Publication Year: - Title: Sapphire Series Part 1: Introduction to Sapphire and Synthetic Sapphire Abstract: Figure 1: The deep blue 98.57 ct Bismarck sapphire is from Myanmar (formerly Burma). Photo by Chip Clark, Smithsonian Institution.

                      Most people hear the word “sapphire” and envision a beautiful velvety blue gemstone such as the center stone in the Bismarck sapphire necklace (figure 1). But there is more to sapphire than many people realize, and it might surprise you to find out about its industrial applications, its long history within the synthetic crystal growth industry, where it’s showing up today, and where you might see it tomorrow.

	Figure 2. Left: In this model of corundum’s crystal structure, the purple and gold balls represent aluminum and oxygen, respectively. The pink shadowing shows the octahedral coordination of aluminum. Right: A hexagonal representation showing the c and a planes.
Sapphire is a variety of the mineral corundum, also known as aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Corundum crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system and is normally described using hexagonal axes (figure 2). It can assume a rainbow array of colors given the correct trace impurities and growth conditions (figure 3). In addition to blue sapphire and red ruby, corundum also includes “fancy” sapphires of every other color (including colorless). Sapphire and ruby are found all over the world, with notable sources in Africa, Asia, Australia, North America, and Europe.

	Figure 3. These sapphires in a rainbow array of colors are from GIA’s Dr. Eduard J. Gübelin Collection. Photo by Robert Weldon.
Sapphire has a melting point of 2040°C, a high hardness of 9 on the Mohs scale, and a substantial refractive index of 1.76 to 1.78. When no impurities giving it color are present, sapphire can make a wonderful optical window material since it’s transparent throughout the entire visible range, and far into the UV and IR ranges as well. With such properties it’s no wonder sapphire has been such a treasured gemstone throughout recorded history. These same properties have also made it very attractive for non-gem applications as well, and some of the most sophisticated synthetic crystal growth and processing techniques to date have resulted from demand for these products.

Sapphire saw its first industrial application more than 300 years ago, as jewel bearings in mechanical timepieces, where longevity and high accuracy were worth the cost of these durable and low-friction components. The first synthetic corundum, a flux-grown ruby, was produced in 1873. This development was followed by the commercial introduction of the flux-grown Geneva synthetic ruby in 1885 and Verneuil flame-fusion synthetic ruby in 1902. Early synthetic sapphires and rubies were used for gems and watch jewels. Since then, however, synthetic sapphire has been produced by more growth techniques than probably any other crystal. Sapphire is a binary compound with a congruent melting point (at this temperature, the solid turns into a liquid of the same composition), aiding in its applicability to so many growth techniques.

	Figure 4. Chatham synthetic sapphire, as-grown and faceted. Courtesy of Tom Chatham.
Today the flux (solution) and Verneuil (flame-fusion) techniques are still used for synthetic gems and for other applications. During the 20th century, Carroll Chatham developed high-quality flux techniques to slowly grow crystals with carefully controlled properties. Using his specialized processes, Chatham introduced gem-quality ruby in 1959 and blue sapphire in 1975 (figure 4). Flame-fusion techniques have been used to quickly produce small sapphire boules used for jewelry as well as feed-stock for other sapphire growth techniques. Hrand Djevahirdjian began growing crystals using the Verneuil method in 1905, and the Swiss factory he opened in 1914 is still producing synthetic sapphire today (figure 5).

	Figure 5. Djeva flame-fusion synthetic sapphire and ruby, as-grown and faceted.
	Courtesy of Hrand Djevahirdjian SA.
Over time, the matching of sapphire’s desirable optical, mechanical, chemical, structural, and thermal properties to technological applications led to larger, more perfect, and custom-shaped synthetic sapphire in a greater variety of colors. The crystal growth techniques applied to meet these demands will be described in the next installment. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Calcite Present in a Pearl from Pinctada maculata Abstract: Figure 1. The white and cream non-nacreous pearl weighing 0.29 ct and measuring 3.75 × 3.55 mm. Photo by Gaurav Bera.
Pinctada maculata pearls, also known in the trade as “pipi pearls,” form in shells considered to be the smallest of all the Pinctada species. The shell size ranges from 2 to 6 cm and produces pearls ranging from 1 to 4 mm. However, some rare examples may reach up to 9 mm (Spring 2014 GNI, pp. 89–90). Most pearls from this mollusk exhibit a yellow to “golden” color range, yet some are white to cream, orange, and gray. Round to near-round pearls are quite typical of the species, but other shapes may be found, as with all pearls (N. Nilpetploy et al., “The gemological characteristics of pipi pearls reportedly from Pinctada maculata,” Winter 2018 G&G, pp. 418–427). They are distributed throughout French Polynesia and the Cook Islands and found in shallow waters and depths up to 20 meters. GIA’s Mumbai laboratory had the opportunity to examine a quantity of these pearls, which were reportedly sourced from known divers who fished them from wild P. maculata mollusks off the Cook Islands. The parcel contained 306 natural pearls of various sizes and shapes, with measurements ranging from 2.87 × 2.69 × 2.55 mm to 8.34 × 3.25 mm.

Figure 2. Left: Cellular calcite structure; field of view 0.5 mm. Right: Aragonite platy surface structure; field of view 0.8 mm. Photomicrographs by Pfokreni Nipuni.

Figure 3. The Raman spectra showed peaks at 280 and 712 cm–1 indicative of calcite (spots 1 and 2) and typical aragonite features at 701, 704, and 1085 cm–1 (spot 3).
Real-time microradiography (RTX) showed a variety of internal structures expected for natural pearls. Externally, most samples showed the typical nacreous overlapping aragonite platelets (platy structure) and surfaces that ranged from clean to moderately blemished. However, one near-oval, bicolor white and cream pearl, weighing 0.29 ct and measuring 3.75 × 3.55 mm (figure 1), revealed a very interesting surface structure under 40× magnification. The top part of the pearl exhibited a mosaic, or network of columnar calcite structures in a cellular form (hexagonal and clustered), creating an uneven surface. This was similar to the appearance of non-nacreous pen pearls (N. Sturman et al., “Observations on pearls reportedly from the Pinnidae family (pen pearls),” Fall 2014 G&G, pp. 202–215). The bottom part had a combination of both: areas of nacreous overlapping aragonite platelets (the circular ring-like area around the base) and areas of columnar calcite structure (figure 2). The surface was unique among those observed in the lot, as it exhibited both polymorph forms of calcium carbonate (aragonite and calcite). To confirm the non-nacreous cellular areas observed, Raman analysis using a 514 nm laser excitation was carried out on three spots of the pearl’s surface (spots 1 and 2 with cellular structure and spot 3 with platy structure). Spots 1 and 2 showed peaks at 280 and 712 cm–1, respectively, indicative of calcite. Spot 3 showed a doublet at 701 and 704 cm–1 and a peak at 1085 cm–1, both characteristic features of aragonite (figure 3).

Figure 4. Left: RTX image revealing the calcitic nature of the pearl. Right: μ-CT scans showed a small core with a large acicular structure covering the entire area.
RTX imaging revealed an organic-rich fine acicular feature with no central core, associated with some concentric growth arcs (figure 4, left). X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT) showed a large central fine acicular feature with a small core showing its calcitic nature, surrounded with thick, dense organic-rich concentric growth arcs (figure 4, right). The internal structure of the pearl matched with the expected columnar structure observed on the surface, as noted in previous research reports.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry revealed a low manganese level of 16 ppm and a higher strontium level of 1286 ppm. Optical X-ray fluorescence was inert, and both results are characteristic of the saltwater environment in which the pearl formed. The pearl showed a moderate bluish green reaction under long-wave UV radiation and a much weaker bluish green reaction under short-wave UV. It was also examined by the ultra-short UV wavelength (230 nm) of the DiamondView, which revealed a clear bluish reaction with fine cellular hexagonal columnar features typically indicative of calcite.
Spectroscopic examination confirmed the presence of both calcite and aragonite. The top and bottom portions of this P. maculata pearl exhibited a combination of calcite and aragonite surface features aligned parallel to each other. Such external features are not typically observed in pearls from this mollusk, based on the extensive samples GIA has examined globally, which makes this pearl rare and interesting despite its lack of visual appeal. @chapter:14


Publication Year: - Title: Spring 2012 G&G Book Reviews Abstract: “Set in Style: The Jewelry of Van Cleef & Arpels”
By Sarah D. Coffin, with contributions by Suzy Menkes and Ruth Peltason, 288 pp., illus., publ. by the Smithsonian Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum [www.cooperhewitt.org],
New York, 2011. $55.00

“Paul Flato: Jeweler to the Stars”
By Elizabeth Irvine Bray, 223 pp.,illus., publ. by the Antique Collectors’ Club [www.antique collectorsclub.com], Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK, 2010. US$85.00

“Collector’s Guide to the Beryl Group”
By Robert J. Lauf, 93 pp., illus., publ. by Schiffer Publishing Ltd. [www.schifferbooks.com], Atglen, PA, 2011. $19.99

“Diamond Inclusions”
By Nizam Peters, 208 pp., illus., publ. by American Institute of Diamond Cutting Inc. [diamondschool.com], Deerfield Beach, FL, 2011. $135.00

