with permeating fluids. Thus, the obtained ages correspond to the formational ages of these sapphires. Combined with the geologic settings, this time period would have allowed numerous volcanic events to deliver the corundum as xenocrystal from the source to the top. The formation condition of Muling sapphires might be associated with the Miocene volcanic events.
The U-Pb ages of zircon inclusions (along with a full range of trace elements within zircon) can also provide distinctive provenance characteristics, because the formation ages of sapphires from various well-known deposits are different. Although the sapphires from Muling are much older than the oldest human civilization, they are among the youngest sapphire deposits known to date (e.g., Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and North America). Therefore, the U-Pb age of zircon inclusions is an efficient indicator in separating similar-looking sapphires from various deposits.
Once more age information on sapphires is collected, a totally new system of provenance identification will be established. It is also helpful for further understanding the genesis of gemstones and instructing people on the rational utilization of resources.
REFERENCES
Ling Y.Y., Zhang J.J., Liu K., Ge M.H., Wang M., Wang J.M. (2017) Geochemistry, geochronology, and tectonic setting of Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks in the northern segment of the Tan–Lu Fault region, northeast China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, Vol. 144, pp. 303–322, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.12.025

Liu Y, Lu R. (2016) Gem News International: Ruby and sapphire from Muling, China. G&G, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 98–100.

Wang X.K., Qiu S.W., Song C.C., Kulakov A., Tashchi S., Myasnikov E. (2001) Cenozoic volcanism and geothermal resources in northeast China. Chinese Geographical Science, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 150–154, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11769-001-0035-z @chapter:12


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Turquoise with Fingerprint Pattern Abstract: Figure 1. A few of the natural, untreated turquoise beads in this necklace display a fingerprint pattern. Photo by Don Mengason.

              The Carlsbad laboratory recently identified a natural, untreated turquoise bead necklace with an interesting feature. The bluish green beads displayed a natural turquoise structure with thin black matrix veining (figure 1). During microscopic examination, a few of the beads showed a less-saturated greenish discoloration pattern resembling fingerprints. The bead selected for testing had a spot RI of about 1.60 and fluoresced weak bluish green under long-wave UV, with no short-wave fluorescence. To rule out polymer impregnation treatment, we collected an infrared (FTIR) spectrum. It showed no peaks in the polymer regions, ruling out polymer-impregnated turquoise (K.S. Moe et al., “Polymer-impregnated turquoise,” Summer 2007 G&G, pp. 149–151). The unusual pattern may have been the result of glue or another contaminant present during the initial handling or drilling of the beads, preserving actual human fingerprints. With time and wear, the discoloration of the beads made the fingerprints more distinct (figure 2).

	Figure 2. The light area shows a discoloration in the form of a fingerprint pattern. Photo by Nathan Renfro.
Untreated turquoise is porous and often absorbs skin oils and other contaminants, making the color more greenish. As a result, turquoise is commonly treated to enhance its appearance and protect it from discoloration. Most of the product on the market, especially lower-quality material, has been wax- or polymer-impregnated to improve its durability (S.F. McClure et al., “Gemstone enhancement and its detection in the 2000s,” Fall 2010 G&G, pp. 218–240).
This interesting piece serves as a useful example of why turquoise is routinely treated. Simply handling it can affect the color and appearance over time, as illustrated by the fingerprint pattern preserved in this piece. @chapter:37


Publication Year: 2023 Title: GIA Alumni Collective Abstract: Laura Mae, Amanda Jean, and Ilan Portugali are some of GIA’s featured graduates on the Alumni Collective website.
The GIA Alumni Collective offers an exciting networking platform for GIA graduates. The online community at collective.gia.edu allows a diverse group of users to access both live and self-paced Continuing Education seminars, join virtual chapters, connect with global alumni, and more. The site also puts GIA alums in the spotlight (see above), celebrating those who uphold the highest standards of GIA’s consumer protection mission.
Winning a 40-pound tub of historical jewelry at auction led sisters Laura Mae and Amanda Jean (last names withheld) to launch their online jewelry resale business, Maejean Vintage, in 2010. New to the industry, they both pursued Graduate Gemologist diplomas at GIA. Today they use their expertise to salvage rare and valuable historical pieces and sell them all over the world.
Ilan Portugali’s journey took him from Israel to Madagascar to Mozambique and finally to the U.S., where he worked for a diamond dealer and completed his Graduate Diamonds diploma at GIA. After positions with Van Cleef & Arpels and Harry Winston, Portugali started his own business, Beverly Hills Diamonds, which sources conflict-free and fair-trade diamonds.
Visit https://collective.gia.edu/meet-the-collective.html to read stories from these alumni and more. @chapter:34


