Publication Year: - Title: Sorting Through the Complex Realities – and Opportunities – of Responsible Sourcing Abstract: GIA invited panelists representing a variety of sectors, geographic locations and company sizes for an April panel on responsible sourcing at the Carlsbad campus. From left, Stewart Grice, director of mill and refining at Hoover and Strong; David Bouffard, vice president of corporate affairs at Signet Jewelers Ltd.; Eric Braunwart, founder, president and CEO of Columbia Gem House; and Beth Gerstein, co-founder and co-CEO of Brilliant Earth. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA

                      “Sometimes the truth don’t rhyme.”

Brad Brooks-Rubin, GIA’s global director of development and beneficiation, invoked lyrics from hip-hop artist Chance the Rapper as he welcomed GIA students, staff and invited guests to a panel discussion on responsible sourcing at the Institute’s Carlsbad campus in April.

“In this context, the idea of the truth not rhyming − or not being easy or fitting into an easy mold − works on two levels,” Brooks-Rubin said. “First, quite simply, there are problems in the supply chain that need to be addressed, just as there are in the supply chain of about any product in the marketplace … These issues are real, and they often very much do not rhyme.

“Second, there are solutions to these problems, but sometimes the solutions don’t rhyme, either … they are not simple or easy, and they require difficult choices and painful conversations.”

Moderator Brad Brooks-Rubin, GIA’s global director of development and beneficiation, admitted to the laughing audience and panelists that “as a former regulator and a former person working on the Kimberley Process, it’s taking all I’ve got not to comment myself.”
Brooks-Rubin, a former special advisor on conflict diamonds for the U.S. State Department, moderated the panel, which was part of a series of presentations for on-campus students that gives them an opportunity to hear first-hand from members of the gem and jewelry industry. Topics often address business tips for success and issues that are important in the trade.

The Responsible Sourcing panel included David Bouffard, GIA GG, vice president of corporate affairs for Signet Jewelers Ltd.; Eric Braunwart, founder, president and CEO of Columbia Gem House; Beth Gerstein, co-founder and co-CEO of Brilliant Earth; and Stewart Grice, director of mill and refining at Hoover & Strong.

The panelists, who represent a range of the gem and jewelry industry’s supply chain sectors, geographical sourcing areas, and market and company sizes, fielded a variety of questions and discussed how regulations play out in the marketplace – and how, as Brooks-Rubin said – they navigate what can be “extraordinarily complex and downright overwhelming” issues.

The reasons and ways these companies came to focus on responsible sourcing varied as much as the ways they interact with the issues today.

Beth Gerstein, co-founder and co-CEO of Brilliant Earth, said her company’s mission is to practice social and environmental responsibility. “There’s a growing number of people who want their purchase to be more than the ring on their finger,” she said. “They want an authentic experience they can feel good about.”
Gerstein, who founded California-based Brilliant Earth 10 years ago, said the retailer’s mission is to practice social and environmental responsibility, and “give back a portion of our profits to communities that have been traditionally been harmed by the jewelry industry.” For Gerstein and her customers, who care deeply about an ethical supply chain, issues like fair wages for miners in West Africa are a big and ongoing concern.

“We spend a lot of time looking at issues surrounding diamonds, and a lot of them are surrounding human rights abuses,” such as land seizures, violence and rape, she said. “That’s one of the blatant, horrific, eye-opening issues we want to protect our industry against, and protect consumers from having to buy a diamond that’s associated [with such abuses].”

Bouffard said the multinational Signet, whose U.S. stores include Kay, Zales and Jared the Galleria of Jewelry, isn’t driven to practice responsible sourcing because of consumer demand (“they don’t ask”), but because of the company’s place in the supply chain.

“In the mall, you [the customer] don’t think about supply chain issues, you’re thinking ‘that store brand must have taken care of this already,’” he said. “We think we are the largest purchaser of polished diamonds in the world; we think we are the largest retailer of diamond jewelry in the world. So we believe it’s incumbent upon us to take a leadership role when it comes to responsible sourcing.”

“We believe that voluntary initiatives of like-minded companies and organizations coming together – and governments coming together – to address issues are the way forward,” said David Bouffard, vice president of corporate affairs for Signet Jewelers Ltd., whose U.S. brands include Kay, Zales and Jared the Gallery of Jewelry.
Braunwart’s 37-year-old Columbia Gem House is a wholesale, retail, and primarily gem-cutting operation, that mines in six locations – three in sub-Saharan Africa, two in the United States, and one “off and on” in Australia. He said that several years ago they “started very diligently defining what we wanted to see in our supply chain and what we believed in … and started trying to find partners who believed in what we did.”

Examining the supply chain meant Columbia needed to “look to the miners” − the vast majority are artisanal miners and farmers − and get directly involved in issues that mattered to them, like educational opportunities for their children. It also meant that the company would stop cutting certain stones, and start educating themselves on issues such as deadly silicosis in gem-cutting factories.

Grice, who directs mill and refining operations for Richmond, Virginia-based Hoover and Strong, said the century-old wholesale precious metal manufacturer made a dramatic move toward responsible sourcing several years ago.

“We saw a need in the market in about 2007 to have a transparent supply chain, and that’s when we took the decision to go for 100 percent recycled metals,” he said. The change put the company in a somewhat unusual position.

“We’re lucky that we have our own refinery, we have our own mill products division, and we have our own components and assembly division, so we can have total control of our supply chain.”

Brooks-Rubin also questioned panelists about the effectiveness of regulatory initiatives versus voluntary transparency, and what it takes to go past the “do no harm approach” into more proactive, engaged economic development.

Government-mandated regulations – at least in the way they often play out – did not generate much enthusiasm from the panel, though they admitted the jewelry industry is lagging in voluntary transparency.

		Times are changing, people now want to know where their goods are coming from .... We need to get our ducks in a row before consumers take their money and go buy electronics … instead of a piece of jewelry.

		Stewart Grice, director of mill and refining at Hoover & Strong

Gerstein suggested that regulations like the Kimberley Process may be less effective in practice than initially intended.

“The Kimberley Process is something that originally was founded to keep conflict diamonds from funding rebel groups,” she said. “At this point, I think it’s is a fairly watered-down version of what it’s supposed to be.”

Bouffard acknowledged that the Kimberley Process was “historic,” but its definition of conflict “is very myopic.”

“While we want to celebrate what the Kimberley Process has done,” he said, “we don’t think it’s gone far enough.” He said Signet, founding members of the Responsible Jewelry Council with GIA and other organizations 10 years ago, continues to advocate “for a change in the definition and other reform efforts” to the Kimberley Process, and is working on a “protocol for diamonds that is essentially voluntary.”

Braunwart said he hopes the industry would “get off the dime” and work toward voluntary transparency and responsibility. Columbia Gem House arranges community development groups of local people in each of the areas they work, but that even with locals helping to identify issues and suggest policies and procedures, things get complicated.

“You really have to look at it as the continual improvement model,” he said. “Don’t get discouraged.”

GIA audience members engaged in a lively question and answer session with panelists after the presentation concluded.
As the group discussed the cost and value of responsible sourcing on healthy business and for the consumer, a seeming consensus was reached: at the end of the day, it’s good for everyone.

Gerstein, Bouffard and Grice all said their businesses have grown in spite of economic downturns and an increased focus on responsible sourcing.

“The value for us as a company was huge,” Grice said. “It worked extremely well. We actually went up in sales.”

Braunwart said consumers respond favorably when they’re given a compelling narrative. When retailers with Columbia’s colored stones present customers with three exactly matched stones – two of them with no background story and one in which the salesperson can relay the gem’s entire journey – the stone with the story has always been the one that sells, even when it’s priced five to 15 percent higher.

He admitted his company’s move toward ethically sourced stones has “financially been extremely difficult in some of the years,” but stressed its importance.

“This really is a personal commitment you’re making,” he said. “I believe it will add value to the product in the long run and make our industry better.” @chapter:33


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Television Documentary Series: “Beautiful Gem Stories” Abstract: Figure 1. Dr. Ahmadjan Abduriyim hosts an episode of “Beautiful Gem Stories,” filmed on location at the Montepuez ruby mine in northern Mozambique. Photo by Tomoaki Miyake.

The unique allure of jewelry and the excitement of the global gem industry are captured in the Japanese documentary series “Beautiful Gem Stories.” The program is broadcast on BS-TBS channel, a subsidiary of Tokyo Broadcasting System, and hosted by longtime G&G  contributor and editorial board member Dr. Ahmadjan Abduriyim (Tokyo Gem Science, LLC and GSTV Gemological Laboratory). Hour-long episodes examine the growth of gemstones deep under the earth’s surface and the mining methods to recover them, as well as the characteristics, craftsmanship, and cultural significance that make them special.

Figure 2. In this episode, Dr. Abduriyim reports from the Bogawatalawa sapphire deposit in Sri Lanka. Photo by Tomoaki Miyake.
Since 2016, Dr. Abduriyim has filmed on location at important gem deposits in Madagascar, Mozambique (figure 1), Tanzania, Namibia, Sri Lanka (figure 2), Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Brazil, Colombia, and other countries. He has also gone to natural and cultured pearl localities in Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, and Japan, as well as global manufacturing centers, museums, and trade shows.
After monthly episodes from 2016 to 2018, four new episodes are broadcast per year now. With more than one million regular viewers, “Beautiful Gem Stories” has been warmly received.
“The financial crisis that hit the Japanese economy in 2008 took a heavy toll on consumer interest in jewelry,” said Dr. Abduriyim. “But I am very grateful to contribute to restoring the jewelry industry in Japan and throughout the world with an enlightening look at gemstones.” @chapter:22


Publication Year: 1998 Title: Fall 1993 G&G Book Reviews Abstract: “Gemstones of East Africa”
By Peter C. Keller, 144 pp., illus., publ. by Geoscience Press, Phoenix, AZ, 1992. US$50.00

“Health Risk Assessment of Irradiated Topaz (Nureg/Cr-5883bnlnureg-52330)”
By K. Nelson and J. W. Baum, 141 pp., available from Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1993.

“Opal Identification and Value”
By Paul B. Downing, 210 pp., illus., publ. by Majestic Press, Tallahassee, FL, 1992. US$38.95

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:37


Publication Year: - Title: Integrating G&G with GIA’s Gemology Education Abstract: One of the things I’ve always wanted to do is create synergy between GIA’s gemology courses and Gems & Gemology. Many of the student assignments incorporate research from the journal, and adding G&G articles as references would provide support and validation for the information in our coursework.

As we added video media to our eLearning courses, we featured interviews with many of GIA’s research scientists, some of whom were also G&G authors. Providing their articles to our students was a natural next step.