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:21


Publication Year: 2022 Title: “Smoke Rings” in a Non-Beryllium-Diffused Sapphire Abstract: This “smoke ring” pattern was observed in a heat-treated blue sapphire. While this pattern is commonly associated with beryllium-diffused blue sapphires, no beryllium was detected in this stone. Photomicrograph by Nicole Ahline; field of view 7.39 mm.
When analyzing corundum for evidence of heat treatment, one of the most useful and standard methods for gemologists is microscopic examination (N.D. Renfro et al., “Inclusions in natural, synthetic, and treated sapphire,” Summer 2017 G&G, pp. 213–214). Inclusion suites can start to alter at temperatures as low as 200°C. As the temperature rises, many inclusions start to show clear evidence of heat treatment, such as the internal diffusion of titanium, resulting in a spotty blue color, and discoid tension cracks with healed fringes around crystals. Standard temperature heat treatment for corundum happens between 500° and 1700°C, whereas high-temperature heat treatment, such as beryllium diffusion, occurs at temperatures above 1750°C. These high temperatures can modify inclusions in a way that renders them unidentifiable, suggesting that a stone may have undergone beryllium diffusion.
While examining a heated blue sapphire recently, the author observed “smoke ring” inclusions throughout it (see above) using fiber-optic illumination. Trace element chemistry analysis of the blue sapphire via laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry revealed no signs of beryllium. This came as a surprise, as this dislocation pattern is associated with beryllium-diffused corundum. These “smoke ring” dislocations are consistent with sapphires that have been heated at high temperatures, but chemistry ruled out beryllium diffusion treatment. This sapphire offers a striking example of why continuous documentation of inclusions, in both treated and untreated gemstones, is an important tool in gemstone analysis. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 1999 Title: On the Identification of Various Emerald Filling Substances Abstract: Criteria for distinguishing emerald filling substances were investigated. Thirty-nine fillers were divided into six substance categories—three “presumed natural” (essential oils [including cedarwood oil], other oils, waxes) and three “artificial resin” (epoxy prepolymers, other prepolymers [including UV-setting adhesives], polymers). Regardless of their composition, fillers with R.I.’s of 1.54 or above show flash effects in emeralds. On the basis of Raman and infrared spectroscopy, the fillers could be separated into five spectral groups, A through E. Most, but not all, commonly used artificial resins have spectra distinct from that of cedarwood oil. However, the detection of one substance in a fissure does not imply that all others are absent. @chapter:9


Publication Year: - Title: Diamond Journey Abstract: Few people outside the gem industry realize the true nature of a gemstone’s journey from the mine to the counter of a store. Whether the gem is being offered to consumer’s at a traditional jewelry store’s counter, an internet shopping site, or a television broadcast the journey always involves a great deal of effort.  Tons of earth and countless hours of labor are needed to being a gem from mine to market. @chapter:28


Publication Year: 1997 Title: Characterization of Chinese Hydrothermal Synthetic Emerald Abstract: Synthetic emeralds grown hydrothermally in an alkali-free, chlorine-bearing solution have been manufactured in Guilin, China, since 1987. Diagnostic microscopic features include growth and color zoning as well as oriented needle-like tubes and cone-shaped voids (“nailhead spicules”) that are typically associated with small chrysoberyl crystals. Also distinctive is the presence of chlorine in this iron- and alkali-free hydrothermal synthetic emerald. In addition, spectroscopic properties in the mid- and near-infrared are useful to characterize this new Chinese product; features in the 2500–3100 cm-1 range (also found in other chlorine-bearing synthetic emeralds) help distinguish it from natural emeralds. @chapter:9


Publication Year: - Title: Robert Kammerling (1947–1996) Abstract: You’ve probably heard of Rambo, the film character known for rugged survival tactics. GIA boasts the legacy of “Kambo,” the nickname earned by brilliant, driven instructor and researcher Robert C. Kammerling. His intensity, intellect, and dedication inspired the loyalty of students and colleagues alike. In 1996, after Kammerling’s untimely death at age 48, GIA president Bill Boyajian lauded him as a “hero of modern gemology.”

Kammerling’s reputation as a giant among gemologists is well deserved. After an exotic early career traveling to Tibet, Ethiopia, and Afghanistan with the U.S. Civil Service, Kammerling followed his passion for gems and enrolled at GIA in 1981. He aced his graduate gemology exam with the highest score his instructor had ever seen. Six months after passing with flying colors, Kammerling was a GIA instructor himself, teaching courses in gem identification and colored stones and fielding questions from students with his characteristic barbed wit and keen insight.

It wasn’t long before the tireless instructor turned writer. He began by updating
GIA’s Gem Identification Manual and ultimately coauthored (with Cornelius Hurlbut) the 1991 second edition of Gemology, a pivotal textbook in the field.  In the 1980s and ’90s, Kammerling wrote hundreds of groundbreaking articles based on his research in far-flung gem locales. To the end, he remained convinced that true scientific understanding stems from firsthand experience.

As an individual, Kammerling was charismatic. As a gemologist, he applied that adventurous spirit and restless energy to practical breakthroughs in gem identification that benefited the industry. In the late 1980s, Kammerling and GIA colleague John Koivula investigated ways to identify diamond fractures filled with glass, a clarity enhancement technique that was wreaking havoc in the near-colorless diamond market. The duo discovered a practical visual clue, known as the “flash effect,” that became the identification standard. Joined by fellow researchers, Kammerling then went on an extensive U.S. tour to publicize the treatment and its detection.

Always a workaholic, Kammerling took his job home with him in the 1990s when leading the first major study of the emerald filler Opticon. Hunkered over mounds of emeralds on his kitchen table, he cleaned and treated them himself until the small hours of the morning. The consummate researcher’s persistence helped resolve a critical trade issue that had weakened demand for emeralds. In 2000, Kammerling’s contributions culminated in a new GIA emerald report gauging the degree of clarity enhancement in natural emeralds.

In 1995, Robert Kammerling received GIA’s Richard T. Liddicoat Distinguished Achievement Award. His far-reaching impact as an instructor, author, and researcher changed the industry for the better. @chapter:20


Publication Year: - Title: Diamonds: A Slice off the Old Rough Abstract: This colorless diamond slice, approximately 21 x 17 x 3 mm, shows an attractive pattern of inclusions. The diamond was offered for sale at the Hong Kong Watch & Jewellery Show in September. Courtesy of Dynamic International. Photo by Russell Shor.

                      Diamond inclusions can tell a unique story about a particular stone, but they invariably lower its value. There is one exception, however. Diamond cutters with an eye for nature’s art have created “diamond slices”—thinly sliced sections of large, highly included rough for jewelry designers.

The idea, say the manufacturers who create these pieces, is to cut the rough to show interesting patterns while keeping the stone’s original outline. The more interesting the inclusions and their patterns, the higher the price.

Approximately five exhibitors at the September Hong Kong Watch and Jewellery Show were featuring diamond slices.

	A grayish colored diamond slice approximately 18 x 16 x 3 mm. Courtesy of Dynamic International. Photo by Russell Shor.
Raja Malpani, president of Mumbai-based Dynamic International, said most diamond slices are prepared in India, with some Israeli production as well. Dynamic offered the largest pieces seen at the show and provided samples for these photos.

Diamond slices start as large, highly included or opaque rough. Generally the manufacturers laser-slice the rough stones into 2 or 3 mm thick slabs of irregular shape, ranging from 5 to 20 mm depending on the shape of the original rough. They apply extremely shallow “pavilion” facets to one side, polishing a flat “table” on the other. The prices can vary widely between $10 per carat for opaque pieces to $700 per carat for transparent stones with decorative inclusion patterns.

Diamond slices have been in the market for three or four years, according to Malpani. Several U.S. designers (including Gara Post of Los Angeles and Ashley Morgan of San Francisco) have included them in their collections but Malpani said they have just started selling in Asia.

The manufacturers recommend that designers bezel-set the slices because diamonds, while extremely hard, are brittle and can chip or crack fairly easily.

	A translucent yellowish diamond slice approximately 15 x 16 x 3 mm offered for sale at the September Hong Kong Watch & Jewellery Show by Dynamic International. Photo by Russell Shor. @chapter:38


Publication Year: 1983 Title: Expanded Deutsches Edelsteinmuseum of Idar-Oberstein, Germany Abstract: With the opening of a new display area in 1982, this unique museum in the gem-cutting capital of Europe has not only doubled in size but has also established itself as one of the finest gemology exhibits in the world. This article describes both the new and old exhibit areas and discusses some of the organization and design techniques that have contributed to the success of the Deutsches Edelsteinmuseum. @chapter:22


Publication Year: 2017 Title: A Melee-Sized CVD Synthetic Diamond in Pearl and Diamond Jewelry Abstract: Figure 1. A pair of pearl and diamond earrings set with about 200 natural melee diamonds and one CVD synthetic melee. Photo by Jun Su.

Since 2012, CVD synthetic diamonds have been tested and identified by NGTC labs in China, typically in sizes above 0.20 ct. Since 2015, a large number of melee-size colorless and near-colorless synthetic diamonds have been detected in daily screenings at NGTC labs. Melee-size HPHT synthetics are accurately screened and identified at NGTC labs using new devices, some of them developed by NGTC. Melee-size CVD synthetic diamonds were reported by GIA’s Mumbai lab earlier this year (A. Krawitz, “GIA finds significant undisclosed synthetics,” Diamonds.net, March 7, 2017).

In March 2017, NGTC’s Beijing lab received 24 pieces of pearl and diamond jewelry (including the earrings seen in figure 1) from a domestic client, who claimed they were imported. Synthetic melee diamonds were identified in 14 of the 24 pieces. Most of the synthetic specimens were HPHT grown, but one was a melee-size CVD synthetic. The near-colorless CVD round brilliant circled in figure 2 was mounted in a pearl earring with about 200 natural melee diamonds. The estimated weight of this CVD melee is 0.01 ct. No obvious inclusions were found under 10× magnification.