Publication Year: 2017 Title: Synthetic Diamond Fraudulently Inscribed To Match Natural Diamond Report Abstract: Figure 1. This 1.76 ct synthetic diamond was submitted with a fake GIA inscription (partially redacted for privacy) of an actual GIA report number for a natural diamond. Photos by Troy Ardon.
Improvements in diamond growth technology and methods have led to a noticeable increase in colorless synthetic gem diamonds in recent years. Concerns in the diamond industry focus on laboratory-grown diamonds not being properly disclosed or even being sold as natural stones. Through careful examination and analysis, gemological laboratories can separate natural from synthetic diamonds. Occasionally, however, fraud is involved in attempting to conceal a gem’s identity. The Carlsbad laboratory witnessed such an attempt.

On this occasion, a round brilliant cut (figure 1, left) was submitted for an updated diamond grading report. Its girdle was inscribed with an actual GIA report number issued in 2015 (figure 1, right). The older report was for a natural, untreated diamond and contained the following grading information: 1.74 ct, round brilliant cut, D color, Excellent cut grade, and VVS1 clarity. Upon grading, the new submission was described as a 1.76 ct round brilliant cut with F color, Excellent cut grade, and VS1 clarity. Moreover, our screening processes determined that the newly submitted sample needed additional testing to determine its origin. This examination revealed it to be an HPHT-grown synthetic diamond. Synthetic cuboctahedral growth structure and phosphorescence were clearly visible in DiamondView imaging (figure 2).

Figure 2. DiamondView imaging showed the synthetic growth structure and blue phosphorescence typical of HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds.
Aside from the observed discrepancies in weight (1.74 vs. 1.76 ct), color (D vs. F), and clarity (VVS1 vs. VS1), FTIR spectra clearly showed that these were not the same diamond. The natural diamond from the original report was type Ia with aggregated nitrogen impurities, while the new one was type IIb with boron impurities (figure 3). Careful examination of the report number inscribed on the synthetic diamond revealed a font different from the one used by GIA, proving that it was not an authentic inscription.

Figure 3. FTIR absorption spectra revealed that the synthetic diamond was type IIb, whereas the fraudulently inscribed report number referred to a natural type Ia diamond. The spectra are offset for clarity.
While most synthetic diamonds that come to the laboratory are properly disclosed, some are submitted out of concern that a stone presented as natural might be synthetic. Rarely do we encounter the type of blatant fraud described here. It is important for the industry and public to exercise caution, because these types of misleading practices do occur. We believe the submitting client noticed inconsistencies with the GIA report information and sent it to the lab for an updated report. If any doubt exists or some aspect of a diamond (such as an inscription) seems odd, the stone should be sent to a gemological laboratory for verification. @chapter:15


Publication Year: - Title: Gem-TV in China: Overview and a Shanghai Case Study Abstract: Yellow diamonds are a best seller for Rico Gems, which offers the “Sun Flower” series of fancy yellow diamond jewelry on TV. The Rico team designed and manufactured the entire series. Courtesy Rico Gems.

Introduction and Brief History
In the United States, the Home Shopping Network (HSN) launched its first national television shopping program on July 1, 1985. At the time, television in China was still considered a luxury product, affordable only for families with more financial power. A black and white TV could easily cost 400 RMB—about US$65, or a one-year salary for the average factory worker at the time. However, by the time color TV entered the Chinese market in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was more widely affordable. The Chinese soon adopted the U.S. concept of TV shopping.

China’s first TV shopping program was launched in 1992 by Guangdong Pearl River TV and Guangdong TV. The stations themselves collected the products and also created their own promotional videos. This first try was very successful. Then, Beijing’s first TV shopping company was established in 1995. It was initiated by Beijing TV (BTV) but was run independently. The company played the role of middleman between suppliers and end consumers. Within two years, its sales had reached 200 million RMB (about US$32 million).