In the past, I had discussed this idea with Alice Keller when she was editor-in-chief of G&G. Although everyone was willing, we had no practical way to achieve it at the time. Now that every issue is available free of charge on the redesigned GIA website at www.gia.edu, we can realize this ambition.

Beginning with our Diamonds & Diamond Grading eLearning course, we’ll provide links at the end of every assignment to specially chosen G&G feature articles.

Besides illuminating some of the source material for our coursework, links to supporting articles will provide a truly meaningful pathway into the resources on our new website. Students with inquiring minds will find many avenues of interest.

For example, I believe a good number of students would choose to explore the important G&G articles on colored diamond, diamond treatment, or diamond synthesis. Others might also download articles focused on mining, production, and the diamond supply chain, or read about the many famous gems examined or graded by GIA’s laboratory.

This tie-in exposes the tremendous amount of important work that G&G authors—both internal and external to GIA—have done to enrich our collective knowledge on the many aspects of diamond, and makes it available to a wider, and younger, audience.

We’ll also provide a short student study guide that explains the structure of a typical feature article and explains how to navigate one. In time, we’ll add similar links to relevant G&G articles in our other gemology courses.

Let me take this opportunity to thank all our current G&G print subscribers and online users. I hope to welcome many more of you in the near future.

Duncan Pay  |  Editor-in-Chief @chapter:24


Publication Year: 2019 Title: A Special Type of Trapiche Quartz Abstract: Figure 1. This 22.18 g hexagonal quartz piece was unusual for its texture under transmitted light. Small crystals are seen on the side. Photo by Xiaodi Wang.

Recently, the National Gem and Gold-Silver Jewelry Testing Center at Zhengzhou examined a light yellow hexagonal piece of quartz (figure 1) weighing 22.18 g and measuring approximately 42.4 × 34.5 × 10.3 mm, which the buyer said was purchased from the Inner Mongolia autonomous region of northern China. Standard gemological testing gave a spot refractive index of 1.54 and a hydrostatic specific gravity of approximately 2.65. The sample was inert to both long-wave and short-wave UV.
This special sample was made up of three incomplete trapiche quartz. All growth reached prism faces in both of the tabular crystals, as well as those faces on the secondary growth crystals. The sample exhibited the tabular prismatic habit characteristic of the species, but with six-spoke trapiche structure that was clearly visible in both reflected and transmitted light.
The infrared reflectance spectra (figure 2) of the translucent star lines and other areas both indicated quartz, with characteristic peaks at 1197, 1100, 799, 693, 551, and 482 cm–1. Raman spectra of the star lines and other areas (e.g., figure 3) were obtained using 785 and 532 nm laser excitation, respectively. Peaks at about 466, 205, 353, and 396 cm–1 further confirmed quartz. This phenomenon may be caused by different growth rates and growth conditions. The origin of the special structure observed here is uncertain, but it is strong evidence of nature’s ability to produce rarities.

Figure 2. Major mineral composition at the star lines (a) and the area between the star lines (b) was quartz, with characteristic peaks at 1197, 1100, 799, 693, 551, and 482 cm–1. The spectra are offset for clarity.

Figure 3. The sample’s Raman spectrum further confirmed quartz, with characteristic peaks at 466, 205, 353, and 396 cm–1. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 1993 Title: A New Gem Beryl Locality: Luumäki, Finland Abstract: Strongly etched prismatic crystals of yellow, green, and pale blue gem beryl have been quarried from a pegmatite dike in Luumäki, Finland. To date, the pegmatite has yielded about 15 kg of gem beryl, minor amounts of facet-grade topaz, and many varieties of quartz. The gem beryls from Luumäki are similar in gemological properties and chemical composition to other pegmatitic beryls, such as those from Brazil and the Ukraine. Large primary fluid inclusions surrounded by micro-fracture halos may be diagnostic of the new locality. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 1996 Title: Growth Method and Growth-Related Properties of a New Type of Russian Hydrothermal Synthetic Emerald Abstract: A new type of Russian hydrothermal synthetic emerald is produced by seeded growth in steel autoclaves without noble-metal inserts; the seed slices have been cut parallel to a face of the second-order hexagonal dipyramid s (1121). This seed orientation avoids the easily recognizable growth pattern seen in earlier Russian production. However, characteristic growth planes of a different nature—that is, parallel to s and forming a 45° angle with the optic axis—are present in the new material. @chapter:9


Publication Year: - Title: Peridot Quality Factors Abstract: This magnificent 130.60-carat antique cushion-cut peridot displays the gem's finest attributes: a medium-toned, highly saturated yellowish green hue and high clarity.

                      Peridot is readily available for many types of jewelry. It can be very affordable and attractive, even in normal commercial qualities. Peridot can also come in large sizes and very intense colors to satisfy the most discriminating colored gemstone connoisseur.

Color
Peridot’s color ranges from pure green to yellowish green to greenish yellow. The finest hue is green without any hint of yellow or brown. The gem’s colors tend to be at their finest in stones weighing 10 carats and above. Lower-quality peridot is brownish.

Pure green stones are rare, and most peridots are more yellowish green. The higher-quality stones have an intense color. Most of the stones with the finest color come from Myanmar and Pakistan.

Clarity
Most of the better-quality, calibrated material and larger single pieces on the market have no eye-visible inclusions, with tiny black spots—actually minute mineral crystals—visible under magnification. Other inclusions common in peridot are reflective, disk-shaped inclusions called “lily pads.”

	These disk-like fracture inclusions in peridot are descriptively called lily pads.
Readily visible inclusions, especially the dark spots, lower the value of peridot. There’s a dramatic drop in value for light-colored material with prominent dark inclusions.

	If black mineral crystals in peridot are visible to the eye, they lower the stone’s value.
Cut
Peridot is cut in a wide variety of shapes and cutting styles. Production includes all the standard gem shapes such as round, oval, pear, cushion, triangle, and marquise shapes.

	Peridot is popular for some uncommon cuts like the checkerboard. - Courtesy Gem Center Northwest
Cutting styles are also well represented. Brilliant cuts with triangular and kite-shaped facets, step cuts with concentric rows of parallel facets, and mixed cuts usually consisting of brilliant-cut crowns and step-cut pavilions are all common. Designer cuts fashioned by hand and machine are popular, as well as cabochons, beads, and carvings.

	Peridot is commonly cut in standard shapes and sizes for jewelry. - Courtesy Rio Grande
Carat Weight
Standard peridot cuts for the jewelry industry include a wide range of shapes and sizes. The gem is inexpensive in smaller sizes, but prices rise for gems above 10×8 mm. The finest large peridots come from Myanmar— formerly Burma—and, more recently, from a source high in the Himalayas of Pakistan. More-standard sizes and qualities come mostly from the United States (Arizona) and China.

	The peridot crystals weigh 128.82 and 393.83 carats, while the cut stones weigh
	18.50 to 64.61 carats. All are from Pakistan. - Courtesy Shades of the Earth @chapter:18


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Book Review: Cartier Royal High Jewelry and Precious Objects Abstract: By François Chaille, 260 pp., hardcover, publ. by Flammarion S.A., Paris, 2014, US $125.00.

	With glossy paper, beautiful photographs, and sizeable heft, Cartier Royal High Jewelry and Precious Objects appears at first glance to be another lush and colorful coffee table book. But it is so much more! A photo gallery of 100 jeweled creations made for the 2014 season comprise this biennial catalog, along with a narrative history focusing on royal jewels and their connection with Cartier over the firm’s entire existence.

	Cartier’s 168-year history has been linked with royalty and aristocracy since the influential Princess Mathilde, niece of Napoleon Bonaparte, started purchasing items from the jewelry house in 1859. English royalty also enjoyed Cartier’s services. After the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, a flood of orders came into the Cartier headquarters in anticipation of the 1902 coronation of Edward VII. In 1904, Edward’s consort, Queen Alexandra, awarded Cartier the title of official supplier to the English court. Not content with supplying the most illustrious families in Western Europe, Cartier traveled to Russia in 1907 at the encouragement of Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna. Over the course of two months during the fall and winter season of that year, the company gained the attention of the tsar and tsarina and other members of the Russian court. Although business at first was tentative, two years later Cartier was appointed an official supplier to the Russian Imperial Court; until the Russian Revolution in 1917, they served as jewelry supplier to a significant portion of the Russian gentry.

	It was during the later years of the 19th century and first years of the 20th century, as it gained popularity with the European royal families, that Cartier’s “garland” style was developed. Royalty and the general public alike met this signature form with great appreciation. The use of platinum for jewelry settings during this time period was in part due to the firm’s innovative casting techniques, exploiting the hard metal’s ability to form with great airiness and finesse. This infinitely light and delicate style coincided with what has been called the Edwardian era, and is now referred to as the Beaux Arts period.

	In 1911 Jacques Cartier traveled to the Indian subcontinent to buy gemstones and connect with wealthy Indian maharajahs, resulting in some of the most lavish pieces Cartier has ever produced, including a choker-style necklace for the Maharaja of Patiala, featuring ruby cabochons, natural pearls, and diamonds set in platinum. Connoisseurship of colored gemstones began at this time and continues to be a hallmark of Cartier style. Connections to the wealthiest families in the world fed the house’s reputation and set the firm up to receive the newest form of royalty: movie stars. Elizabeth Taylor was a devoted fan, and had Cartier mount the famous La Peregrina pearl in a double-strand natural pearl choker intersected with diamond and ruby quatrefoils, with an additional diamond and ruby flame pendant connecter. Merle Oberon was another Cartier devotee. Almost as famous for her jewels as for her acting talents, perhaps her most noteworthy piece was a necklace of drop baroque emeralds accented by numerous small diamonds.

	Exceptional gems are noted in a chapter on Cartier jewelry inspired by these worldly treasures. So many famous gems have passed through the firm’s hands, including the Hope, Pasha diamond, and Williamson Pink diamonds. Colored gems are also given their due and include the Berenice emerald, Queen Marie of Spain’s 478.68 ct faceted blue sapphire, and the Nawanagar necklace, featuring 119 Burmese rubies and totaling 210 carats of crimson perfection.

	The book’s photography is superb and highlights all the features you would want to find in jeweled pieces of wearable art. Rare archival photographs add so much to the text, allowing the reader to visualize the personalities that were active Cartier clients. The one criticism that I have with this book is the print. It is frustrating for older eyes to focus on the very small and light gray type; I would hope in the future that this feature could be improved. This book is an excellent choice for anyone with an interest in Cartier, royal jewels, jewelry history, or jewelry design. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Composite Amber with an Unusual Structure Abstract: Figure 1. This pebble-shaped amber composite had a total weight of 9.12 g. Photo by Haibo Li.