Figure 2. A CVD synthetic diamond (circled in red) was mounted in an earring along with very similar-looking natural melee diamonds. Photo by Shi Tang.
Using NGTC’s GV5000 rapid screening instrument, the UV luminescence of a group of diamonds can be observed at the same time. Unlike colorless to near-colorless HPHT synthetic melee, which normally displays strong phosphorescence, the CVD phosphorescence reaction tends to be weak or inert. The GV5000 provides broadband UV excitation, in which colorless to near-colorless HPHT synthetics display strong greenish blue phosphorescence for about 3–60 seconds. Colorless to near-colorless CVD synthetics normally emit weak phosphorescence that lasts less than 3 seconds, while natural diamonds very rarely show phosphorescence with medium to weak intensity for 1 to 2 seconds. Also, the fluorescence color under the GV5000 is mostly blue-white for natural diamonds, strong greenish blue for HPHT synthetics, and bluish green or green or orange to red for CVD synthetics (colorless to near-colorless). We noticed the green fluorescence and weak green phosphorescence of this melee and conducted further testing. The green fluorescence and phosphorescence were more pronounced in the DiamondView (figure 3), but the layered growth structure of CVD synthetics was still not seen due to the specimen’s small size.

Figure 3. Left: The CVD-grown melee diamond (red arrow) shows green fluorescence in DiamondView imaging, while the natural melee below it exhibits blue fluorescence. Right: The DiamondView reveals the green phosphorescence of the synthetic melee, while the natural stone displays no phosphorescence. Images by Shi Tang.
An absorption spectrum collected by micro-FTIR identified it as a type IIa synthetic diamond, with no N-related absorption. A weak 270 nm absorption band usually associated with synthetic origin was detected in the UV-Vis spectrum. With 532 nm laser excitation at liquid nitrogen temperature, the PL spectrum showed strong SiV– center double peaks at 736.6 and 736.9 nm (figure 4), indicating a CVD synthetic. A clear 978 nm emission also appeared in the PL spectrum with 785 nm laser excitation; the assignment of this emission is unknown. The green fluorescence was attributed to an H3 center, which means the specimen was HPHT-treated after growth.

This is the first time NGTC has identified a melee-size CVD synthetic diamond mounted alongside natural stones. This development is concerning, considering the challenge it would pose for gem laboratories. CVD synthetic screening requires more time and effort than HPHT synthetic screening, since the rapid methods of phosphorescence observation currently used would no longer be reliable. Therefore, new screening techniques and instruments are needed.

Figure 4. The melee-size CVD synthetic diamond shows strong SiV– center emissions at 737 nm in the PL spectrum, as collected with a 532 nm laser. @chapter:15


Publication Year: 2017 Title: New Designs from Paula Crevoshay Abstract: Figure 1. In the “Queen Thai” bracelet, the contrast in orange color between the more intense Brazilian fire opal (left) and the Mexican fire opals leads the eye directly to the Brazilian stone. All of the opals are complemented by the green tsavorite. Photo by Eric Welch/GIA, courtesy of Paula Crevoshay.

	Paula Crevoshay came to Tucson with some new designs that once again showcase her unique talent.

	The “Queen Thai” bracelet (figure 1) contains five large freeform fire opals. Accompanying the opal are micro-pavé brilliant tsavorite accents and blue zircons connecting the bracelet sections. Four of the fire opals are from Mexico, and one is from Brazil. Crevoshay pointed out that the four Mexican fire opals have better transparency, while the Brazilian one has a more saturated orange color. All of them show some green and blue play-of-color, which complements the tsavorite and blue zircon accents. In return, the strong blue and green color of highly refractive tsavorite and zircon accentuates the opals’ play-of-color. The intense orange color of the Brazilian fire opal forms a dramatic contrast with the Mexican stones and adds another layer to draw viewers’ attention. The mounting of the bracelet follows the profile of the freeform opals, giving the jewelry its own personality.

	Paula Crevoshay

	Renowned jewelry designer Paula Crevoshay introduces four new pieces featuring her trademark use of contrasting and complimentary gem colors. In this video, she showcases two spectacular opal bracelets, and two fabulous brooches: a butterfly design featuring diamonds with sapphire and a beautifully textured elephant with mother-of-pearl tusks.

	Crevoshay expressed her love of nature in two new pieces from the collection. The “Swallowtail” butterfly (figure 2, left) combines yellow diamond, black diamond, blue Yogo sapphire, yellow sapphire, and red spinel. She informed us that this swallowtail is modeled specifically after those found in Montana, a state whose natural beauty and sapphires she admires. She noted that she always tries to find an excuse to involve Montana sapphire in her artworks. The various stones are mounted over a large surface area, which allows them to optically interact with each other. The colors of the stones accurately reproduce the colors on the wings of these butterflies. When people move the piece in their hands, it vividly reflects the whimsical look of the real butterfly. The elephant head in figure 2 (right) evokes Crevoshay’s memories of visiting an elephant orphanage in Sri Lanka. Captured in this pendant is the extinct East African forest elephant, which is smaller and less aggressive than most other species. A special texture was generated on the gold to depict the elephant’s skin. A sapphire and spinel headdress shows the royalty of this creature. The eyes are tsavorite, while the tasks are carved mother-of-pearl.

Figure 2. Left: The yellow diamond, black diamond, blue Yogo sapphire, yellow sapphire, and red spinel in this swallowtail brooch create a stunning color combination. Right: This brooch was inspired by a visit to an elephant orphanage in Sri Lanka, which adds an extra touch of humanity to the piece. Photos by Eric Welch/GIA, courtesy of Paula Crevoshay.

	Last but not least is the cuff bracelet featuring a large Australian boulder opal accented with sapphire (figure 3). To Crevoshay, “all opals are created by Monet,” since each is a striking blend of colors. The play-of-color pattern of this opal reminds viewer of a spectacular cityscape at night. There is a subtle red linear play-of-color across the middle of this piece. This long marquise-shaped boulder opal has blue as its deepest play-of-color, and Crevoshay selected the blue sapphire to go with it. According to color theory, blue is a color that recedes. The blue sapphire and the blue play-of-color seem to dominate the cuff bracelet but then recede to the background to allow the other colors such as the green and the red to take center stage.

Figure 3. The blue play-of-color from the boulder opal and the blue color from the sapphires dominate one’s initial impression of the cuff bracelet. Photo by Eric Welch/GIA, courtesy of Paula Crevoshay. @chapter:21


Publication Year: 2024 Title: Brazilian Watermelon Tourmaline with Iris Effect Abstract: These 18 × 18 × 4 mm watermelon tourmaline slices (17.82 ct on the left and 17.17 ct on the right) display an exceptional iris effect. Photo by Jeffrey Scovil.
The watermelon tourmaline slices shown in the figure above are remarkable for their mesmerizing iris effect. Unearthed from the famed Cruzeiro mine in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais more than seven years ago, they were precisely cut to unveil their rainbow spectrum. Each slice, measuring 18 × 18 × 4 mm, radiates an alluring interplay of colors attributed to the iris effect, a phenomenon created by subtle internal fractures within the gemstone. This rare flawlessly matched pair weighed 34.99 carats total, conjuring the enchantment of fiery Australian opals. @chapter:37


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Book Review: Wallace Chan: Dream Light Water Abstract: By Juliet Weir De La Rochefoucauld and Wallace Chan, 380 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by Rizzoli, New York, 2016, US$280.00.

	With the September 2015 release of “A Heritage in Bloom,” the world’s most expensive diamond necklace, Chinese jewelry designer Wallace Chan returned to center stage. The exquisite necklace showcases the 104.27 ct D-color, internally flawless Cullinan Heritage diamond, together with 23 D–IF stones cut from the same rough, pink diamonds, white diamonds of different sizes, mutton-fat nephrite jade, and green jadeite. The piece is considered a milestone for Chow Tai Fook, the world’s largest jewelry retailer; it also symbolizes a new height of his design career, a path outlined in the recently released Wallace Chan: Dream Light Water. Written by Juliet Weir de La Rochefoucauld and Chan himself, the book takes readers on a colorful tour of the designer’s master works over the past 42 years. Through the 86 pieces selected, one reaches a better understanding of Chan’s life and design philosophy.

	Following the title of the book, the authors start with dreams and the theme of butterflies. Zhuan Zi, founder of the Taoist philosophy, had a dream of being transformed into a butterfly. When he woke up, he realized it was a dream yet wondered whether it was him becoming a butterfly or the other way around. While every entry in the book of Zhuangzi has a philosophical point, this has been one of the most widely cited. The story also carries the essential spirit of Taoism, which is simply that all objects in nature are just different forms of one single entity. Unlike Confucianism, Taoism treasures the pursuit of freedom, which was valued by many scholars throughout history and is becoming more popular today. By adopting butterflies as the theme in many of his jewelry pieces, Chan is attempting to free himself and the wearer from the complications of the internal and external world. The butterfly is also one of the themes best suited to colored gems.

	Originally a carver, Chan has devoted most of his energies to the application of carving to jewelry manufacture. In working with transparent colored gems, he is dedicated to better displaying the interaction between light, gem, and viewer. Over the years, he continued perfecting his manufacturing skills and innovated many patented techniques, with the “Wallace Cut” as the best example. This special cut perfectly combines the medieval cameo with intaglio carving to generate a three-dimensional trompe l’oeil effect. As Chan has said, he lives and breathes light. This is vividly illustrated by many master works in this book. The cover features the pendant of his “Now and Always” necklace. The center stone is a piece of aquamarine fashioned as a Wallace Cut. A single Goddess’s face was carved on the back of the stone in intaglio, and the likeness was reflected by the different facets of the stone to create this “goddess with a thousand faces” effect.

	Chan notes at the end of the book that when he works, his creativity flows out of him like water. With its gentle strength, flexibility, and eternal tenacity, flowing water is the highest standard of human behavior in Chinese culture. Fitting in with other people, the environment, and nature is the best way to live. With this in mind, Chan broke the barrier between East and West, between old and new. Through hard work and manufacturing expertise, he invented techniques to set colored gems into jade and create a lit-from-within effect. “Plum Flowers in Snow,” “Tender Is My Skin,” and “A Heritage in Bloom” are the best examples.