Distribution of TV Shopping  Networks in China

TV shopping network coverage has been increasing in China since the 1990s. Eastern China is covered by multiple layers of networks, while western China is still open. Map adapted from Zeng, 2012 (http://meijiezazhi.com/zt/yw/2013-02-25/11897.html).
In 2003, Shanghai Media Group Ltd. (SMG) signed a joint venture agreement with the CJ Home Shopping Co. of Korea. Investment by both parties formed a new company called SMG-CJ Home Shopping Co., Ltd. The new company sells its products through its TV network, company website, and a catalog. All three outlets share suppliers, management, and a ground transportation system. At the beginning, SMG-CJ covered only the Shanghai area. It now serves the entire country, with subgroups in various cities.

	SMG-CJ is one of the most successful TV shopping networks in China. It has expanded
	beyond serving only the Shanghai area and now serves all of China. Consumers can
	place orders anytime on the company website.
When the live home-shopping program produced by SMG-CJ began on April 1, 2004, it aired every night from 8:00 pm to 1:00 am and was watched by over 3.5 million families. In November 2004, the company launched its website (http://tv.ocj.com.cn/) and started taking orders online. The company’s product catalog debuted in January 2005 and was mailed to more than 250,000 families.

Today, the company’s Shanghai home-shopping channel is live 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Since the end of 2008, SMG-CJ has been a leader in the TV marketing of gold jewelry, diamonds, diamond jewelry, automobiles, and real estate.

In 2013, a team from GIA visited Shanghai and interviewed Mr. Shen Cheng, founder and CEO of Rico Gems, a gem and jewelry supplier for the SMG-CJ home-shopping channel. Shen generously shared with us his experience with—and insight into—Gem-TV in China.

Rico’s Shanghai Experience
After operating in the U.S. for around 20 years, Shen brought his brand back to mainland China in 2012. He did this at the suggestion of many of his friends in China and also because he recognized the unlimited potential of the Chinese gem and jewelry industry. Rico Gems specializes in high-end diamond and colored stone jewelry, serving customers with a wide range of products. The company has its own jewelry designers and manufacturer. Along with its successful collaboration with the SMG-GJ home-shopping network, it operates a store in Shanghai.

In addition to diamonds, Rico Gems also offers rare colored stones and is dedicated to promoting colored stone designs as wedding jewelry in China. This ring is a design from the “Forever Love” series of pink sapphire jewelry. Courtesy Rico Gems.
According to Shen, his TV shoppers are mainly affluent women, 30 to 50 years old. Most are middle class, but some are ultra-wealthy and can spend millions of dollars on rare pink diamonds without too much hesitation.

Middle-class consumers consider many factors before finalizing a purchase. Many regard a diamond purchase as an investment, in hopes that the price will keep going up. Some consumers buy wedding rings for their children who are not planning to get married for several years, considering it a way to save money. Impulse purchases are a foreign concept to middle-class consumers in China.

	Gem-TV Consumers

Shen targets a specific group of consumers by selling only diamonds over one carat in size through the TV-shopping network. The presenters spend about half an hour describing and promoting an item, and consumers have about the same amount of time to make a purchasing decision. Only a limited quantity of goods is offered at each show. A record for SMG-CJ was the sale of three two-carat fancy yellow diamonds (about US$40,000 each) within seconds of each other. Rico sells the faceted diamonds and usually provides the mountings for free. Sometimes the customer also receives a ruby or emerald as a free gift. It’s a practice that works very well with Shanghai consumers, Shen says, and contributes to a customer satisfaction rate of 100 percent.

	Selling on Gem-TV

Shanghai is a very special city, one of the earliest open ports in China. People in Shanghai have grown accustomed to accepting new ideas from the rest of the world. The concept of TV shopping was borrowed from the Western world, and Shanghai consumers have embraced it as part of their everyday lives. Jewelry consumers have high confidence in TV shopping and the purchase of expensive products. Compared to Shanghai, jewelry consumers in other cities usually spend much less on each purchase.

Gem-TV Advantages for China’s Consumers
Unlike the Western world, Chinese television is under strong central-government control, and no private stations exist. China’s consumers see this as an advantage that makes TV purchases more trustworthy than purchases through other outlets. They feel that government control allows them to resolve any problems they might have—if they buy from a store, there’s no guarantee that the store’s location won’t change without notice, leaving them without recourse.