With amber emerging as one of the most popular gems in the Chinese jewelry market, the quality of imitations also appears to be on the rise. Many of these simulants are composites consisting of two or more substances, such as amber, copal, artificial resin, and plastic, joined together as a finished piece. Some composites incorporate small amber fragments. Manufacturers may also embed insect or lizard inclusions (Winter 2005 GNI, pp. 361–362). One notable composite amber specimen, a polished pebble-shaped pendant (figure 1), was recently identified at the National Gemstone Training Center (NGTC) lab in Beijing.
This specimen displayed no clear plane separating the two materials; instead there appeared to be an intersecting mixture of amber and polymer resin. The natural amber core had been covered by an outer shell of polymer resin, and about one-third of the natural amber was still exposed. Some of the small exposed portions were large enough for examination and identification. The most interesting aspect of the specimen was its pair of insect inclusions, one occurring naturally and the other artificially (figure 2).

FIgure 2. The smaller insect, circled in green, appeared in the natural amber part of the
composite, while the larger one was artificially embedded in the surrounding resin. Photo by Haibo Li.
The specimen had a waxy luster. Reflected light displayed scratches on the surface, suggesting a low hardness. It was relatively easy to observe the boundary between the natural and artificial resin sections using reflected light. Unlike most intersections found in such pieces, there were no air bubbles or other features, only clear lines. We also saw some small circular areas using transmitted and reflected light. These proved to be natural amber sections, both on the surface and within the sample, that had been polished and exposed during fashioning. The entire structure of this specimen was an intersection of two substances, identified as natural amber and polymer resin.
Observed under the microscope with transmitted light, part of the sample showed reddish brown curved lines; these were flow lines from natural amber. The two parts of the composite were clearly visible. The top part consisted of natural amber with a naturally deposited insect inclusion. The insect was translucent and partially broken. The larger insect inclusion in the bottom part was in much better condition, with an opaque transparency and clearer outline. The air bubbles around the larger insect were more spherical and concentrated, which is not typically seen in natural amber.
Under UV light, the composite gave an uneven fluorescence to long- and short-wave UV. The amber part showed a blue-white fluorescence, while the artificial resin fluoresced yellowish green.
To confirm the identity of the two different materials, we analyzed their infrared spectra (figure 3). Spectrum A displays main peaks at 1734.90 and 1160.99 cm–1, typical of Baltic region amber. Spectrum B shows a series of peaks; after comparison with spectra of amber, copal and some other synthetic materials, we used spectrum B to identify this sample as polymer resin. With its combination of natural and imitation amber, accompanied by natural and artificial insect inclusions, the piece presented an interesting identification study.

Figure 3. Reflected infrared spectra of the two parts of the specimen, with Kramers-Kronig (K-K) transformation method applied. Spectrum A represents natural amber, with typical peaks circled in green; spectrum B reveals many peaks, indicating the presence of polymer resin. @chapter:37


Publication Year: 2023 Title: YNY Jewels: Designer Surbhi Pandya Abstract: Figure 1. Surbhi’s “Orient” earrings with tanzanite carvings surrounded by blue sapphires, emeralds, white diamonds, and tsavorite garnets with an upper flower-shaped dangle composed of faceted tanzanites, emeralds, and pink sapphires, all set in 18K white gold. The total diamond weight for the pair is 1.60 carats, and the total colored stone weight is 62.23 carats, 48.32 carats of which are from the two tanzanite carvings. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of YNY Jewels Inc. and Karats Inc.
A dazzling pair of carved tanzanite earrings (figure 1) caught our attention at the GJX show. Designer Surbhi Pandya of YNY Jewels (New York), who goes by the single name Surbhi, described the significance of the carving featured on each of the large unheated tanzanite crystals. Depicted in violet and green is the lotus blossom, a flower with ancient cultural significance in India, rising with its deep roots from the mud without stains, symbolizing purity and strength. As the blossoms close up at night and reopen the next day, they also symbolize rebirth. Each carving is immediately surrounded by a ring of blue Kashmir sapphires and emeralds, followed by colorless diamonds and bright green tsavorite garnets. Each upper dangle contains faceted slices of tanzanite and emerald with a central hot pink sapphire. She also shared a pendant with a paisley-shaped unheated tanzanite similarly containing a lotus carving (figure 2). She explained that the paisley shape represents continuity and life.

Figure 2. An 18K white gold pendant containing a paisley-shaped unheated tanzanite with a lotus blossom carving, surrounded by pavé-set black diamonds and pink and purple princess-cut Sri Lankan sapphires. The total weight of the diamonds is 1.00 carats, and the colored stones total 23.40 carats. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of YNY Jewels Inc.

Figure 3. Designer Surbhi. Photo by Jennifer Stone-Sundberg.
Surbhi (figure 3) has been making jewelry for 20 years and was trained by her father, Yogendra Sethi, a renowned artist in India. She described designing jewelry as a journey filled with energy. She does not make jewelry to please herself, but out of a drive to create things that speak to others. Surbhi shared stories of customers’ deeply personal connections with her jewelry, a profoundly rewarding experience for her as an artist. @chapter:21


Publication Year: 1989 Title: Winter 1989 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Plastic Imitation Amber
Diamond with an Almandine-Pyrope Garnet Inclusion
Bicolored Diamond
Diamond with a Color-Change Garnet Inclusion
Radium Treated Diamond
Treated Diamond Crystal
Impregnated Jadeite Jade
Assembled Pearl
Treated Black Cultured Pearl
Damaged "Burma" Ruby
Large Purple Scapolite
Blue Tourmaline from Brazil
Imitation Cubic Zirconia

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 1989 Title: The Sinkankas Library Abstract: The world-renowned Sinkankas collection of books and other publications is now available to the public as part of the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center at GIA Santa Monica. Acquired by noted author and lapidary John Sinkankas and his wife Marjorie over the course of 40 years, the approximately 14,000 items include virtually all of the major works related to the study of gems and jewelry. This review of the important works in the Sinkankas library also serves to highlight the historical development of gemology – in art, in culture, and as a science. @chapter:25


Publication Year: 2020 Title: G&G Launches Facebook Group Abstract: The G&G Facebook group is a new community for all gem and jewelry enthusiasts.
On February 5, 2020, Gems & Gemology  launched a Facebook group dedicated to gemology and research published in the journal. The group has attracted jewelry professionals, researchers, students, and those with a general interest in gemology who want to share and expand their knowledge. With several dozen posts (see above), the G&G  Facebook group has become a dedicated forum for the discussion of inclusions, treatments, field gemology and gemstone mining, and identification of laboratory-grown or cultured gemstones, including identification challenge quizzes. Some of the most popular posts to date have featured stunning photomicrographs of gersdorffite inclusions in quartz, diamonds with octahedral stellate cloud inclusions, mysterious sapphires from the Andes Mountains in South America, and the use of Google Earth for research in field gemology. The enthusiastic base of more than 7,000 members hails from all parts of the globe.
To join, visit www.facebook.com/groups/giagemsgemology. @chapter:20


Publication Year: 2013 Title: An Opal-Calcite Composite Abstract: Figure 1. This 8.54 ct cabochon was a composite of brown opal and white calcite. Photo by G. Choudhary.

              Composites assembled from opaque to translucent gem materials such as turquoise, chalcedony, and chrysocolla have become quite popular in recent years, as evidenced by the number of samples received for identification at the Gem Testing Laboratory in Jaipur, India. We recently examined a white-brown, translucent to opaque oval cabochon (figure 1) that turned out to be a composite featuring an unusual combination of gem materials.

The specimen weighed 8.54 ct and measured 18.03 × 13.12 × 4.63 mm. At first glance, it appeared to be a rock consisting of some brown and white mineral, but the presence of golden veins ruled out such a possibility, suggesting instead a manmade product. Closer inspection of the cabochon from all sides revealed four distinct areas—a colorless polymer, golden veins and patches, a brown mineral, and a white mineral—all showing a different surface luster (figure 2, left). At the base of the cabochon, individual grains of a white mineral were embedded in the colorless polymer, as well as golden areas comprised of fine flakes, composed of zinc (figure 2, right). These features were consistent with those observed in a composite material (e.g., G. Choudhary, “A new type of composite turquoise,” Summer 2010 G&G, pp. 106–113).

	Figure 2. Under reflected light, the cabochon’s luster varied across four distinct portions (left). Note the polymer vein at the center of the image and the parallel planes and cloudy inclusions at the top of the white portion. Some of the golden areas were comprised of fine flakes embedded in polymer (right). Photomicrographs by G. Choudhary; magnified 24× (left) and 48× (right).
Although the cabochon was recognized as a composite, its components had yet to be identified. Spot RIs of 1.56 and 1.45 were obtained from the white and brown portions, respectively. The white portion also displayed a large birefringence blink, typically associated with carbonate minerals such as calcite, while no blink was observed on the brown portion. Under long- and short-wave UV radiation, the cabochon remained largely inert, except for a weak whitish glow observed on the white portions. Furthermore, magnification of the white portion revealed cleavage planes, liquid films, white cloudy inclusions, and doubling, while the brown portion was milky with fine flaky inclusions.

Spot RIs and magnification identified the white portion as calcite and the brown portion as opal, but these tests were not sufficient to prove their identity. Raman spectroscopy of the white portion in the 200–2000 cm–1 range (using 532 nm laser) displayed many sharp peaks at 281, 482, 712, 1086 (the strongest), 1435, and 1749 cm–1; these  peaks are associated with calcite. Raman spectra of the brown portion displayed broad absorptions at around 400–500, 800, and 1000 cm–1; these did not display sharp absorption features other than a peak at 487 cm–1. These absorptions are associated with amorphous materials such as opal (opal-A), and the 487 cm–1 peak is associated with Si-O vibrations (e.g., C.J. Brinker et al., “NMR confirmation of strained ‘defects’ in amorphous silica,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, Vol. 99, 1988, pp. 418–428).