	The book is artistically designed, featuring jewelry pieces shown with different angles and special effects to elaborate the details. Looking at these images, it is like gradually zooming in and unveiling the secrets hidden by the designer. Today, Wallace Chan remains completely involved in every step of jewelry making in his business. He believes that while the innovation of manufacture techniques and skills comes from diligent research, continuous experimentation, and daily practice, a humble mind and tenacity are the keys to his stature as a leading jewelry designer. As he puts in the book: “Creativity starts with emptiness and the unknown.”

	Overall, Wallace Chan: Dream Light Water is a very engaging experience, as well as a rich source of inspiration for professional jewelry designers and collectors. @chapter:16


Publication Year: - Title: Recent Graduates Offer Success Tips to GIA Students Abstract: Recent graduates, from left, Diane Kryszewski, Kelsey Hickox, Spirit Freeman and Mariana Gomez, spoke to students in September as part of GIA's Guest Lecture Series. Photo by Emily Lane/GIA

A panel of GIA graduates recently shared the various career paths they’ve taken in the gem and jewelry industry, following their love of gems, design and creating beautiful jewelry, as part of GIA’s Guest Lecture Series. They talked about how they moved from one stage to the next in their careers, including how they used their knowledge to meet their goals and the risks they took to accomplish them.
They also shared tips on how to:

prepare for an interview
find a mentor
develop your “elevator” speech
work trade shows
use trade publications

Speakers:
Diane Kryszewski, GIA GJ (2017) – Goldsmith with Kesslers Diamonds in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Kryszewski took a jewelry making class in university and became “instantly obsessed.” She took a desk job for seven years, however, before she made the leap to GIA and the start of her career as a goldsmith. She shared tips to taking bench tests.
The most important thing she learned at GIA: “The quality control aspect of the Graduate Jeweler Program really prepared me for what to expect in my job.”
Kelsey Hickox, GIA GG, AJP and Jewelry Design Certificate (2014) – Regional lead valuation manager of fine jewelry and watches at The RealReal in Los Angeles. Hickox studied business and fashion merchandising at university, which led her to jewelry and GIA. She said her career involves fashion “as a whole,” which has brought her “full circle” in her career.
The most important thing she learned at GIA: “Don’t try to figure out what type of gem it is, let the gemstone tell you what it is."
Spirit Freeman, GIA GG and AJP (2016) and JDT (2018) – Former CAD designer and technical engineer for Christian Tse Designs & Manufacturing, Inc. in Los Angeles. Freeman is a lapidary artist, photojournalist, gemologist and jewelry design technician. He attended GIA and shared how finding a faceting machine led him to study gem cutting and rough grading and analysis in Thailand. He offered advise on how to market yourself as a gem dealer.
The most important thing he learned at GIA: “Being flexible and being very well communicated. You really need to be able to assess what your customer is wanting and what their expectations are. If you don’t know how to communicate with them, it can be a disaster.”
Mariana Gomez, GIA GG and AJP (2015) – Designer and production manager for Martin Katz in Beverly Hills. Gomez studied design in university and fell in love with jewelry, which led her to GIA. She was very involved with the Student Body Council and was able to make connections with jewelry designers, gem dealers, manufacturers in Los Angeles, which led to her first job in the industry.
The most important thing she learned at GIA: “Understanding gems, in general, (all of the characteristics of specific gems), really, really helps when designing jewelry.”
Each speaker also emphasized the importance of networking, including keeping in touch with fellow students and utilizing the connections you make in industry organizations, such as the GIA Alumni Association, AGTA and the Women’s Jewelry Association. They emphasized taking advantage of your time at GIA by using GIA’s resources, such as becoming involved with student groups and using Career Services.
Watch the panel discussion:

Check GIA’s social media accounts for information on future events:
GIA Education and GIA Alumni Association Global News & Events on Facebook and GIA News on Twitter. @chapter:36


Publication Year: - Title: GIA Reveals World of Gemstones to Crime Investigators Abstract: FBI Special Agent Daniel McCaffrey shares details on how the FBI has caught gem and jewelry thieves

                      What do GIA and international crime investigators have in common? At first glance, that’s easy: Stolen diamonds. But dig a little deeper and it becomes clear that what they really have in common is the goal to protect the public. GIA does so through its grading reports, education and research and the investigators by thwarting and catching criminals.

Their missions intersect when law enforcement uses GIA as a resource when they need to learn what to look for on the streets to recover stolen property. Over the past several years, several dozen crime fighters have met at GIA’s world headquarters in Carlsbad for a two-week crash course in gemology to do just that.

Investigators from countries including Brazil, Colombia, Belgium, India, Thailand, the UK and the UAE joined officials from the New York and Los Angeles police departments and FBI special agents from New York, Los Angeles, Miami and Washington, D.C.

The gemological knowledge they gained is priceless, according to Patrick Peys, a detective with the Belgium Federal Police.

“There is a big difference between being an operational police officer and having knowledge about the product you’re investigating,” he said. “That kind of basic information might give you an advantage you otherwise would not have.”

Investigators are exposed to a broad range of gemstone topics, including how to use gemological tools (loupes, tweezers, microscopes); the Four Cs of diamonds and what to look for in clarity, cut and color; synthetics, imitations and color treatments; the diamond industry and the Kimberley Process; field identification of colored stones; and how to read GIA grading reports.

“We don’t get a lot of highly technical training in the FBI,” said Daniel McCaffrey, of the New York field office. “It’s not that we’re called on every day to make identifications of diamonds in the field, but it’s that general know-how – and the impression that we know how – we convey to people in the industry that enables us to extract more information.”

GIA and domestic law enforcement officials, especially McCaffrey, have a long history of working together to solve gem crime, said Ivy Cutler, records coordinator for the GIA Laboratory in New York.

“Gems are one of the most concentrated forms of wealth and diamonds travel very quickly,” Cutler said. “It’s amazing how frequently the stolen diamonds flow back to GIA. The crime community is well-connected and the crooks are very smart. A lot of information moves through these criminal networks and the trade is largely unaware that they may be handling stolen goods.”

She says grading reports and inscriptions are one of the most effective ways to protect gemstones because the information is stored in GIA’s database for future reference, which has proved to be extremely useful for investigators. GIA created its database in the 1980s and has been adding to it ever since.

“It’s so significant to have this relationship with GIA and have a starting point,” McCaffrey said. “Literally hundreds and hundreds of stones have been recovered because of it.”

Beyond their relationships with GIA and what they learned about gemology, all of the investigators agreed that meeting each other was one of the best results of the two-week seminar.

“Diamond and jewelry criminals always work internationally,” Peys said. “You have to do the same to follow the crooks to get a hold of them. Following the ‘book’ and doing it in official ways takes too much time. I would call the presence of all of these people as important as the content of the course, because these guys are the ones we are going to try to contact to get some useful information. If you can build up such a network internationally, then you are doing an awesome job.”

“I’m very involved in diamond investigations and as far as I know, GIA is the only organization that is really doing something to bring law enforcement officers together to educate them and get that network working. For me, that’s very visionary,” Peys said.

Larry Wright, director of security for GIA, believes it is imperative for GIA and international law enforcement agencies to work together to solve the fast-moving reality of gem crimes.
“It’s a new world. We must communicate and coordinate across international boundaries and continents to fight against criminals who take advantage of the public.” @chapter:28


Publication Year: - Title: Spinel Description Abstract: Pink to red spinel is in high demand among gem connoisseurs. - Courtesy a Private Collector and Mona Lee Nesseth, Custom Estate Jewels

                      Spinel, like garnet and diamond, is singly refractive, with the same physical properties in all crystal directions. It belongs to the cubic crystal system, and its characteristic crystal shape is an octahedron, which looks like two back-to-back pyramids. Well-formed spinel crystals are fairly common in nature.

	Spinel specimens range from extraordinary crystals to beautifully cut stones. - Jeffrey Scovil, courtesy Barker & Co
Spinel can also form flattened crystals that look radically different from octahedral crystals. The flattened shape occurs when the pyramids that form an octahedron rotate against each other during growth. Scientists describe this as a “twinned crystal.” Large gems cut from good-color twinned crystals are typically shallow, and should be judged on their overall beauty rather than on proportions alone.

	The fashioned spinel is from Sri Lanka, while the rough crystals are from Myanmar. The second crystal from the right is an octahedron. The other crystals rotated during growth and appear flattened. Scientists call them twinned crystals.
The spinel used in jewelry is a small part of a group of minerals that share the same crystal structure. Not all of them form transparent crystals suitable for jewelry use, however. Spinel offers a range of hues, from orange to intense “stoplight” red, vibrant pink, and all shades of purple, blue, and violet through bluish green.
Intense reds and pinks are caused by traces of chromium. The higher the chromium content, the stronger the red hue. Orange and purple stones owe their color to a mixture of iron and chromium.

	Spinel comes in beautiful red, pink, purple, and blue colors.
Violet to blue spinel can be colored by trace amounts of iron, and vibrant blues owe their saturated color to trace amounts of cobalt. @chapter:2


Publication Year: 1986 Title: The Sapphires of Mingxi, Fujian Province, China Abstract: Blue sapphires are currently being mined on an exploratory basis from alluvial deposits at the Lindi mine, near the town of Mingxi in Fujian Province. The geology and occurrence of the sapphires appears to be similar to that of the gem corundum from Australia, Thailand, and Kampuchea (Cambodia). For the most part, the rough sapphires are greenish blue to dark blue in color and average approximately 2 ct; their gemological properties are also similar to those of sapphires from comparable geologic environments. @chapter:0


Publication Year: - Title: Arizona Road Trips: Wild West Gem and Mineral Localities Abstract: “Wulfenite is Loved” was the theme of the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show in 2019. This 33.80 g wulfenite crystal on matrix is from the Red Cloud Mine, Arizona. Gift of Donald and Ruth Miliken. Photo by Orasa Weldon/GIA

Arizona’s scenic desert and mountain landscape is the perfect backdrop for a modern Wild West road trip ‒ and researching mines for a road trip to gem localities there uncovers stories worthy of a Western movie script.
Red Cloud Mine, La Paz County
Working a desert mine was challenging in the rugged, hot landscape with little access to water, rudimentary shelter and an “every man for himself” attitude that often led to murder in the rowdy mining towns of the West.