Another advantage Gem-TV offers the Chinese consumer is price control. Rapid economic growth in China has raised land and property values, especially in cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. Skyrocketing rents have forced store owners to increase their retail prices to ensure profits. Gem-TV’s suppliers are able to keep their rent costs low, making it easier to price their jewelry at a level that more consumers can afford. Also, consumers can easily compare prices before purchasing. In one of Rico’s TV shows, the price offered for a one-carat fancy yellow diamond was only about one-third of its market price.

	Building Consumers’ Trust

Very strict control of suppliers and products helps Gem-TV gain consumer trust. For example, under rules set by SMG-CJ, the diamonds that Rico offers on TV have to carry two grading reports, one issued by GIA and the other by the National Gem and Jewelry Testing Center (NGTC) of China. If the grades on the two reports don’t match, the diamonds can’t be offered on TV. This might be a challenge for the suppliers, but it gives consumers more confidence in a purchase, especially with a more expensive stone.

	Gem-TV Pricing

Last but not least, consumers usually get more information from a TV presentation than they do in a retail store. Shen says that SMG-CJ live shows are about thirty minutes long, and the time is used to describe and promote a featured item in detail. The description is very specific, and the presenter gives the item a more organized and comprehensive introduction. It also ensures that all consumers get the same information. Consumer feedback often indicates that they learn more from the TV shows than they do in retail stores.

	The Market’s Future Potential
Sales through TV home-shopping networks account for about eight percent of total sales in the U.S., about 12 percent in Korea, and only about 0.3 percent in China. Even with a steady net increase of about 12 billion RMB (about US$2 billion) over the past five years, China’s TV-shopping sales percentage is still extremely low compared to other large economies. There is plenty of room to grow for this specific retail channel.

Sales from TV network shopping have continued to increase over the past five years. They reached about 70 billion RMB (about US$12 billion) in 2013.
China’s TV shopping channels are permitted to operate their own websites, giving consumers easy access to product information and more flexibility when placing orders. Some channels increase consumer access to their products by operating their own retail stores. Social networks are also very important sales channels in China. Many people who sell through social networks convert friends to consumers and vice versa.

In the future, business owners will benefit more from combining multiple sales channels than from relying on a single one. In 2014, the Shanghai TV-shopping network decided to focus on developing its own mobile shopping application to go along with traditional sales channels. Mobile shopping is gaining tremendous momentum due to the younger generation’s increasing attachment to mobile devices rather than TV or retail stores. More and more jewelry brands recognize this change and consider mobile sales a new growth point.

As China’s most popular social media network, Wechat has over 600 million users globally. Many brands and individual sellers promote and sell their products through this medium. Photo by Tao Hsu
In 2014, surveys showed that local consumers preferred buying jewelry and collectibles from TV networks, accounting for as much as 30 to 40 percent of total retail sales. As long as the TV shopping networks can maintain consumer confidence, sales will continue to increase. Shen notes that current Chinese consumers spend heavily on traditional collectibles and household goods. Many have not yet realized the investment potential of gemstones. With more education and promotion, more investment will be directed to the gem and jewelry market.

Today, the major TV-shopping networks are all clustered in more-developed cities. As urbanization continues, people who live in lower-tier cities will become potential home shoppers. As the markets in first-tier cities become saturated, lower-tier cities offer the most growth potential. @chapter:27


Publication Year: 2017 Title: Ethical and Sustainable Vertical Integration in the Sapphire Market Abstract: Untreated yellow sapphires such as this 12.18 ct gem command a premium in the marketplace, especially when a transparent chain of custody and sustainable mining practices can be documented for the customer. Photo by Eric Welch/GIA, courtesy of Sheahan Stephen Sapphires.

	When the recession of 2008 struck, Sheahan Stephen (Sheahan Stephen Sapphires, Inc., San Francisco, California) had been dealing in Sri Lankan gemstones for two years. He saw his monthly cash flow drop to a third of what it had been when he first started traveling to Sri Lanka to buy stones for resale in the United States. During the recession he decided to borrow money and become vertically integrated. Stephen created a transparent supply chain and an ethical supply model by becoming directly involved in mining. His new business also included heat treatment, cutting, and sales.