Identification of this cabochon as a composite was straightforward, but the components were more difficult to detect. Although Raman spectroscopy identified the materials present, the use of these two substances for making a composite remains unclear. @chapter:13


Publication Year: - Title: Bullish Predictions for 2019 Holiday Sales Despite Concerns, Sotheby’s Hong Kong Auction Sales Abstract: GIA alumna Anna Hu’s necklace design features a 100.02 carat cushion-shaped Fancy Intense yellow diamond showcased in the shape of a Chinese musical instrument – Dunhuang pipa – and embellished with variously shaped and brilliant-cut diamonds mounted in 18K white and yellow gold. The pipa can be detached and worn as a pendant/brooch. It sold for $5,780,056. Photo by Michael Oldford. Courtesy of Sotheby’s

Holiday retail sales in the U.S. will increase by 3.8% to 4.2% over last year, the National Retail Federation (NRF) predicted. Online retail sales will increase about 11% to 14%, the NRF estimates.
The organization acknowledged that American consumers are concerned about political and economic uncertainties and worried that tariffs will bring higher prices – another survey found that new tariffs will cost households $862 this year on average – but noted that they are generally in good financial shape, which should cancel out most concerns.
Specific to jewelry, the Edge Retail Academy, a consulting firm for independent retail jewelers, noted that sales of colored gemstones have been strong all year and that, while unit sales of colored stone jewelry have increased only 2%, dollar volume is up 16% as consumers seek higher-priced pieces. The Edge also noted that diamond jewelry sales were running about 5% ahead of last year.
Another survey from RetailDive, a news service for retail executives, said that tariffs may add as much as 15% to popular gift products, such as smartwatches, TVs, audio gear and, coming this quarter, video game consoles and even smartphones. Like the NRF, the RetailDive survey found that, while they are increasingly anxious about the gyrating stock market, political rhetoric and trade wars, consumers still have the means to keep spending.
The Conference Board Consumer Confidence Survey found similar concerns in reporting that confidence dropped sharply in September.
Not everyone is benefitting from consumers’ spending mood. RetailDive reported that a record 7,300 retail stores have closed in the U.S. this year. Much of this number comes from the decline of large, regional shopping malls that have been losing business for years, which is accelerated by the fact that their traditional “anchor” stores have seen their own sales deteriorate.
After the holiday season, there remains a big question mark. At least one major bank’s forecast sees U.S. retail slowing down.
UBS, a major Swiss investment bank, is predicting a 2% decline in U.S. retail jewelry sales next year, in the wake of a slowing economy and bearish stock market. It believes the stock market will decline an average of 13% next year, putting a brake on consumer sentiment and dampening demand for luxury products, including jewelry.
The bank predicted, however, that Chinese demand would begin to recover because consumers there will have adjusted to the effects of the trade war. A majority of them remain optimistic for the coming year, but report says that consumers will likely opt for pieces with lower price points.
In Hong Kong, however, the ongoing protests caused August retail sales of jewelry and watches to plunge 47% from the same month last year, the government statistics agency reported. Tourism was down 39% and visitors from the mainland were down 41%.

Hu's Ellington earrings feature a conch pearl, suspended from a scroll surround designed as piano keys. They are set with rectangular sapphires and baguette diamonds in 18K white and pink gold. They sold for $278,819. Courtesy of Sotheby's
AUCTIONS
A jewel designed by GIA alumna Anna Hu, on commission from Sotheby’s, drew a winning bid of $5.8 million at the auction house’s Oct. 7 Hong Kong sale. The necklace features a GIA-graded 100 ct Fancy Intense yellow diamond set in the shape of a Dunhuang pipa, a traditional four-stringed Chinese musical instrument that is depicted in an ancient mural in Dunhuang. The piece sold for well above its pre-sale estimate and was the costliest of four items in her Silk Road collection, all of which sold at the auction.

Hu’s stylized cello brooch is set with jadeite cabochons of emerald green color and accented with brilliant-cut diamonds and diamonds of yellow tint, highlighted by a circular-cut pink sapphire, mounted in 18K white and yellow gold. It sold for $278,819. Courtesy of Sotheby's
Hu’s conch pearl, sapphire and diamond pendant earrings, titled “Ellington,” sold for $278,819; her jadeite, diamond and pink sapphire “Cello” brooch brought the same price; a conch pearl, diamond and blue enamel “Blue Magpie” brooch drew a top bid of $254,920; and a ruby and diamond “Appassionata” ring sold for $103,561. Part of the proceeds from the sale of Hu’s designs went to the Silkroad, a charity established by cellist Yo-Yo Ma.
Hu earned her GIA Graduate Gemologist® diploma and a GIA Jewelry Design Certificate in 1997.

Portrait of jewelry designer Anna Hu taken in Paris. Courtesy of Sotheby’s
In addition to sale of the Hu pieces, a buyer paid nearly $20 million for a 10.64 Fancy Vivid purplish-pink diamond. At $1.9 million per-carat, the price was below prices paid for pink diamonds auctioned several years earlier, but still strong.
The auction market remains selective with several major pieces, including an 89.88 ct D fl emerald cut diamond and a 11.88 ct Burmese ruby, failing to attract bids.
DIAMONDS
As expected, De Beers kept its September cycle sales low -- $295 million – which is slightly higher than August, but 39% below the $482 million it allocated the corresponding month last year.
De Beers is permitting clients to refuse up to 50% of their allocations and continues to offer to buy back 30% of the 2 to 10 ct rough diamonds it has sold this year. Such buy-backs are unprecedented for De Beers, but with industry banks no longer funding rough purchases that they deem unprofitable, the company has little choice. Prices of polished diamonds have to rise for the banks to resume lending and the only way that can happen is to reduce supplies in dealers’ hands.
The Financial Times reported that De Beers’ yearly sales are running 27% below last year’s levels. De Beers said its priority is to help the industry recover from this period of soft prices and oversupply that continue to sap profitability and undermine polished prices, which also continue to ebb.
Diwali, the holiday during which the Indian gem and jewelry industry takes a traditional two-week break, begins Oct. 27. Sometimes manufacturers extend the break during periods of slack demand, so the industry will be watching closely to see how many of them delay their reopening and for how long. @chapter:27


Publication Year: 1993 Title: Summer 1993 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Treated Amber
Extensive, Subtle Fracture Filling in a Diamond
Iridescent "Dislocation" in a Diamond
Mounted Diamonds Mistaken for Simulants
Treated Green Diamond
An Ancient Miniature Emerald Carving
Euclase Colored by Chromium
Odontolite
Natural-Color Black Cultured Pearl with an Unusual Surface
Pearl Care
Pearl Half

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:32


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Quarterly Crystal: Pyrite in Quartz Abstract: Figure 1. This example of Colombian pyrite-containing rock crystal weighs 466.27 ct and measures 61.90 mm in length. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

Pyrite and quartz are two relatively common minerals. Transparent colorless quartz, known as rock crystal, is host to a wide variety of mineral and fluid inclusions, more so than any other gem mineral. While pyrite and rock crystal are both common, finding a good example of crystalline pyrite inside of rock crystal quartz is a gem mineral collector’s prize.

Figure 2. These modified octahedrons of pyrite were deposited along one prism face of their quartz host. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 7.62 mm.
Known for its fine emeralds, the Chivor mine in Colombia is also a mineralogical source of both pyrite and colorless quartz. On occasion, crystals of Colombian quartz are known to host pyrite. As shown in figure 1, we recently had the opportunity to examine one such specimen, which hosted numerous bright metallic brassy yellow modified octahedrons of pyrite (figure 2). The inclusions were not randomly scattered throughout the 466.27 ct quartz, but instead were situated neatly just under the surface of one of the prism faces. Another interesting feature was that all of the pyrite inclusions were present in a range of sizes with well-defined crystal faces, suggesting that the pyrite crystals precipitated syngenetically (at the same time) from a directional fluid rich in pyrite forming iron sulfide. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Beryl Crystal in Fluorite Abstract: A colorless prismatic beryl crystal within a fluorite specimen from the White Mountains in Inyo County, California. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 8.60 mm.

Recently, the authors examined a purple fluorite specimen that contained an elongate hexagonal rod-shaped crystal (see above). The crystal host had been collected by Chris Lehmann (Lehmann Minerals, Benton, California) in the Birch Creek area of the White Mountains in Inyo County, California. This area was host to volcanic activity that resulted in granitic dikes cutting across dolomite and other sedimentary rock types. The most abundant minerals found in the area are quartz, calcic oligoclase, microcline, biotite, and muscovite. Smaller amounts of apatite, zircon, tourmaline, magnetite, epidote, purple fluorite, and beryl have also been reported (C.A. Nelson and A.G. Sylvester, “Wall rock decarbonation and forcible emplacement of Birch Creek Pluton, southern White Mountains, California,” Geological Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 82, No. 10, 1971, pp. 2891–2904). While the morphology of the prismatic inclusion hinted at its identity, the hexagonal crystal was conclusively identified as beryl by laser Raman spectrometry. Also present in the fluorite were numerous veils of fluid inclusions and prominent color zoning (again, see above). This exciting discovery was the authors’ first encounter with beryl as an inclusion in fluorite. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Book Review: Minerals of Georgia: Their Properties and Occurrences Abstract: By Robert B. Cook and Julian C. Gray, softcover, 326 pp. illus., publ. by the University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia, 2016, $32.95.

	This book is an updated version of Dr. Cook’s original volume, published in 1978. It has a revised format as minerals are listed alphabetically rather than by chemical class, with allowances given to mineral groups such as garnet and tourmaline.

	The description of the geology is not overly technical but still gives the big picture. The distinction is made between crystalline and sedimentary regions. The state has five distinct geologic provinces. The Piedmont and Blue Ridge provinces of northern Georgia are underlain almost exclusively by metamorphic and igneous rocks. The Coastal Plain, which covers the southern half of the state, mostly consists of unconsolidated sediments and some limestones. In the northwest corner of the state, the Cumberland Plateau contains relatively undeformed Paleozoic sediments while the Ridge and Valley regions consist of folded sedimentary rocks.

	In-depth sections focus on the state’s remarkable finds of rutile and amethyst. Georgia’s amethyst is considered the nation’s finest. The Charlies Creek material is quite distinctive, as it occurs in short single crystals or groups of only two or three distinctly color-zoned crystals. In either instance, amethyst is found in the rhombohedral zones of the pyramidal terminations. The prismatic sections are often colorless. Jacksons Crossroads in Wilkes County has produced the finest amethyst in the United States. Spectacular specimens have found their way into important private collections, while faceted material with deep purple color is entering the gem market. Benny Ray specimens are quite different from those found at Charlies Creek or Jacksons Crossroads, occurring in irregular narrow pockets in massive milky vein quartz.

	Graves Mountain is famous for its rutile specimens and fine lazulite. The rutile crystals are unsurpassed in terms of crystal perfection, twinning, size, and luster. Fifty–one mineral species are reported from this locale.

	The highlight of the book is the chapter with alphabetical descriptions of Georgia’s mineral species. Every mineral is fully documented: chemical formula, classification, crystallographic information, habit, physical properties, and occurrences listed alphabetically by county.