This map shows the locations of the mines, towns and natural areas where some gems are found in Arizona.
The story of the Red Cloud Mine, located in the southwest corner of Arizona, is set in the gold and silver rush days of the late 1800s and bears just such a story of riches, crime and redemption. Prospector Warren Hammond pawned his shotgun in Yuma, Arizona in 1880 and headed north to stake a claim in an area that would later become the La Paz County Silver District. He struck pay dirt and named the mine Red Cloud after the trail used by early Spanish explorers.
The silver mine flourished and grew to employ 100 miners and the nearby town of Silent expanded to include an assay office, hotel, dance hall and saloons. One saloon owner, according to local history, was shot by a rival who pleaded self-defense, was exonerated and later appointed postmaster.
Silver from the Red Cloud mine has long been dispersed, and the mine is closed, but the mineral wulfenite found there has made its way into collections worldwide. It is known as some of the world’s best for its yellow-orange and red-orange color, as well as its high luster.

This graceful freeform azurite carving from Arizona reveals accents of malachite. Gift of the Larson Family. Photo by Orasa Weldon/GIA
Bisbee
Consider taking a break after the upcoming Tucson Gem & Mineral Show and drive about two hours south on Interstate 10 to Bisbee, an Old West mining town that retains its heritage with historical museums, art galleries and mine tours.
During its heyday, Bisbee was a remote, dangerous, and desolate area where the Apaches roamed the mountains and valleys to protect their land from settlers. Bandits sought refuge in the desolate area or preyed on the vulnerable passing through.
Hundreds of thousands of tons of silver, copper, lead and other ores were produced in the Bisbee area. The area’s legacy, however, lies in the more than 300 mineral species that have been uncovered in the search for silver. Azurite, malachite and turquoise are among the most well-known.

An 18.97 ct polished freeform Chrysocolla gem with areas of drusy quartz and a 33.30 ct. Chrysocolla oval cabochon. Both are from Arizona. Gift of Bill Larson. Photo by Orasa Weldon/GIA
The Ray Mine, Pinal County
The Ray Mine, located 85 miles east of Tucson, is nestled below Teapot Mountain about 12 miles south of Superior on Highway 177. Prior to the late 1870s, local Native Americans worked the copper deposits. By 1880, modern mining operations were set in motion, but it was the railroad line in 1905 that made it possible for the ore to be shipped for processing.
The Ray Mine is famous for its twinned blades of native copper crystals, chrysocolla, malachite, quartz and chalcedony. Owned by ASARCO, the operations and equipment of the Ray mine are available for viewing daily from 7 a.m. to 2 p.m. or until dusk.

View Gallery

Galiuro Mountains
From the Ray Mine head east on Interstate 70 toward the eastern foothills of the Galiuro Mountains southwest of Safford. This region is known for Deer Creek fire agates. There are several mining claims in the area, so be sure to honor private property rights.
In general, it is always prudent to consult with claim holders or owners before venturing out for prospecting on your own.

This 28-ct Four Peaks Mine amethyst shows flashes of red that are characteristic of this locality. Courtesy of Commercial Mineral Company, Inc. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Four Peaks Amethyst Mine, Fountain Hills
The Four Peaks Amethyst Mine is located about two hours east and north of Phoenix in a remote area of the Four Peaks Wilderness area of the Tonto National Forest. Amethyst from this locality exhibits a rich purple hue with flashes of red and blue, and is called Siberian amethyst in the trade. It is rare and collectible both for color and scarcity.
For the adventurer, tours by helicopter or jeep to the Four Peaks mine are availableby appointment from a local business in Fountain Hills, Arizona.

Sleeping Beauty turquoise is the main attraction in these earrings set in 18K white gold and accented with 0.83 ct diamonds. Courtesy of Andrew Sarosi, Los Angeles. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Sleeping Beauty Mine, Globe
On your way to San Carlos Apache Reservation, you will pass through the town of Globe where the Sleeping Beauty Mine is located. The mine, which produced the finest turquoise in the United States, shifted its focus from turquoise to copper in 2012.
San Carlos Apache Reservation, Peridot
The San Carlos Apache Reservation and the Cultural Center are located about 2.5 hours and 135 miles east of Phoenix on U.S. 70 near the town of Peridot, which is named for the world’s largest deposit of the gemstone. Mining of peridot is only granted to residents of the reservation. It is extracted with hand tools and collected in buckets. Garnets are also found on the reservation.

This group of peridot rough is from San Carlos, Arizona. Gift of John and Patricia Furhbach. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Petrified Forest National Park, Holbrook
An Arizona road trip would not be complete without a drive through the Petrified Forest National Park in northeastern Arizona. Located 110 miles east of Flagstaff along Interstate 40 near Holbrook, the southern portion of the park is full of colorful petrified wood. It is strictly forbidden to remove or collect specimens in National Parks or Monuments. Contact the Bureau of Land Management for areas that allow collection.
The prospect of finding a fortune in gems or minerals on this Arizona road trip is rare, but the memories you collect on your journey will be priceless. @chapter:24


Publication Year: 2018 Title: A Horse-Shaped Inclusion in Pink Sapphire from Mozambique Abstract: The horse-shaped inclusion of phlogopite mica identified by Raman analysis. Photomicrograph by Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 2.40 mm.

Recently, GIA’s Bangkok lab received a 0.58 ct pink sapphire with a unique inclusion. Microscopic observation revealed needles, platelets, and particles, all of which are common inclusions found in Mozambican ruby and pink sapphire. The most interesting inclusion was found near the stone’s girdle. The crystal, which resembled a horse (see above), was identified as phlogopite. The most common mineral inclusions in Mozambican rubies are crystals of amphibole and mica (V. Pardieu et al., “Rubies from the Montepuez area (Mozambique),” 2013; V. Pardieu et al., “GIA lab reports on low-temperature heat treatment of Mozambique ruby,” 2015). Most of the mica inclusions are margarite or muscovite, typically with a lighter color and pseudohexagonal shape. Phlogopite is another end member of the mica series, but with a very different chemical composition from muscovite. To our knowledge, phlogopite mica has not been reported in Mozambican rubies or pink sapphires @chapter:5


Publication Year: 1987 Title: Synthetic or Imitation? An Investigation of the Products of Kyocera Corporation That Show Play-Of-Color Abstract: The products of Kyocera Corp. that show play-of-color were investigated to determine if the materials are truly synthetic opal or rather are opal simulants. The authors propose that, because these materials contain no water, they do not match the composition of natural opals and, thus, should be designated opal simulants. The gemological properties of the samples examined are also provided, including those by which the Inamori material can be separated from natural opal. @chapter:39


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Suggested Reading on Emeralds and their Inclusions Abstract: Adamo I., Pavese A., Prosperi L., Diella V., Merlini M., Gemmi M., Ajo D. (2005) Characterization of the new Malossi hydrothermal synthetic emerald. G&G, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 328–338, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.41.4.328

	Anderton R. (1955) The new Gachala emerald mine in Colombia. G&G, Vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 195–196.

	Bowersox G.W., Anwar J. (1989) The Gujar Killi emerald deposit, Northwest Frontier Province, Pakistan. G&G, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 16–24, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.25.1.16

	Bowersox G.W., Snee L.W., Foord E.E., Seal R.R. (1991) Emeralds of the Panjshir Valley, Afghanistan. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 26–39, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.27.1.26

	Cassedanne J.P., Sauer D.A. (1984) The Santa Terezinha de Goiás emerald deposit. G&G, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp 4–13, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.20.1.4

	Epstein D.S. (1989) The Capoeirana emerald deposit near Nova Era, Minas Gerais, Brazil. G&G, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 150–158, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.25.3.150

	Flanigen E.M., Breck D.W., Mumbach N.R., Taylor A.M. (1965) New hydrothermal emerald. G&G, Vol. 11, No. 9, pp 259–265.

	Graziani G., Gübelin E., Martini M. (1987) The Lennix synthetic emerald. G&G, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 140–147, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.23.3.140

	Gübelin E.J. (1956) The emerald from Habachtal. G&G, Vol. 8, No. 10, pp. 295–309.

	——— (1958) Notes on the new emeralds from Sandawana. G&G, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 195–203.

	——— (1982) Gemstones of Pakistan: Emerald, ruby and spinel. G&G, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 123–139, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.18.3.123

	Huong L.T-T., Häger T., Hofmeister W. (2010) Confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy: A powerful tool to identify natural and synthetic emeralds. G&G, Vol. 46, No. 1, pp. 36–41, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.46.1.36

	Huong L.T-T., Hofmeister W., Häger T., Karampelas S., Kien N.D-T. (2014) A preliminary study of the separation of natural and synthetic emeralds using vibrational spectroscopy. G&G, Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 287–292, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.50.4.287

	Jennings R.H., Kammerling R.C., Kovaltchouk A., Calderon G.P., Baz M.K., Koivula J.I. (1993) Emeralds and green beryls of Upper Egypt. G&G, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 100–115, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.29.2.100

	Johnson M.L. (2007) Durability testing of filled emeralds. G&G, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 120–137, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.43.2.120

	Johnson M.L., Elen S., Muhlmeister S. (1999) On the identification of various emerald filling substances. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 82–107, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.35.2.82

	Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.I., Kane R.E., Maddison P., Shigley J.E., Fritsch E. (1991) Fracture filling of emeralds: Opticon and traditional “oils.” G&G, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 70–85 http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.27.2.70

	Kane R.E., Kammerling R.C., Moldes R., Koivula J.I., McClure S.F., Smith C.P. (1989) Emerald and gold treasures of the Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora de Atocha. G&G, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 196–206, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.25.4.196

	Kane R.E., Liddicoat R.T. (1985) The Biron hydrothermal synthetic emerald. G&G, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 156–170, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.21.3.156

	Keller P.C. (1981) Emeralds of Colombia. G&G, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 80–92, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.17.2.80

	Koivula J.I. (1982) Tourmaline as an inclusion in Zambian emeralds. G&G, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 225-227, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.18.4.225

	Koivula J.I., Keller P.C. (1985) Russian flux-grown synthetic emeralds. G&G, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 79–85, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.21.2.79

	Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., DeGhionno D., Reinitz I., Fritsch, E., Johnson M.L. (1996) Gemological investigation of a new type of Russian hydrothermal synthetic emerald. G&G, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 32–39, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.32.1.32

	Laskovenkov A.F., Zhernakov V.I. (1995) An update on the Ural emerald mines. G&G, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 106–113, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.32.1.106

	Liddicoat R.T. (1964) Developments in the synthetic-emerald field. G&G, Vol. 11, No. 5, pp. 131–137.