	Sustainable practices tie directly into Stephen’s beliefs in how businesses should strive to operate. He sees lack of sustainability as a major cause of many of society’s problems. He works with his customers in what he calls “customized” vertical integration. He fills specific orders for his customers directly from mines and brings the sapphires to market in a controlled manner, meaning they are always in his hands or an employee’s hands until they reach the final customer. Stephen guarantees the entire supply chain and strives to provide full documentation, including the mine the sapphires (see above) came from and the name of the treater and the cutter.

	He focuses on education and training in Sri Lanka to obtain the quality and traceability his customers expect. Training and complete trust in his Sri Lankan staff allow him to buy stones unseen that will fill his customers’ specifications. Stephen also believes in providing education and other assistance for his employees’ families in Sri Lanka.

	Stephen finds that customers today want more information about their jewelry. They want to know where a piece came from, who was involved in manufacturing it and bringing it to market, and the corporate social responsibility practices of the company involved. With many of his customers today willing to pay 30% more for documented ethical sapphires and sapphire jewelry, he focuses on growing his sales with sustainability-minded clients. At the same time, he strives to be close to other wholesalers in his pricing to stay competitive and grow his business.

	A major part of his business investment is the time he spends growing relationships with miners and cutters in Sri Lanka that can take years. That is an essential element of developing a sustainable business model for artisanal mining. Stephen hopes that building long-term relationships with his employees and suppliers in Sri Lanka and perfecting the processes throughout the supply chain will allow for slow but sustainable business growth. His vision is to take this model to other gem mining countries, especially in Africa, where he is currently working in Madagascar. @chapter:38


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Sapphires from Colombia Abstract: Figure 1. Five unheated Colombian sapphires, ranging from 0.41 to 3.65 ct. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

Colombian sapphires were first reported in G&G nearly 35 years ago and are still circulating in the market today (see P.C. Keller et al., “Sapphire from the Mercaderes–Río Mayo area, Cauca, Colombia,” Spring 1985 G&G, pp. 20–25). The deposit is located in southern Colombia in the Cauca Valley, in the small town of Mercaderes. This location is notorious for being politically unstable and dangerous. This deposit continues to produce in small quantities, with most material extracted from riverbeds using picks and shovels. Independent miners collect year-round and go to Bogotáto sell the material. Vanessa Van Horssen (Carlsbad, California) recently purchased several unheated Colombian sapphires and learned about the active mines from a third-generation miner in Bogotá. She loaned GIA’s Carlsbad laboratory five samples (figure 1) for scientific examination.
Colombian sapphires occur in a variety of colors, such as blue, pink, and violet, and there have been past reports of color-change sapphire from this deposit. The five samples consisted of a 0.41 ct pink faceted pear, a 0.92 ct color-change (blue to violet) faceted oval, a 1.66 ct pink rough, a 2.26 ct blue faceted octagon, and a 3.65 ct blue rough. All five had gemological characteristics consistent with corundum. They exhibited a refractive index of 1.762 to 1.770 and a specific gravity of around 4. Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was performed to identify their chemical compositions. A high concentration of Fe ranging from 1515 to 1749 ppma suggested a magmatic source. Infrared spectroscopy showed no indications of treatment.

Figure 2. Zircon crystals scattered throughout angular milky clouds were more prominent in these sapphires compared to other high-Fe sapphires. Photomicrograph by Jessa Rizzo; field of view 4.7 mm.
The internal features (figure 2) were color zoning, particle clouds, angular milky clouds, and twinning. The sapphires contained transparent colorless and red crystals that showed no sign of heat treatment. Using Raman spectroscopy, the inclusions were identified as unaltered zircon and rutile crystals, consistent with the inclusions reported in Keller et al. (1985). Sapphires transported to the surface by hot magma tend to show characteristics similar to those of artificially heated sapphires, such as tension fractures around crystals and altered fingerprints. The suite of inclusions in these high-temperature-formed sapphires confirmed that no heat treatment was performed.
These stones provided useful data for ongoing origin determination studies. Although Colombian sapphires are rare, they are on the market, and the deposit continues to show great promise. @chapter:8


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Lead Glass–Filled Laboratory-Grown Ruby Abstract: Figure 1. This 3.53 ct laboratory-grown ruby was treated with lead-glass filling. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