	The volume is successful in presenting the most accurate, up-to-date information available on the subject. It is the ultimate bible of Georgia’s mineralogy. The work is well written and illustrated, with more than 150 color photographs. It is suited for collectors, mineralogists, and treasure hunters. It contains handy appendix sections, complete with a County Index, a Locality Index with mineral occurrences, and a Mineral Index. I highly recommend it. @chapter:0


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Letters: More on Orange Luminescence in Corundum Abstract: We have read with great interest the Winter 2021 article entitled “Blue sapphires from Mogok, Myanmar: A gemological review,” by Wasura Soonthorntantikul et al. (pp. 292–317). The authors conducted a fairly complete bibliographical review and a qualitative characterization using gemological, spectroscopic, and chemical techniques, improving our knowledge of Mogok’s rare and renowned blue sapphires. In the process, the authors associate the 640 nm emission band of orange luminescence with “trapped hole chromophores,” quoting Hughes et al. (2017), that section of the book being based on Segura’s gemology dissertation at the University of Nantes (Segura, 2013). We wish to add further details regarding orange luminescence in corundum, from Mogok and elsewhere. In particular, we recently conducted a rather extensive study of this luminescence, making it possible to describe in further detail the defect(s) involved.
Dr. Soonthorntantikul and her associates state that “the remainder displayed zoned orange fluorescence (with very weak or no red fluorescence) in near-colorless to light blue color zones,” as seen in their figure 12. For Mogok, orange luminescence has also been described in the yellow zone of a blue sapphire (Ho et al., 2018, pp. 128–129). Actually, for all sapphires worldwide, orange luminescence is absent from blue zones and may be found only in near-colorless or yellow domains. This behavior can be explained for all corundum. Indeed, the blue color is related to the Fe-Ti charge transfer, and thus blue zones contain iron, also as Fe3+, as can be seen in their UV-visible absorption spectrum (see figure 26 of Soonthorntantikul et al.). In blue zones, the O2–-Fe3+ charge transfer absorbs the ultraviolet range, taking away the source of energy necessary to induce luminescence. Thus, it acts as a luminescence quencher for orange and red emissions.

A schematic of the F2 center, believed to be responsible for the orange luminescence in corundum (Vigier et al., 2021a,b). Two adjacent AlO6 octahedra in the corundum (α-Al2O3) structure are represented here. Two oxygen vacancies are present (noted with two “e–” each, for the two electrons). X2+ stands for a divalent cation, most likely Mg2+.
Regarding the nature of the defect involved with orange fluorescence, the locution “trapped hole chromophore” does not describe the atomic structure in which the hole is trapped. Our team proposes a more complete description deduced from the careful characterization of a collection of nearly 100 orange-luminescing corundum (Vigier et al., 2021a,b). Based on luminescence excitation spectra and other arguments, the orange luminescence has been related to a color center or defect including two oxygen vacancies. An oxygen vacancy is a missing oxygen atom in the lattice (see above), which can be created by chemical means during growth or induced by irradiation after growth, for example. Such a defect is called an F-center, or even VO°° (Kröger-Vink notation) in the physics community. An oxygen vacancy may contain zero, one, or two unpaired electrons. Thus, when there are two vacancies from two oxygens, each containing two electrons, four electrons are electrically compensated in the corundum structure by the presence of two divalent cations (see also Emmett et al., 2003). This double defect is an F2 center, compensated by two divalent ions such as Mg2+, Be2+, and rarely Mn2+ (again, see above). The concentration of such defects is not known but may be very small (of the order of parts per million or less), as luminescence is a very efficient way to detect defects. The chemical results presented in Soonthorntantikul et al. (2021) explicit that there are always traces of magnesium, which is consistent with this proposed structure.
Furthermore, concerning the relation between orange luminescence and infrared absorption, the authors state: “We noted that the studied sapphires exhibiting the 3161 cm–1 IR feature frequently show orange zoned fluorescence…” This is true for Mogok samples and—in our experience—for some metamorphic yellow sapphires (generally from Sri Lanka). However, for other corundum (natural, synthetic, or treated), we did not note any correlation of the 3161 cm–1 band with orange luminescence.
We hope these additional scientific details will be helpful to better understand the little-studied orange luminescence in sapphire and will nicely complement the work of Dr. Soonthorntantikul and her colleagues.
Maxence Vigier and Emmanuel Fritsch
University of Nantes
CNRS, Institut des Matériaux Jean Rouxel, IMN
Nantes, France
REPLY
We truly appreciate the letter from Maxence Vigier and Dr. Emmanuel Fritsch for the detailed information on defects for orange luminescence in corundum and also for sharing their experience with this feature. Their letter is very helpful and improved our knowledge on this luminescence. We noted the feature in a few samples but did not further explore this, since it would have taken us outside the scope of the article.
Wasura Soonthorntantikul, Ungkhana Atikarnsakul, and Wim Vertriest
GIA, Bangkok @chapter:12


Publication Year: 1985 Title: Sapphires from Australia Abstract: During the last 20 years, Australia has assumed a major role in the production of blue sapphire. Most of the gem material comes from alluvial deposits in the Anakie (central Queensland) and New England (northern New South Wales) fields. Mining techniques range from hand sieving to highly mechanized operations. The rough is usually sorted at the mine offices and sold directly to Thai buyers in the fields. The iron-rich Australian sapphires are predominantly blue (90%), with some yellow, some green, and a very few parti-colored stones. The rough stones are commonly heat treated in Thailand to remove the silk. While production has been down during the last two years because of depressed prices combined with higher costs, prospects for the future are good. @chapter:1


Publication Year: 2024 Title: Parasite Channels in a Saltwater Natural Pearl Abstract: A parasite channel with a surface opening and finer branch-like etch channels in a natural saltwater pearl. Photomicrograph by Emiko Yazawa; field of view 4.79 mm.
Shell-boring parasitic worms are commonly found inside the shells of various pearl-producing mollusk species. Consequently, mollusk shells may exhibit elongated channels indicating the presence of such organisms. Recently, the author observed interesting parasite channel features inside an 8.25 mm natural saltwater pearl (see above) set in a brooch with other pearls and near-colorless stones.
Microscopic examination revealed a Y-shaped channel with numerous finer branches that likely formed as the parasite searched for a way out of the pearl. The channel opening was observed at the surface of the nacre, while the tunnel was located slightly beneath the nacre. This interesting feature matched the pearl’s internal structure, with a similarly Y-shaped structure visible in the X-ray image. Although such channels are often found in shells, they are rarer in pearls, and this channel’s unique shape and morphology are noteworthy. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Water Immersion Reveals Dye in Fire Opal Abstract: Figure 1. These fire opals, a 14.49 ct cabochon (left) and a 1.09 ct cushion cut (right), are shown prior to immersion in plain water at room temperature. Note the natural-looking color. Photos by Larry Tai-An Lai.

              Opal is often treated to enhance its play-of-color or improve its durability. Dye or impregnation methods in particular are easily applied to opals and other porous amorphous materials. A recent article on treated hydrophane opal (N. Renfro and S. McClure, “Dyed purple hydrophane opal,” Winter 2011 G&G, pp. 260–270) noted that we could expect to see more of this material. Two years later, this appears to be the case.

The Lai Tai-An Gem Lab in Taipei received two fire opals from a local dealer for identification: a 14.49 ct oval cabochon (23.80 × 15.27 × 9.12 mm; figure 1, left) and a 1.09 ct cushion cut (7.67 × 7.64 × 4.67 mm; figure 1, right), both with pronounced play-of-color. Both gave RI readings of about 1.45. Observation with a gemological microscope and analysis with an FTIR/Raman spectrometer revealed the structure expected for natural opals. Orange color concentrations around some surface pits were also observed, indicating treatment.

	Figure 2. The clear water in this glass beaker (left) turned orange after soaking the fire opal cabochon overnight at room temperature (right). The obvious water dis¬col¬oration proves the sample was dyed. Photos by Larry Tai-An Lai.
But the most obvious clue was the effect caused by immersing the cabochon in water at room temperature overnight (figure 2). The water took on an orange tint, proving that the dye applied to these stones was water soluble, unlike the dye examined by Renfro and McClure (2011). The cabochon itself showed considerably less color after it was removed from the water (figure 24). This simple result reinforces the need for caution when buying fire opals, even ones with a natural-looking color. The change in color would come as a shock to any client unfortunate enough to purchase this dyed material without suitable disclosure.

	Figure 3. After removal from the water, this cabochon exhibited an obvious loss of color, indicating dye treatment. Photo by Larry Tai-An Lai. @chapter:39


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Gem Localities and Formation Abstract: Figure 1. The four mine locations in the vicinity of Mogok from which the samples in this study were sourced. Inset: A map of Myanmar showing Mandalay and Mogok.
Blue Sapphires from Mogok, Myanmar
Ungkhana Atikarnsakul, Wim Vertriest, and Wasura Soonthorntantikul
GIA, Bangkok
Myanmar (formerly Burma) has been one of the most important producers of high-quality blue sapphires for centuries. The gemstones are mined from various parts of the Mogok Stone Tract and show some variation according to their specific origin within the tract. It is widely known within the gemological community that separating metamorphic sapphires from Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and other geologically similar sources still poses some challenges. In this study, 69 untreated samples from four distinct sapphire mining areas in Mogok were examined (figure 1).
The aim of this research was to characterize the gemological properties, inclusions, spectroscopic features (FTIR, UV-Vis-NIR, and Raman), and chemistry of Burmese blue sapphires in order to assist with country-of-origin determination. The samples exhibited colors ranging from blue to violetish blue. Standard gemological properties recorded were consistent with most natural blue sapphires: refractive index (RI) of nω = 1.769–1.770 and nε = 1.760–1.762, birefringence of 0.008–0.009, and hydrostatic specific gravity (SG) of 3.81–4.04. The samples were inert under short-wave ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The majority were also inert under long-wave UV radiation, although some violetish blue samples displayed a weak red reaction. Under magnification, lamellar twinning, silk, particle bands, negative crystals, variously shaped thin films, brownish platelets of ilmenite, iridescent fluid inclusions, and various minerals (such as crystals of zircon, feldspar, mica, green chromite, and nepheline) were typically observed. The Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra revealed the presence of minerals such as boehmite, kaolinite, and diaspore, and/or a single very weak peak at 3309 cm–1. Ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectroscopy revealed the typical patterns seen in metamorphic blue sapphires, including three absorption peaks at 377, 388, and 450 nm related to Fe3+ ions and one absorption band centered at 580 nm in the ordinary (o-) ray and at 700 nm in the extraordinary (e-) ray of Fe2+-Ti4+ pairs.
One of the most interesting results to come from the study was the slight variation observed in the chemical signatures between sapphires from the different areas in Mogok and other metamorphic blue sapphire sources, revealed by laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analysis. In cases where few or no inclusions were present to assist with origin determination, plotting Fe versus V provided useful supporting data by which to separate Mogok sapphires from Sri Lankan and Madagascan sapphires. The moderate to high Fe content (up to 2300 ppma) of these sapphires from certain areas of Mogok sets them apart from other sources with lower Fe. This study proved that a combination of various analytical techniques and interpretation of the subsequent data, especially that obtained from LA-ICP-MS, FTIR, UV-Vis-NIR, and microscopic observation, should be taken into account when providing opinions on the country of origin for Burmese blue sapphires.
REFERENCES
Kan-Nyunt H.P., Karampelas S., Link K., Thu K., Kiefert L., Hardy P. (2013) Blue sapphires from the Baw Mar mine in Mogok. G&G, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 223–232, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.49.4.223