	——— (1967) A new Australian emerald source. G&G, Vol. 12, No. 7, pp. 220–222.

	Mayers D.E. (1958) Sandawana emeralds: Some commercial aspects. G&G, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 221–223.

	McClure S.F., Moses T.M., Tannous M., Koivula J.I. (1999) Classifying emerald clarity enhancement at the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory. G&G, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 176–185, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.35.4.176

	Pignatelli I., Giuliani G., Ohnenstetter D., Agrosì G., Mathieu S., Morlot C., Branquet Y. (2015) Colombian trapiche emeralds: Recent advances in understanding their formation. G&G, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 222–259, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.51.3.222

	Ringsrud R. (1983) The oil treatment of emeralds in Bogotá, Colombia. G&G, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 149–156, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.19.3.149

	——— (1986) The Coscuez mine: A major source of Colombian emeralds. G&G, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 67–79, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.22.2.67

	——— (2008) Gota de aceite: Nomenclature for the finest Colombian emeralds. G&G, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 242–245, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.44.3.242

	Rondeau B., Fritsch E., Peucat J.J., Nordrum F.S., Groat L. (2008) Characterization of emeralds from a historical deposit: Byrud (Eidsvoll), Norway. G&G, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 108–122, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.44.2.108

	Schmetzer K. (1996) Growth method and growth-related properties of a new type of Russian hydrothermal synthetic emerald. G&G, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 40–43, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.32.1.40

	Schmetzer K., Bank H., Stähle V. (1981) The chromium content of Lechleitner synthetic emerald overgrowth. G&G, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 98–100, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.17.2.98

	Schmetzer K., Bernhardt H.J., Biehler R. (1991) Emeralds from the Ural Mountains, USSR. G&G, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 86–99, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.27.2.86

	Schmetzer K., Kiefert L., Bernhardt H.J., Zhang B.L. (1997) Characterization of Chinese hydrothermal synthetic emerald. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 276–291, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.33.4.276

	Schwarz D. (1994) Emeralds from the Manajary region, Madagascar: Internal features. G&G, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 88–101, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.30.2.88

	Stockton C.M. (1984) The chemical distinction of natural from synthetic emeralds. G&G, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 141–145, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.20.3.141

	——— (1987) The separation of natural from synthetic emeralds by infrared spectroscopy. G&G, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 96–99, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.23.2.96

	Weldon R., Ortiz J.G., Ottaway T. (2016) In Rainier’s footsteps: Journey to the Chivor emerald mine, G&G, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 168–187, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.52.2.168

	Zwaan J.C., Kanis J., Petsch E.J. (1997) Update on emeralds from the Sandawana Mines, Zimbabwe. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 80–100, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.33.2.80

	Zwaan J.C., Seifert A.V., Vrána S., Laurs B.M., Anckar B., Simmons W.B., Falster A.U., Lustenhouwer W.J., Muhlmeister S., Koivula J.I., Garcia-Guillerminet H. (2005) Emeralds from the Kafubu area, Zambia. G&G, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 116–148, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.41.2.116

	Zwaan J.C., Jacob D.E., Häger T., Cavalcanti-Neto M.T.O., Kanis J. (2012) Emeralds from the Fazenda Bonfim region, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. G&G, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 2–17, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.48.1.2 @chapter:6


Publication Year: - Title: Special Jewelry Collection Showcases Innovative Designs, Techniques Abstract: This mokume gane pendant, made of patinaed copper and 14K yellow, red and grey gold, hangs on a black tourmaline crystal bead and 22K gold rondell necklace. Mokume gane is a technique of layering metals. Created by George Sawyer.

                      Members of the American Jewelry Design Council (AJDC) donated a collection of 29 contemporary jewelry pieces to the GIA Museum in 2004 − the first formal collection of jewelry to the Institute.

“This was a nice injection of new, all American-made, contemporary jewelry,” said McKenzie Santimer, manager of exhibit designs for the GIA Museum. “It was a significant donation to GIA because the jewelry collection is not as comprehensive compared to the gem and mineral collection.”

The AJDC, like GIA, is a nonprofit educational organization, and is composed of highly respected American jewelry designers, including GIA graduates, who focus on raising awareness of the artistry of fine jewelry.

Jose Hess, one of the founding members of the AJDC, was very grateful so many members created pieces for this special collection for GIA. “It’s a great advantage to be able to talk about design and demonstrate what it is in GIA’s home,” he said.

Many of the designers who donated pieces are award-winning, innovative jewelry designers, according to Santimer. The collection consists of classic signature pieces that capture the designer’s aesthetics and techniques, including unusual pioneering techniques, such as a mokume gane (which looks like a layer cake of metal) piece, a Steven Kretchmer tension-set diamond and a faceted Tahitian pearl, which was a new technique at the time.

“There are some unusual, eclectic gems,” she said. “Although the AJDC is more known for metalsmithing and the craftsmanship of their work, there are significant gemstones contained in this collection, such as a large Ukranian helidor, drusy quartz, a variety of fancy-cut tourmalines, rough schorl tourmalines and a brown diamond.”

View Gallery

Santimer said the pieces represent very creative and out-of-the-box thinking − a life-like orchid brooch, a convertible brooch/pendant and an adjustable ring − and are often taken into the Jewelry Design and Technology classrooms to show students real-life work.

“I think it is a great opportunity for students to see unusual designs. On days when they are trying to create something that is paved or tension-set, they’re actually getting to physically see it. It helps them understand the techniques and engineering of the pieces,” she said. “Plus, well-known designer names, including Alan Revere, George Sawyer and Michael Bondanza, resonate with the students.”

Susan Helmich, member and former president of the AJDC, said the AJDC Collection at GIA was the ultimate opportunity to educate and inspire others about jewelry design as an art form. “It’s like a dream come true,” she said.

The collection, which will be on exhibit at GIA in Carlsbad through June 2016, is also a treat for visitors.

“I think these jewelry pieces will stretch their understanding of what jewelry can be,” Santimer said. “It goes beyond what you would normally see in their local jewelry store. “They’re all designers who are trying to make it in the jewelry world, so we’re lucky to have them donated. It’s a special collection of a really important jewelry group in the United States.”

She said the eye-catching collection is sure to appeal to a variety of visitors.

“It is a nice selection of unusual metal techniques, advanced stone setting and an assortment of gemstones that will appeal to the gem geek and jewelry-loving public.” @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2019 Title: The Rare Sun Diamond Abstract: The Rare Sun diamond, a 5.24 ct Fancy Dark yellowish brown modified octahedron, has a centrally located, eye-visible inclusion resembling a star and its rays. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

While manufacturers typically seek to minimize or remove inclusions in gem-quality diamonds, a few are specifically cut to highlight these features. Certain hydrogen-rich diamonds can yield fascinating inclusion forms when faceted. One such stone is the 5.24 ct Rare Sun diamond (see above), which GIA’s New York laboratory recently had the opportunity to examine. Framed at the center of this Fancy Dark yellowish brown modified octahedron is an eye-visible cloud inclusion that scatters light to form the image of a star and its shining rays. The inclusion’s orientation gives it an unusually distinct six-fold symmetry, which is very rare. The overall shape of the Rare Sun diamond has been precisely polished so that as light touches various parts of its surface, a different ray beams through. Achieving this effect required extremely precise fashioning—even the slightest error in cutting or polishing would have diminished the effect.
Very few diamonds have the potential to display this star-like pattern, and fewer still ever have this potential recognized and achieved. Diamonds with unusual inclusions, especially inclusions that suggest the shape of other objects, are also prized by gem collectors and seekers of the uncommon. The Rare Sun diamond is a large and noteworthy example and could be considered among those unique diamonds.
This diamond, with its particularly distinctive inclusion scene, also serves as a valuable research material. Gemologists welcome the opportunity to study gems with such unusual features. @chapter:32


Publication Year: - Title: Guardians of Trust: GIA’s Innovative Research, Instruments and Services Abstract: GIA researchers respond to rapidly changing gem treatment and synthesis technologies with cutting edge technology and analyze gems from known sources. Their work deepens the world’s understanding of how gems are formed, extracted, manufactured and sold. A group photo from a 2018 GIA research team meeting. Photo by Eric Welch/GIA

GIA has stood at the vanguard of diamond, colored stone and pearl identification, treatment detection and identification throughout its history. From the iconic jeweler’s loupe to breakthrough 21st-century technologies, the tools and products the Institute develops serve a single purpose: to protect all who buy or sell gemstones.
Consumers deserve – and want – information about their gems so they can make informed purchase decisions and have trust in their gems and jewelry. They want to know where their gemstones come from, and what factors affect their quality and value. They want to know if they are natural or man-made (also called laboratory-grown) or if they’ve been treated to enhance their appearance. They want to be protected.
Throughout its nearly 90-year history, GIA has created services and instruments to uphold its mission of protecting the public’s trust in gems and jewelry. This research-based effort grew in importance and impact as new gem treatments and laboratory-grown gems entered the market.
All of this built on GIA’s legacy of innovation.
Gemological Innovation: Central to GIA’s Mission
Gemology was a relatively new science when Robert Shipley, Sr. founded GIA in 1931. It was new enough that there were few suitable instruments that provided the ability to conduct detailed examinations of gemstones.