The GIA lab in Carlsbad received for identification a lead glass–filled laboratory-grown ruby (figure 1). We commonly see glass-filled natural rubies, but to our knowledge only one other laboratory-grown example has ever been submitted.
This transparent to semi-transparent oval mixed cut weighed 3.53 ct and showed gemological properties of ruby: a refractive index of 1.761–1.769, a birefringence of 0.008, a specific gravity of 4.01, a uniaxial optic figure, and a characteristic ruby spectrum using a handheld spectroscope.
Examination of the stone under magnification showed a network of interconnected fractures. A pronounced blue and orange flash effect was observed throughout, proving the fractures were filled with lead glass. Also present in the fractures were dendritic patterns and coarse flattened gas bubbles (figure 2).

Figure 2. Magnification of the internal structure of the synthetic ruby; both high-relief trapped gas bubbles and blue and orange flash effects were observed in the stone. Photomicrograph by Diego Sanchez; field of view 7.19 mm.
No inclusions were observed to indicate the natural or synthetic origin of the corundum. However, this stone exhibited strong red fluorescence to long-wave ultraviolet and medium chalky (bluish white) red short-wave ultraviolet fluorescence. Chalky SWUV is typical of heated ruby and sapphire. But when viewed in synthetic pink sapphire and synthetic ruby, it generally makes it more difficult to observe diagnostic curved striae in the stone. In our sample it was much harder, since that effect was combined with interference from filled fractures.
In these cases, a stronger SWUV light source may prove helpful. The curved growth lines were seen as chalky luminescent bands in the DiamondView, proof of its laboratory-grown origin (figure 3).

Figure 3. Curved growth striations were observed in the stone using the DiamondView, conclusively proving the synthetic origin of this ruby. Image by Forozan Zandi.
Lead-glass filling of corundum is based on the same principle applied to emerald and diamond: the use of a filling material with an RI very close to that of the host material, to minimize the appearance of fractures. The treatment is very effective, and the clarity of very low-quality material can be improved, rendering it usable in jewelry. This makes it possible to market a great deal of previously unsalable material. Fortunately, this treatment is easily detected with magnification. The identifying characteristics are very low-relief fractures, flattened and rounded gas bubbles and voids (unfilled areas) in fractures, and a blue and orange flash effect (S.F. McClure et al., “Identification and durability of lead glass–filled rubies,” Spring 2006 G&G, pp. 22–33). This stone displayed an orange and blue flash effect (again, see figure 2) as well as gas bubbles trapped in fractures that were conclusive evidence for lead-glass filling of the fractures in this synthetic ruby. While it is unclear why anyone would go to the trouble to treat a synthetic ruby with lead-glass filling, gemologists should be aware that such material does exist in the trade. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Inclusions in Burmese Amber Abstract: Figure 1. This Tropidogyne flower is still attached to its stem and has a small flea-like bug near its right side, as seen with darkfield and fiber-optic illumination. Photomicrograph by Victoria Raynaud; field of view 5.97 mm.

	Burmese amber has been well documented in the paleontological literature, but is overshadowed in the gemological community by material from the Dominican Republic and the Baltic area. Despite the armed conflict in the Hukawng Valley, possibly the world’s largest tiger reserve, accessibility has improved and amber production has steadily increased since 2014. As a result, more Burmese amber is reaching the marketplace. We have observed rising interest in the Bangkok, China, and Hong Kong markets, with specimens containing large inclusions of flora and fauna in great demand and commanding high prices. The samples presented here (figures 1–3) were acquired during a January 2016 field expedition to the Hukawng Valley and are now part of the GIA research collection.

Figure 2. This spider is surrounded by small air bubbles and plant debris. It is very easy to resolve fine details, such as individual hairs and different sets of eyes. The sample is illuminated with a combination of diffuse brightfield and fiber-optic light. Photomicrograph by Victoria Raynaud; field of view 7.20 mm.

	Figure 3. Left: The delicate features of this fly, particularly its wings, are surrounded by gas bubbles and trichomes (hair-like structures that grow on plants). Right: This image demonstrates the excellent preservation qualities of amber, as evidenced by the detailed structure of the fly’s eye. Photomicrographs by Victoria Raynaud; field of view 4.80 mm (left) and 0.86 mm (right). Brightfield and fiber-optic illumination.