Kane R.E., Kammerling R.C. (1992) Status of ruby and sapphire mining in the Mogok Stone Tract. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 152–174, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.28.3.152

Soonthorntantikul W., Vertriest W., Raynaud-Flattot V., Sangsawong S., Atikarnsakul U., Khowpong C., Weeramonkhonlert V., Pardieu V. (2017) An in-depth gemological study of blue sapphires from the Baw Mar mine (Mogok, Myanmar). News from Research, https://www.gia.edu/doc/Gemological-Study-Blue-Sapphires-Baw-Mar-Mine-Mogok-Myanmar-GIA.pdf
Geographic Origin Determination of Ruby and Sapphire Using Sr-Pb Isotopes
Mandy Y. Krebs1,2, D. Graham Pearson2, Andrew J. Fagan3, and Chiranjeeb Sakar2
1GIA, New York
2University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
3Hummingbird Geological Services, Vancouver, Canada
The geographic origin of gemstones has emerged as one of the major factors affecting their sale on the international market, in large part due to the prestige attributed to certain origins (e.g., rubies from Myanmar or sapphires from Kashmir), but also because of political and ethical reasons (trade bans and fair trade). This provides a strong motivation to establish accurate scientific methods to identify the provenance of high-end colored gemstones such as ruby and sapphire.
Methods used to determine ruby provenance include the observation of inclusions and gemological features, trace element analysis, and oxygen isotope analysis. All these have proven useful in distinguishing corundum from different geological settings, but none of these methods are yet able to reliably distinguish between gems from different geographic regions that share a similar geo-logical setting (Groat and Giuliani, 2014). So far, no unique fingerprint exists and geographic origin remains a challenge, especially for high-clarity stones, emphasizing the need for a more powerful tool.
Using a novel offline laser ablation technique followed by column chromatography and thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), we were able to precisely measure radiogenic isotope compositions in ruby for the first time. We demonstrate, using rubies from three different localities and two different deposit types, that radiogenic isotopes offer a potentially powerful means of provenance discrimination even for geologically similar deposits (Krebs et al., 2016).
Here we present Sr and Pb isotope data for gem corundum from several localities of geologically similar deposits: rubies from amphibole-related (Mozambique, Greenland, Madagascar, and Tanzania) and marble-related deposits (Myanmar, Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Tanzania) and metamorphic blue sapphires (Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Madagascar). This data will be evaluated with regard to its usefulness in determining the geographic origin of both ruby and sapphire, and the method’s usefulness for the development of a unique fingerprint for the country-of-origin determination will be discussed.
REFERENCES
Groat L.A., Giuliani G. (2014) The geology and genesis of corundum deposits. In Geology of Gem Deposits, Second Edition. Short Course Series Volume 44. Mineralogical Association of Canada, Quebec, pp. 113–134.
Krebs M.Y., Pearson D.G., Fagan A.J. (2016) Constraining ruby provenance using Sr-Pb isotopes and trace elements and dating ruby crystallisation using Pb-Pb geochronology: a new approach. Geological Society of America Meet-ing Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 48, No. 7, https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2016AM/webprogram/Paper285603.html
Golden Sheen Sapphire and Syenite/Monzonite–Hosted Sapphire
From Kenya
Yusuke Katsurada, Makoto Miura, and Kazuko Saruwatari
GIA, Tokyo
Golden sheen sapphire (GSS) has recently become popular in the gemstone market. This material was recovered from undisclosed deposits in a remote locality in northeastern Kenya near the Somali border. Its unique shimmering effect is created by hematite and ilmenite inclusions, and chromophores of its blue and yellow bodycolors have been studied in some publications. We compared the trace-element concentrations of these GSS with published data for blue sapphires from other localities and found similar compositions in sapphires from Garba Tula, central Kenya (Miura et al., 2018). The Garba Tula sapphire mine is known as a primary deposit of syenite/monzonite dikes within migmatites and gneisses in the Mozambique belt. The purpose of this study is to clarify the relationship between these localities by comparing GSS with Garba Tula sapphires.
In addition to the 23 GSS samples documented by Miura et al. (2018), we obtained six blue and five yellow cabochons from the same supplier. These 11 samples were reportedly from the same deposit. Being less included, they were more suitable for comparing trace-element concentrations. We also obtained more than 60 rough samples from Garba Tula from another reliable source. These samples were mainly blue with some yellows, and some were heavily included with hematite/ilmenite needles. The included samples were similar to GSS in their characteristic mineral inclusions such as hematite, ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, mica, and carbonate minerals. From the Garba Tula samples, pieces with fewer inclusions were randomly selected for quantitative analysis with LA-ICP-MS.
The 11 less-included GSS samples and the included GSS had similar trends in their key elements. Less-included samples also showed a Mg-Ti ratio corresponding with coloring theory: a higher ratio in yellows and a lower ratio in blues. The blue sapphires from Garba Tula had a wider range of elements but overlapped with GSS in all key elements for both blue and yellow bodycolors. The similarity of inclusions and trace-element trends indicates that the geological background of GSS is strongly related to that of Garba Tula sapphires. Garba Tula is located in the up-slope area of a drainage basin of the Juba and Shabelle Rivers, which flow into the Indian Ocean. Bimodal seasonal precipitation and poor vegetation coverage can cause severe weathering and erosion, and the weathered corundum-hosting rocks are sometimes washed and transported downstream. Topographic features suggest that materials with high specific gravity such as corundum might be deposited close to the Somali border, where meandering channels are predominant in the sub-basin of the Lag Dera seasonal river, a branch of the Juba and Shabelle Rivers. This is a useful example of combining chemical analyses and inclusion studies with geomorphological interpretation to approach origin determination of gemstones whose placer deposit locality is unknown.
REFERENCE
Miura M., Katsurada Y., Saruwatari K. (2018) Gem News International: Update on trace-element chemical characteristics of golden sheen sapphire. G&G, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 238–241.
Magmatic Sapphire from Yogo Gulch, Montana, and from Bingham Canyon, Utah: Some Surprising Commonalities
Jeffrey D. Keith1, Aaron C. Palke2, and James E. Shigley2
1Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
2GIA, Carlsbad, California
Recent LA-ICP-MS analysis performed on sapphire crystals from Bingham Canyon, Utah (figure 1, left), found broad similarities with sapphire from Yogo Gulch, Montana (figure 1, right). Bingham Canyon sapphire occurs in at least nine different volcanic units that are approximately the same age as the Cu-Au-Mo mineralization (which occurred 39 Ma). These volcanic units are small-volume block-and-ash flow eruptions that comprise the flanks of a large inferred stratovolcano. Sapphire does not occur in older or younger magmatic events unrelated to Cu mineralization. Bingham Canyon and Yogo Gulch sapphires have broadly similar chemistry in terms of Mg, Fe, and Ga. V and Cr contents are moderately higher in Bingham Canyon sapphire. However, one important distinction is that the Ti enrichments (as well as Nb and Zr) found in the Bingham Canyon sapphires suggest the presence of significant Ti-rich micro-inclusions, which is not typically seen in Yogo sapphires. Broad similarities are not unexpected considering that they are both related to mafic/potassic Eocene magmatism in the western United States. Sapphire at Bingham Canyon occurred after primitive magma transected Proterozoic mica-rich lithospheric mantle and melted Al-rich rocks such as phlogopite-bearing veins. At Yogo, phlogopite is also a fundamental mineral in the lamprophyric dike that hosts the sapphire. Modeling suggests that primitive mafic magma ponded at the base of the crust and melted Al-rich Proterozoic metapelites.