Robert Shipley Jr. developed several important gemological instruments that are still in use today, including the iconic 10x loupe. Photo by GIA
That did not deter Shipley’s son, Robert Jr., from adapting and developing instruments to accomplish that task. Within a few years, he developed several important instruments that are still in use today. In 1934, GIA introduced the iconic 10x loupe that hangs around every gem dealer’s and jeweler’s neck today. Shipley Jr. also developed a gem-testing polariscope to determine whether a stone is singly or doubly refractive, a very important factor in identifying gemstones. His binocular microscope with darkfield illumination remains standard equipment in every gem lab today.
These instruments were, and remain, invaluable for gemological work in differentiating minerals with similar appearances. For example, a “ruby” in the British crown jewels was later found to be a red spinel. Even with these innovations, the need for further gem testing equipment continued.

GIA has a long history of pursing scientific investigations to gather and analyze data on gemstones, identifying practical solutions to gemological challenges and communicating their findings. In this undated photo, from left, Robert Crowningshield, the longtime director of GIA’s New York laboratory; Thomas Moses, now executive vice president and chief lab and research officer; and Ilene Reinitz, a senior project manager.
In the early 1940s, Shipley, Sr. and Richard T. Liddicoat, who became GIA’s second president, devised a scientific process to standardize diamond grading that removed much of subjectivity and variations that prevailed in the market at that time. A decade later, Liddicoat and others built on the 4Cs of diamond quality (color, clarity, cut, carat weight) developed by Shipley and codified these standards into the International Diamond Grading System for D-to-Z diamonds, which established a common standard and language to describe diamond color and clarity. This system is the recognized and accepted standard worldwide; it has facilitated diamond trading and helped consumers to better know what they are buying for decades.
The influx of cultured pearls in the mid-1900s created the necessity to accurately differentiate them from natural ones. GIA scientists developed a specialized X-ray unit to provide a definitive answer at a low cost. In the 1950s, diamonds treated with radiation began showing up in the market. Robert Crowningshield, who was vice president of GIA’s New York laboratory and pioneered many gem identification techniques, determined how to recognize most of them using a spectroscope he adapted for gemological use.
A Research Team to Focus on Gem Treatments, Identification
By the mid-1970s, a growing number of gemstone treatments and laboratory-grown gems were entering the market – heat-treated sapphires, laser drilling of diamonds, more varieties of cultured pearls and an influx of laboratory-grown rubies. As consumer demand soared, so did the urgency to identify these stones. This prompted GIA to create a dedicated, full-time research department. This initially small research team was instrumental in developing colored stone, pearl and diamond identification methods and techniques to identify these treatments and sharing them with the industry-at-large through its quarterly professional journal, Gems & Gemology.

The Summer 2019 issue of Gems & Gemology features a wall chart of inclusions in natural, treated, synthetic and imitation opal. The platinum pendant shown on the cover features a 9.39 ct black opal accented by 0.25 ct pear-shaped diamond and 0.90 carats of round Paraíba tourmalines. Designed by Niveet Nagpal, courtesy of Omi Privé. The background is a photomicrograph of a black opal from Lightning Ridge, Australia, showing broad, angular flashes of play-of-color known as a harlequin or mosaic pattern. Diffuse reflected light, vertical field of view approximately 12 mm. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro.
A new treatment emerged in the late 1990s in which diamonds were subjected to high temperature and pressure to improve their color. Within a few months, the GIA research team employed a full array of available and adapted technology, and was able to determine how to identify the treatments and prevent a potential crisis of consumer confidence.
Moving into the digital age, GIA, as part of its diamond-cut research project, developed an accurate system to evaluate diamond cut quality. Based on this extensive diamond research, Facetware estimates the cut grade of round brilliant cut diamonds. The system is underpinned by the fundamental ray tracing work GIA did over decades, modeling the proportions of several million diamonds examined by GIA and using the results to polish additional diamonds to verify the modeled results. The Facetware software was then made available to instrument manufacturers to incorporate into their non-contact measurement devices.

GIA’s iD100® device screens for laboratory-grown diamonds and simulants. Photo by GIA
Screening for Laboratory-Grown Diamonds
One of the latest GIA advances is a result of the concern about knowing whether a diamond is natural or laboratory-grown.
Because the majority of melee-size diamonds do not go through gemological laboratories for grading and identification, GIA developed the iD100® device to screen for laboratory-grown diamonds and simulants. The desktop unit is particularly suited for retailers and jewelry manufacturers who need to be sure about the material they are selling or setting in jewelry. Using spectroscopic technology, the device can definitively separate all laboratory-grown diamonds (both HPHT and CVD) and all simulants (cubic zirconia and moissanite) from natural diamonds. The screening takes less than two seconds per stone and can the instrument can screen loose or mounted diamonds as small as 0.9 mm.
Ensuring Transparency, Traceability and Authenticity
More and more consumers want to know where their gems come from, including the country, and be assured of their quality and authenticity.
GIA has offered country of origin reports for some colored gemstones for many years. Scientists are able to make these determinations based on scientific data from samples collected by GIA field gemologists at mining locations throughout the world. These reports are available for ruby, sapphire, emerald, Paraíba tourmaline, red spinel and alexandrite.

GIA’s Diamond Origin Report service can confirm the country of origin of polished diamonds.
In March 2019, GIA introduced its Diamond Origin Report service, which can confirm the country of origin of polished diamonds. Rough diamonds submitted to GIA before they are faceted and polished are examined to record identifying information. Each rough diamond is assigned a unique identification number. Then, when the resulting polished diamonds are sent to GIA for grading, that same information is used to match the polished gem to its original rough. Through this scientific matching process, GIA can confirm the country of origin information provided by the participating mining company.
The GIA Diamond Origin Report includes the country of origin, a full 4Cs quality analysis of each diamond and a report number inscription. Consumers can access the diamond’s full grading details online through the GIA Origin app and the online GIA Report Check service, and also find video and photos of the rough and polished diamond, its corresponding original rough and detailed background information on the country from which it originated. Click here to see a sample report for a diamond from Canada.
GIA launched digital diamond grading reports secured by emerging blockchain technology with retailer Chow Tai Fook in 2018 to even further enhance the customer's knowledge of where their gem came from.
The GIA diamond grading information is added to Chow Tai Fook’s T-MARK app, enabling customers to confirm that their diamond matches the GIA report. The blockchain-secured reports provide confidence for the consumer and protects the integrity of GIA reports by ensuring transparency, authenticity and verifiability for diamonds throughout their journey from manufacturer to consumer.

The blockchain diamond grading report includes the key GIA grading data – Color, Clarity, Cut, Carat Weight, Shape and Cutting Style – and GIA’s Statement of Authenticity. Left, GIA blockchain diamond grading report; right, icon on GIA Report Check indicating blockchain-enabled report number.
Looking to Future Services
Institute leaders believe blockchain technology could have broader application to how GIA and its clients manage diamond grading and other reports and services in the future.
“We are working with IBM on research on how we might be able to use technology, including artificial intelligence, to scan a diamond and link – via blockchain – to the GIA grading report for that diamond,” says Tom Moses, executive vice president and chief laboratory and research officer for GIA. “Blockchain technology might also be used as part of our diamond origin service, which can match polished diamonds to their original rough to confirm the diamond’s country of origin.
“Both applications demonstrate GIA’s commitment to making sure the diamond’s history is documented and transparent.” @chapter:24


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Remarkably Large Iridescent Healed Fissures Resembling Play-of-Color in Sapphire Abstract: Figure 1. Large iridescent healed fissures in an oval mixed-cut sapphire. Photo by Shunsuke Nagai; field of view 12.20 mm

An interesting iridescent pattern was recently observed in a blue sapphire. Gemological properties and inclusions indicated a natural sapphire, and the UV-Vis-NIR spectrum suggested basalt-related origin (e.g., A.A. Levinson and F.A. Cook, “Gem corundum in alkali basalt: Origin and occurrence,” Winter 1994 G&G, pp. 253–262). The characteristic inclusions of blue color concentrations surrounding exsolution particles of rutile and numerous partially dissolved needles provide evidence of heat treatment (J.I. Koivula, “Internal diffusion,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 20, No. 7/8, 1987, pp. 474–477).