	These amber specimens are interesting because they potentially preserve evidence from biological environments of 80 to 100 million years ago (G. Shi et al., “Age constraint on Burmese amber based on U–Pb dating of zircons,” Cretaceous Research, Vol. 37, 2012, pp. 155–163, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667112000535). They are significantly older than amber from the Dominican Republic, estimated at 25–40 million years old) and the Baltic region, which are about 25–28 million years old (D. Penney, Biodiversity of Fossils in Amber from the Major World Deposits, Siri Scientific Press, Manchester, United Kingdom, 2010). @chapter:37


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Brazilian Alexandrite Update Abstract: Figure 1. This pair of Brazilian alexandrites (2.41 ct and 6.7 mm each) is photographed in daylight (left) and incandescent light (right). Photos by Kevin Schumacher, courtesy of Gil International.
Gil International’s booth at the AGTA show featured something out of the ordinary: a display case with lighting selected to reveal the color change of their Brazilian alexandrites, from blue-green in daylight to reddish purple in incandescent light. Goel “Gil” Gul built the case himself, and he said it has drawn traffic to the booth over the years. Based in New York, Gil International began exhibiting in Tucson 30 years ago; 2019 was their 19th year at the AGTA show.
Gil International specializes in natural Brazilian alexandrite (see above), which exhibits a strong color change. Alexandrite was first found in Russia’s Ural Mountains in the 1830s. It wasn’t until the discovery of Brazilian sources in the late 1980s, most notably Lavra de Hematita (also called Nova Era or Itabira), that greater quantities became available, though alexandrite is still considered rare.
Alexandrite has been in greater demand over the last 15 years, Gul said, but business has been slow the last two. In the past decade, his sales to a company that caters to cruise ships have been particularly strong. He attributes this to people “always looking for something unusual” and having more time to look at jewelry while on vacation. When Gul entered the industry, aquamarine, tourmaline, and zircon were big. Sapphire has always been very strong, he said, but ruby has come down in the last five years. The demand for stones rises and falls over the decades based on jewelry house promotion, he said, citing Tiffany & Co.’s marketing campaign after the discovery of tanzanite in 1967. He added that more people are buying brown diamonds, previously considered undesirable, because of Le Vian’s branding and heavy advertising of “chocolate diamonds.”

	Brazilian alexandrite update

Gul said that every source has different color; for example, Sri Lankan alexandrite is typically an olive green in daylight, while Brazilian stones are more blue-green. He acknowledged that only laboratory testing can definitively determine country of origin, but he can often make an educated guess based on color. He noted that alexandrites from India are sometimes reported as Brazilian, but he can tell that they are from India because the color change is not as strong and the green tends to be lighter.
Born in Afghanistan and educated in Israel and New York, Gul worked in accounting for a decade before being introduced to the gem and jewelry industry by his four older brothers. They were already selling ruby and sapphire, so they sent him to Brazil. On his first trip to Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, in 1990, Gul bought emerald. He saw some alexandrite but didn’t buy any until his next visit. He later found out that the stones were from Lavra de Hematita.
“You buy one stone, but you’ve got three stones,” he said, referring to alexandrite’s color change. “I felt I could improve my life with this stone.”
Gul bought alexandrite from a broker in Teófilo Otoni for several years and contacted the miner directly about 15 years ago. The miner didn’t sell the rough; he had the stones cut in Hong Kong and Thailand, so he controlled the production entirely. Gul began to buy directly from him in Hong Kong.
Gul found that unlike many in the industry, the miner did not like to bargain. So he accepted the miner’s prices, and as Gul bought more stones, the miner gave him better deals. As Gil International became stronger in alexandrite, Gul and the miner became good friends. Gul has bought almost all of his alexandrite from him.
“The way to make a better business is to find a relationship with the miner,” Gul said. “If you have a good relationship, he can trust you; you can trust him. Sometimes even big companies with big money try to bargain, so they don’t find a relationship with the miner and can’t buy from him.”
Gul spoke of turning down the miner’s repeated offers to buy goods on memo—including an offer of $12 million of goods in 2010, when the miner closed seven stores in Greece after the 2008 market crash. “I buy what I can,” he said. “And he feels that I’m different [than other dealers] and gives me a chance to do more business.” @chapter:3