Figure 1. Side-by-side example comparing the morphology of sapphires from Bingham Canyon (left) and Yogo Gulch (right). Photos by Aaron Palke.
At Bingham, sapphire crystals (50–500 μm) are two orders of magnitude smaller than those at Yogo, but they are uniformly distributed in most of the intrusive and volcanic units that comprise the stratovolcano. The question of origin remains for both Bingham Canyon and Yogo sapphires: Are they xenocrysts in the traditional sense, or are they intimately related to formation of each magma?
Tourmaline-Sapphire-Phlogopite Rocks of the Badakhshan Province of Northeastern Afghanistan: Insights into a Favorable Environment for Blue Sapphire Development
Darrell Henry1, Barbara L. Dutrow1, and Ziyin Sun2
1Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
2GIA, Carlsbad, California
The sapphire-bearing metamorphic rocks found in the Badakhshan Province of northeastern Afghanistan provide insights into the chemical and mineralogical environments that favor development of the blue sapphire variety of corundum. These rocks comprise a matrix of randomly oriented pale brown to pale green phlogopite with porphyroblasts of dark blue tourmaline and blue to colorless sapphire. Minor amounts of green spinel, feldspar, and apatite have also been noted as coexisting phases in these rocks. The tourmalines are prismatic. The phlogopite exhibits minor alteration to clinochlore. The sapphires display a range of color intensities from colorless to dark blue, and some show color variation in different sectors. As expected, no quartz occurs in the samples.
Backscattered electron imaging and electron microprobe analysis of a representative sample reveal the intriguing textures and mineral chemistry of the tourmaline and phlogopite. The tourmalines commonly display oscillatory zoning in the interior of the grains, with patchy zoning on the outer portion that mimics the texture of the matrix phlogopite. Analytical data collected along traverses across a tourmaline porphyroblast establish that they are Ca-rich dravite (XMg = 0.92–0.97) with an average core zone formula of (Na0.60Ca0.32□0.07) (Mg2.70 Fe0.23Al0.07) (Al6.00) (Si5.93Al0.07O18) (BO3)3 (OH3.00) (OH0.63O0.25F0.12) and an outer zone formula of (Na0.64 Ca0.24□0.12) (Mg2.73Al0.15Fe0.12) (Al6.00) (Si5.97Al0.03O18) (BO3)3 (OH3.00) (OH0.69O0.24F0.07). A narrow overgrowth of magnesio-foitite occurs at the outer margin of the grain. The tourmaline core zone has a more intense blue color and is notably more enriched in Fe. The phlogopites are extremely magnesian (XMg= 0.94–0.96) and exhibit a range of compositions (K1.66–1.80Na0.06–0.11□0.10–0.27) (Mg4.95–5.24Al0.39–0.73Fe0.23–0.37) (Si5.47–5.91Al2.09–2.53O20) (OH3.70–3.92F0.07–0.27). Tourmaline and phlogopite have unusually low Ti contents of near or below electron microprobe detection limits of ~150 ppmw. The blue coloration of the tourmaline is presumed to be related to interactions of Fe2+ and Fe3+ in the absence of appreciable Ti, similar to that in blue-colored elbaites. LA-ICP-MS data on the tourmaline confirm the unusually low Ti (262 ppmw) and V (27 ppmw) contents of the tourmaline, but other trace elements are relatively enriched, including Sr (240 ppmw), Ga (21 ppmw), Ce (10 ppmw), and La (5 ppmw). The blue coloration in sapphire is considered the result of interactions of Fe2+-Fe3+ and Fe2+-Ti4+ intervalence charge transfer.
The unusually K-, Mg-, Al-rich and Si-, Ti-poor bulk composition of the sapphire-bearing rock is consistent with a metasomatic modification of a precursor rock composition. It is likely that boron-bearing fluids fluxed the rock system. The oscillatory zoning in tourmaline suggests the former presence of dynamic fluids during initial tourmaline growth. Patchy zoning on the outer portions suggests that the tourmalines overgrew and replaced matrix micas. A metamorphic overprint on rocks with these unusual bulk compositions and mineral assemblages is commensurate with the development of sapphire.
Trends in World Colored Gemstone Production, 2006–2016
Thomas Yager
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) publishes world production figures for more than 80 mineral commodities annually. Colored stone production, unlike that of diamond, is inherently difficult to estimate because of the fragmentary and commonly informal nature of the industry, the lack of government oversight in many of the source countries, and the wide quality variations for each gem material. For these reasons, world production figures for colored stones were not published by the USGS until 2008, when production of emerald, ruby, sapphire, and tanzanite between 1995 and 2005 were estimated. Based on government data, company reports, and a review of the colored stone mining literature, the agency has estimated global production of amethyst, emerald, lapis lazuli, ruby, sapphire, spinel, tanzanite, and tourmaline for the years 2006–2016.
From 1995 to 2005, Colombia was the world’s leading emerald supplier, accounting for about half of global production by volume. Because of the long-term decline in Colombia’s production and the increased production at Zambia’s Kagem mine, Zambia subsequently became the world’s leading producer. In Brazil, mining continued in Bahia and Minas Gerais states and ended in Goiás. Russia’s Malyshev mine accounted for a substantial share of world production before shutting down in 2008. Ethiopia, which previously produced emeralds intermittently, emerged as a potentially large-scale source in late 2016.
Ruby production in Myanmar (formerly Burma) continued the long-term decline that began in the late 1990s. Madagascar’s ruby production also declined sharply between 2006 and 2016. In Kenya, production of mostly low-grade ruby gradually increased. Mozambique emerged as a new source of gem-quality ruby, and large-scale mining operations started at Montepuez.
Sapphire mining declined in Cameroon and China. Madagascar’s output fell with the depletion of near-surface deposits at Ilakaka and Sakaraha, as well as the 2008 ban on rough gem exports, before increasing because of new discoveries. Mozambique became a source of sapphire with the discovery of new deposits at Montepuez. Production also increased in Kenya.
Rio Grande do Sul State in Brazil appears to produce a substantial majority of the world’s amethyst (table 1). Uruguay’s production was estimated to have nearly tripled between 2006 and 2016. In Bolivia, Tanzania, and Zambia, production peaked in 2009.
In Kenya and Mozambique, tourmaline production peaked in 2013. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, and Rwanda also emerged as sources of tourmaline in recent years. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 1986 Title: Carbon Dioxide Fluid Inclusions as Proof of Natural-Colored Corundum Abstract: The question of how to identify natural-colored from heat-treated corundum has long puzzled the gemological community. One important clue is now provided by carbon dioxide fluid inclusions. Because such inclusions cannot survive heat treatment, their existence intact and unruptured in rubies and sapphires is conclusive proof that no heat treatment has occurred. @chapter:9


Publication Year: 1981 Title: Summer 1981 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Colored Diamond Anomalies
Olivine in Diamond
A New Source of Synthetic Emeralds?
"Manufactured" Emerald Specimens
Jade Substitute
Dyed and Wax-Treated Lapis Lazuli
Porous Opal
Cultured Blister Pearls
Damaged Natural Pearls
Ruby
Sugilite

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Imitation Rubellite Boulders Abstract: Figure 1. Left: The two sections of the larger “boulder” were glued together to show the original size and form of the 2 kg imitation tourmaline rough. The length of the boulder was approximately 16 cm. Right: The boulder was cut, revealing the metal bar insert. Photos by Emanuele Costa.
Recently, RAG Gemological Laboratory in Turin received two “boulders,” weighing approximately 2.0 and 0.7 kg, reported to be rubellite tourmaline rough from Madagascar. The larger one was cut into two parts and found to be a resin imitation made heavier using a metal bar insert (figure 1). The smaller one was half of a boulder, again containing a metal insert. The resin matrix was colored bright cherry red and clearly noticeable in direct sunlight or using a small handheld light. The external appearance of both specimens was that of alluvial boulders that had floated and eroded over a period of time in riverbeds. The surface of each was rough with pits and fissures, and the voids were filled with material with an ochre appearance, very similar to clay and soils (figure 2). Due to the specimens’ mass, the authors could not use an immersion balance, so an approximate density was determined by weighing the two parts of the larger boulder and weighing the corresponding amount of water displaced by immersion. The density was about 2.9, close to the specific gravity of natural rubellites (3.0–3.2).

Figure 2. Details of the imitation boulder’s surface, with pits, cavities, and fissures filled
with a clay-like material. Photo by Emanuele Costa.
During an examination of a thick slab (about 1 cm) taken from the larger boulder using a circular saw with a diamond blade, different phases of preparation of the boulder imitation were observed. These stages were suggested by the presence of differently colored resin blobs around the metal bar, enveloped by the outermost portion of plastic material with a more intense cherry red color (figure 3). The resulting product was probably scarred on the surface, tumbled, and finally immersed in a mix of mud and clay. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy investigation indicated the material was styrene-based resin, with a phthalate compound added for hardening. The resin was very similar to that used for fiberglass preparation, and it is easily found on the market. The metal insert, analyzed with EDS, was ordinary lead.

Figure 3. A transparency scan of an imitation boulder section; the black region is the
metal insert. Color changes in different areas of the boulder suggest a multiple-step
preparation involving various resin batches. The resins may have been worked in a
semifluid or solid but malleable form, because some lack of adhesion—and the creation
of voids—is noticeable. Photo by Emanuele Costa.
Many features easily distinguished these imitations from natural rubellites. The surface hardness was very low, and the resin used for the imitation partially melted at a relatively low temperature; therefore, a hot needle was enough to confirm the organic character of the mass. Acrid and pungent smoke was released when the hot needle made contact with the red-hot metal. Moreover, the plastic mass contained air bubbles (figure 4) that were easily seen from a smooth portion of the surface when using a loupe with intense illumination.

Figure 4. Air bubbles are randomly scattered in various portions of the resin matrix.
Photo by Emanuele Costa.
These tests are not easily managed in the field, however. The provenance of these boulders was most likely Madagascar, but no other reliable information was provided. Such boulders are rumored to have been mixed in with batches of natural rubellite boulders from alluvial deposits. Such imitations, especially if wet and muddy, could go unnoticed and increase the total weight of a rough stone batch. @chapter:5


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Guizhou Jade from Qinglong, China Abstract: Figure 1. Qinglong, the site of the Guizhou Jade deposit, is located in southwestern China.
A green-blue quartzite produced in the Qinglong antimony deposit, in southwestern Guizhou Province, is called Guizhou Jade in the trade. The source area is located in the middle of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau at 25°N latitude, rising 1,600 meters (5,250 ft) above sea level (figure 1). This material was discovered in the 1950s, when the antimony deposit was economically more important to the area. The accompanying blue quartzite was only commercially mined as a decorative material. Later, it was used as a gem material, and it has been popular in Chinese jade markets since about 2011 (figure 2).

Figure 2. This Guizhou Jade ornament, typical in the Chinese jade markets, stands about 11 cm high. Photo by Yushan Dai.
In June 2018, the authors went to the source to inspect the antimony deposit and conduct exploration and collection for Guizhou Jade in the mine. The host rocks are mainly pyroclastic (breccia) rocks, breccia clay rocks of the Dachang layer, and bio-limestones of the Maokou Formation. The Dachang layer is the main ore-bearing layer of the antimony deposit, which is a set of pyroclastic and chemical deposits, and subjected to alteration to siliceous and clay rocks (J.C. Cao, “The dyeing mechanism and cause of Guicui,” Acta Mineralogica Sinica, No. 3, 1983, pp. 183–192).

Figure 3. Left: In the mine, Guizhou Jade is mostly developed in the interlaminar fissures and closely related to stibnite. Right: Guizhou Jade, which develops between layers of stibnite, is massive and can be seen in some small holes in the surface. Photos by Yushan Dai.
The authors observed that in the mine, this material has a close relationship with stibnite. It is mostly developed in the interlayer fissures, fracture zones, and areas where brecciation has taken place. The material occurs as blocks and/or veins (figure 3). In the ores, there are calcite- and gypsum-filled cracks and voids. Green or white clay minerals are often found in the micro-cracks or small holes in the gem material.

Figure 4. The infrared spectrum of a Guizhou Jade sample.
Guizhou Jade is translucent to opaque, with a refractive index of about 1.54 (spot reading), a specific gravity of 2.62, and a Mohs hardness of 6.5–7. According to the infrared spectrum, the main constituent mineral is quartz, and its infrared spectrum matches the α-quartz standard infrared spectrum, including several obvious absorption peaks at 1172, 1124, 1085, 798, 781, 540, and 478 cm–1 (figure 4). Quartzite is generally cryptocrystalline. Its colors range from light green-blue to dark green-blue. The most sought-after color is ocean blue, as shown in figure 2.

Figure 5. The UV-Vis-NIR spectra of both Guizhou Jades show a 415 nm absorption band and a strong absorption band at 590–620 nm.
UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra (figure 5) of both samples show an obvious 415 nm absorption band and a strong absorption band at 590–620 nm, located in the blue-green range of visible light. The absorption intensity of the light-colored sample is significantly lower than that of the deep-colored sample. The 415 nm absorption band is caused by 4A2g→4T1g transition and 4A2g→4T2g transition of Cr3+. The strong absorption band at 590 to 620 nm is caused by charge transfer between Fe2+→Ti4+ and 4A2g→4T2g transition of Cr3+ (J. Liu, “The color formation of common green quartz jade,” Ming Ri Feng Shang, No. 3, 2017, pp. 368–371).
High-quality Guizhou Jade is rich in color and loved by collectors. It has been widely used in necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and other items. @chapter:37


Publication Year: - Title: Sapphire Series Part 4: Gem Synthetic Sapphire and Diffusion-Treated Synthetics Abstract: The previous article in this series discussed advances in sapphire crystal growth technology in response to the needs of industrial applications. But what does this mean for the gem segment of the synthetic sapphire industry?

The answer is complex. The industrial sapphire market has changed the landscape of the gem synthetic sapphire market, in that production has shifted to new locations, particularly Asia. Meanwhile, associated input costs such as raw materials, equipment, and other consumables have been affected both positively and negatively. The synthetic gem industry has grown, as more consumers seek affordable luxury.

Yet the industrial sapphire market dwarfs the gem segment. Over the past several decades, synthetic sapphire output has increased from fewer than 100 metric tons annually—when production centered on synthetic gems—to around 1,000 metric tons per year, thanks to the widespread adoption of technological applications. In response, dozens of new crystal growth operations have emerged around the globe, vastly increasing capacity. This means sustained demand is necessary to avoid dramatic price drops and market gluts.

While all colors of gem synthetic sapphire are possible, demand and production are focused on blue, orange, pink, and red. Rich, saturated blue hues are the hardest to create and therefore the priciest. Many producers who tried growing blue have exited the industry or switched to pink, red, or colorless.

	Figure 1. These Vernueil (flame-fusion) synthetic sapphires illustrate a wide variety of cuts and colors. Photo courtesy of Djeva.
Synthetic sapphire rough and cut gems grown by the Verneuil, Czochralski, hydrothermal, and flux techniques are readily available, as are diffusion-treated cut synthetic sapphires. Verneuil (flame-fusion) material can be grown in a matter of hours, and it is inexpensive and plentiful (figure 1). This material is often annealed for a day or two to relieve stress. It shows very distinct curved growth striations and strain and may require careful orientation if the color distribution is not uniform. Flame-fusion sapphire originated in Europe, but operations have emerged in Armenia and China. Some Verneuil facilities that began as gem crystal growth operations have partially or completely switched to high-purity colorless sapphire for industrial applications. This has resulted in fewer available gem synthetic sapphire colors.

Conversely, some Czochralski growth capacity traditionally focused on industrial applications has switched to gem sapphire growth, as equipment sometimes is liquidated for a fraction of the original cost.  The Czochralski technique is advantageous for growing gem synthetic sapphire in that these crystals are large—generally ranging from five to 20 kilograms—providing a large amount of highy uniform faceting rough. Czochralski synthetic sapphire (figure 2) takes days to weeks to grow. It has uniform quality and color but may exhibit color banding and round bubbles.

	Figure 2. These Czochralski-grown sapphires and rubies were produced by Union Carbide Corporation. Photos by Jennifer Stone-Sundberg.
Hydrothermal (figure 3) and flux materials are grown by processes that take months or even a year to produce, but these crystals exhibit very uniform color distribution, far less strain, and more natural-looking inclusions than synthetics grown by the other methods. There is a niche market for “luxury” synthetics such as solution-grown corundum, but it is much smaller than the demand for mass-produced flame-fusion material.

	Figure 3. This blue Tairus hydrothermal sapphire ring is accented by colorless synthetic sapphires. Photo courtesy of Tairus.
The retail pricing of synthetic gem corundum has remained relatively flat over the past couple of decades, even with increasing demand. There are now more producers, particularly in regions with lower operating costs. Just as crystal growth techniques vary widely, so does the retail pricing of faceted gem synthetic sapphires. These goods can range from $1 to $1,000 a carat. The blue synthetics are consistently more expensive in both rough and cut forms, and can be two to three times the price of the least expensive varieties, colorless and pink. Considering the vastly different crystal growth rates among the various techniques, it is not surprising that lengthier processes result in higher per-carat prices, limited supply, and a smaller market for their products. (Also, the price of the key raw ingredient, aluminum oxide, becomes less important.)

A survey of the marketplace revealed that most flame-fusion faceted synthetics retail for less than $5 per carat. Czochralski specimens cost an order of magnitude higher, and solution-grown material costs an additional order of magnitude higher—capping out at around $900 per carat. For each of these growth methods, rough material costs about one-tenth the price of faceted goods. Retail prices for diffusion-treated faceted synthetic sapphire are similar to those for flame-fusion material.

In comparison to the stagnant synthetic gem prices, the wholesale price of volume orders of high-purity white flame-fusion “crackle”—a key raw material used in high-tech sapphire growth—has fluctuated considerably over the past several years, reaching highs of $120 per kilogram (about 2.4 cents per carat) and lows of $40 per kilogram (about 0.8 cents per carat). Meanwhile, colorless rough has been selling to faceters in smaller quantities for approximately 10 cents per carat. Flame-fusion rough in various colors from Wuzhou, China, where hundreds of companies are active in the synthetic gem market, is available for 1−3 cents per carat.

	Figure 4. Top: This diffusion-treated blue synthetic sapphire shows the shallow depth
	of the treatment, confined to a surface layer. Bottom: Diffusion treatment is evident in the
	color concentrations along the girdle and facet junctions. From Robert E. Kane et al.,
	“The Identification of Blue Diffusion-Treated Sapphires,” Summer 1990 Gems & Gemology;
	photos by Shane F. McClure.
The similarities between the natural and synthetic sapphire markets extend beyond the parallels in quality range and pricing. Both natural and synthetic sapphire can be diffusion-treated to produce various effects and colors—in fact, colorless synthetic sapphire that has been diffusion-treated to induce a blue color is widely available (figure 4). Diffusion treatment of synthetic sapphire has been documented since the 1950s. As with natural sapphire, diffusion-treated synthetics are considerably less expensive than untreated specimens. Growth methods and treatments are not always disclosed, especially in less-expensive material. Nevertheless, diffusion-treated blue synthetic sapphire is easy to detect in an immersion cell filled with liquid of matching refractive index; the treated gems display color concentrations along facet junctions and the girdle, as shown in figure 4 (bottom) and figure 5 (top right). Diffusion-treated blue synthetic sapphire is inferior to grown blue sapphire in that the treatment is very shallow, eliminating the possibility of recutting. The treated goods may also be less transparent, as the thin diffused surface may exhibit noticeably different optical qualities from the bulk of the cut specimen. Fortunately, easy and inexpensive detection methods reduce the potential for confusion when purchasing a synthetic sapphire gem.

	Figure 5. The photo on the left shows (left to right) a diffusion-treated synthetic sapphire from JTV, a diffusion-treated synthetic sapphire from Gem Resources, a flame-fusion synthetic sapphire from Gem Resources, and a Czochralski synthetic sapphire from Union Carbide Corporation. Right: Viewed in immersion, diffusion-treated blue synthetic sapphires clearly show outlined girdles and facet junctions (top), unlike the as-grown blue stones (bottom). Photos by Jennifer Stone-Sundberg.
I believe we will see a dramatic increase in the production of diffusion-treated blue synthetic sapphire originating from colorless material—a trend that could bring down the price of higher-quality synthetic blue sapphire. This is reminiscent of the concerns over beryllium-diffused natural sapphire a decade ago, when the market was flooded with pinkish orange padparadscha sapphire. We could start seeing much more of this material in a range of colors, given the large volume of high-purity and very clean commodity-priced colorless sapphire being produced. In the future, I would like to see full disclosure of growth technique and treatment for all synthetic gems, as having such information is of value to the consumer. @chapter:12


Publication Year: - Title: Industry Analysis: Slow Season Prompts Rumors Abstract: Slower-than-expected holiday retail jewelry sales in the U.S. have prompted rumors of a possible takeover of an industry icon.

	Tiffany reported a worldwide sales increase of 4%, at the low end of its expectations, but its U.S. same-store sales stayed even with the previous year. Factoring out Internet and catalog trading, the retailer’s overall sales were down 2%. Only stores in its Asia division saw a real sales increase: same-store sales were up 7%.

	The challenging environment for jewelry sales prompted a renewal of takeover rumors as Tiffany’s stock price slumped after these announcements. In 2008, slowing sales conjured rumors that a luxury conglomerate, such as Richemont (owner of Cartier) or LVMH (partners in De Beers retail operations), would take over Tiffany & Co., a publicly traded but independent corporation. The company has not commented on the rumors.

	Tiffany was not the only large jewelry retailer affected by a slow fall season, which is critical for U.S. jewelers because 35-40% of sales are typically made in the final nine weeks of the year.

	Signet Jewelers, the parent company of Kay Jewelers and Jared the Galleria of Jewelry, reported a same-store sales increase of 4.7% in the U.S. for the nine-week season, compared to an increase of 9.2% for the same period last year. Zale Corp. reported a same-store increase of 2.3% for the season.

	Other reports indicate that demand for diamond jewelry rose very little over the previous year and that American consumers were trading down on diamond quality. One bright spot, according to the Centurion newsletter, is that the independent luxury jewelers it surveyed generally had a strong holiday season. Half of the respondents saw double-digit sales increases, while another 13.9% posted smaller gains. On a discouraging note, the percentage of luxury jewelers reporting sales declines (26.4%) increased substantially from the previous year.

	The buying season for China’s New Year (Feb. 10) is still a month away, but the nation’s economy slowed considerably during the second half of 2012, leaving jewelry demand in doubt. In India, buying at the year-opening UBM Mumbai show was cautious.

	All eyes will be focused on the Jan. 21–24 De Beers sight. December’s allocation was a larger-than-expected $495 million. January’s sight is typically the largest, with few price breaks. But with the trade still concerned over soft prices and the legal battle between a major diamond firm, Arjav, and its main creditor, ABN AMRO Bank, many manufacturers hope De Beers takes the cautious road with smaller sights and stable prices until the direction of the 2013 world economy becomes clearer.

	Following the unrest that beset South Africa’s mining sector last year, Anglo American Corporation announced major cutbacks at its giant Rustenburg platinum mining complex. The company, which assumed a majority interest in De Beers last year, said it would close four shafts at Rustenburg and eliminate 14,000 jobs because the shafts had become unprofitable to operate. The company pledged to create a similar number of jobs in other areas and said the affected workers would be provided a support package.

	Anglo fired 12,000 Rustenburg workers during a series of strikes last October, but rehired them several weeks later after negotiations with the unions. @chapter:27