Figure 2. Iridescent dendritic healed fissures in sapphire. Photomicrographs by Makoto Miura; field of view 2.10 mm (left) and 1.30 mm (right).
Notably, this sapphire included unique large partially healed fissures showing attractive iridescence (figure 1). Similar iridescent healed fissures in sapphires and rubies from basaltic deposits have been previously documented (e.g., E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 3, Opinio Verlag, Basel, Switzerland, 2008, pp. 110 and 216–220); however, the healed fissures in this sapphire were remarkably large and visible to the unaided eye (figure 1). The fissures nearly parallel to the table facet showed variously colored iridescence with dendritic patterns (figure 2). Trapped air in a cemented plane of a doublet can also show such patterns (see Spring 2019 Lab Notes, p. 92), but this stone has no assembly feature. These attractive iridescent colors, resembling the “play-of-color” of precious opal, result from thin-film interference. This is a unique visual effect created by internal features in heat-treated corundum. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 2003 Title: Winter 2003 G&G Book Reviews Abstract: “Tiffany Flora & Fauna”
By John Loring, 256 pp., two vols., illus., publ. by Harry N. Abrams, New York, 2003. US$50.00

“Burma Ruby: A History of Mogok’s Rubies from Antiquity to the Present”
By S. K. Samuels, 254 pp., illus., publ. by S.K.S. Enterprises, Tucson, AZ, 2003. US$45.00

“Gems from the East and West: The Doris Duke Jewelry Collection”
By Janet Zapata, Ulysses Dietz, and Zette Emmons, 120 pp., illus., publ. by the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, New York, 2003. US$27.50

“The Rings Book”
By Ole Johnsen, 439 pp., illus., publ. by Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2002. US$49.50

“Cultured Pearl: Charm of the Pearl”
By Shigeru Akamatsu, 179 pp., illus., publ. by Shinju Shinnbun Co., Tokyo, 2003 (in Japanese). 3,800¥

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:21


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Colorless to Near-Colorless Diamonds, Emeralds from Pakistan, a History of European Royal Jewel Sales, and More… Abstract: Welcome to the Fall Gems & Gemology! This issue offers an exciting glimpse into the world of D-to-Z diamonds, characterizes the inclusion features and chemical composition of emeralds from Swat Valley, and details the acquisition and auction of crown jewels by European royalty.
“An exciting glimpse into the world of D-to-Z diamonds…”
In the lead article, a GIA team led by Sally Eaton-Magaña and Christopher M. Breeding examines colorless to light yellow/brown diamonds with a “D-to-Z” color grade, which make up the vast majority of the world’s gem diamond trade. Because this group of mostly type Ia diamonds has not been subjected to HPHT decolorizing treatment or laboratory growth, researchers usually investigate their more rare diamond type counterparts. This study evaluates diamond type properties and grading quality factors of D-to-Z diamonds submitted to GIA in 2017 and sheds light on their unique geological formation story.
The second article comes from a team led by Hongshu Guo, a student at the School of Gemology, China University of Geosciences in Beijing. The authors present the gemological and geochemical details of emeralds (including trapiche emeralds) from Swat Valley in Pakistan.
In the third article, Russell Shor examines how European royal families acquired their crown jewels, which were later sold at important auctions. The most recent of these was Sotheby’s historic Bourbon-Parma auction in 2018, in which 10 of the lots once belonged to Marie Antoinette.
Next, Ling Liu and colleagues from the Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences in Wuhan characterize turquoise from China’s Hubei Province with a rare surface pattern of spots resembling raindrops. They identify the color origin and formation mechanism of this distinctive pattern.
The final article is a field report from Hạ Long Bay in northern Vietnam, where in late 2019 Nicholas Sturman and coauthors visited a shell nucleus manufacturing factory and two pearl farms, all managed by Orient Pearls (Bangkok) Ltd. The team observed how high-quality bead nuclei are fabricated and used to produce Vietnamese bead cultured pearls suitable for fine jewelry on a commercial scale.
Our regular features continue to highlight interesting gemological findings from around the world. In Lab Notes, discover how gem cutters cleverly use color zoning in alexandrite and closely spaced needles in diaspore to showcase phenomena, and how areas of dramatic fluorescence correspond to diamond defects and produce a “lightsaber” effect. Curiosities abound in the Micro-World section: epigenetic residue mimicking a fried egg, metal sulfide inclusions resembling trees, and ferrocolumbite posing as star cruisers. Gem News International reports on bead cultured pearls with embedded electronic devices and Maxixe beryl with an unusual violet color, among other exciting topics.
This issue also contains the list of winners from this year’s G&G Challenge quiz. Congratulations, and our special thanks to everyone who participated! @chapter:20


Publication Year: 2007 Title: Spring 2007 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Blue Diamonds Showing Multiple Colors of Phosphorescence
Diamond with “Etched Dislocation Loops”
HPHT-Annealed Yellow-Orange Diamond with a Strong 480 nm Absorption Band
Translucent Greenish Yellow Diamonds
Unusual Natural-Color Black Diamond
Synthetic Diamond, Possibly Grown at Higher Temperatures
Heat-Treated Blue Sapphire with Unusual Dendrites
Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG) with a Dislocation Spiral

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:11


Publication Year: 1986 Title: Winter 1986 Gem News International Abstract: Colored Stones
            Amblygonite Treatment
            Bicolored Beryl
            Electrically Treated Chalcedony
            Green Sphene
            Important New Amazonite Find
            Intergem Idar-Oberstein 1986
            Kenyan Rubies Exported to Thailand
            Metavariscite
            New Find of Elbaite Tourmaline
Announcements
            American Gem Society Conclave
            International Colored Gemstone Association

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:3


Publication Year: 1992 Title: Winter 1992 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Diamond with Etched Dislocation Channels
Colored Diamond Crystal Set in a "Renaissance Ring"
Synthetic Emerald Overgrowth on Faceted Beryls Used in Jewelry
Pink Hydrogrossular Garnet
Black Opal
Freshwater Natural Pearl from Alabama
Synthetic Green Quartz
Color-Zoned Sapphire
Durability of Diffusion-Treated Sapphire
Yellow Sapphire with Unusual Fluorescence
Synthetic Star Sapphire of Unusual Color
Unusual Bicolor Zoisite

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:32


Publication Year: 2002 Title: Spring 2002 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Diamond Color Grade vs. Value for Fancy Colors
Diamond with Eclogitic Inclusions
Diamond with a Large Void
Gem-Quality Genthelvite
Jadeite Carving: Assembled, Dyed, and Impregnated
Coated Natural Pearls
Spinel in Heat-Treated Blue Sapphire

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:29


Publication Year: 2008 Title: Characterization of Emeralds from a Historical Deposit: Byrud (Eidsvoll), Norway Abstract: An emerald deposit at Byrud, in southern Norway, yielded significant quantities of crystals and gem rough in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Complex multiphase inclusions in the emeralds consist of water, gaseous methane, halite, sylvite, calcite, and a sulfide assemblage (pyrrhotite, galena, and sphalerite). This sulfide assemblage makes it easy to distinguish Byrud emeralds from those from other localities with a binocular microscope. The chemical composition of Byrud emeralds is also characteristic: They are colored mostly by vanadium (up to 1 wt.% V2O3), and contain low sodium and magnesium (0.1 wt.% oxide or less). Moreover, the relative amounts of iron, magnesium, chromium, rubidium, and cesium appear to be diagnostic. Infrared absorption spectra show that they contain little water. Emeralds from the Byrud deposit are still occasionally recovered by hobbyist collectors from the mine dumps.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Table 1: Minerals Associated with Byrud Emerald and Their Relative Abundance
Table 2: Details of the LA-ICP-MS Analyses of Three Byrud Emeralds
Table 3: Chemical Composition of Norwegian Emeralds by Electron Microprobe
	Submitted by Benjamin Rondeau
	Summer, 2008 @chapter:6


Publication Year: 2015 Title: Unusual Pink Sapphire Bead Abstract: Figure 1. This 17.25-mm-long bead contained more than 30 randomly oriented drill holes. Photo by Nathan Renfro.

              How to ruin a gem-quality natural untreated tumble-polished sapphire? Fill it with numerous drill holes! At 9.36 ct and measuring 17.25 × 9.13 × 6.21 mm, the purplish pink bead shown in figure 1 had the perfect form to produce a very attractive faceted pear-shaped gem, but that effort seemingly ended in failure. These drill holes, more than 30 of them in all, stood out in high relief because they were at least partially filled with a dark unidentified residue. This leaves the question of why anyone would drill so many holes in a perfectly good sapphire. Closer microscopic examination revealed a possible clue. At the surface of three of the holes were small bright red fragments, identified by Raman analysis as ruby (figure 2). Yet we were unable to determine if the fragments were natural or synthetic, due to their small size. Further analysis with advanced analytical equipment would be required to make this separation. The implication is that if all the drill holes contained a bright red ruby, this would have enhanced the light pink appearance of the bead. Because so many of the ruby fragments were missing, the unsightly drill holes made for a rather unattractive gem bead.

Figure 2. Three of the drill holes, seen here using diffuse transmitted light and oblique fiber-optic illumination, contained a small ruby fragment identified by Raman analysis. Field of view 4.40 mm. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro. @chapter:9


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Varieties of Rutilated Quartz – Tucson 2014 Abstract: Figure 1. This 85 ct quartz crystal contains bright reddish rutile needles. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Rare Earth Mining Co.

              Rutilated quartz has come into its own as a mainstream gem material, thanks in part to its seemingly infinite variety and one-of-a-kind appeal for jewelry designers. Reddish rutile, owing its color to traces of iron, was exhibited at the AGTA show by Rare Earth Mining Co. (Trumbull, Connecticut). Rare Earth CEO Bill Heher said the material was recovered from Bahia in northern Brazil some decades ago before the mine closed. But due to the rising value of rutilated quartz, the deposit has been reopened and worked in recent years. The distinctiveness of the material, in this case an 85 ct gem (figure 1), lies in its relative transparency and bright reddish color—which can be matched or contrasted in jewelry.

Golden and copper-color rutile is traditionally seen in quartz, and connoisseurs are always on the lookout for a six-rayed star pattern of rutile. Though such stars occur regularly in the rock crystal, they are rarely oriented in such a way to be easily cut into a faceted or cabochon gem. Strong, isolated rutile stars located in the rough must be painstakingly oriented to be visible face-forward, as in the 34.55 ct gem (figure 2) cut by Falk Burger (Hard Works, Tucson). At the center of the star, an additional inclusion of hematite is visible.

	Figure 2. This 34.55 ct quartz has been cut to display the star-shaped needle formation. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Hard Works.

	Figure 3. This 209.06 ct quartz features a rose-shaped cluster of inclusions. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Hard Works.
Burger said that rutile can take unusual forms as well. Minute gray rutile needles in the top of the quartz in figure 3 are clustered in the shape of a rose. The quartz also contains layers of pink and greenish chlorite phantoms. The quartz itself weighs 209.06 ct, and was fashioned by Burger to best exhibit the rutile rose. @chapter:10


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Quarterly Crystal: Fibers and Rods in Euclase Abstract: Figure 1. The orange-pink color of this 10.82 ct Brazilian euclase is reminiscent of padparadscha sapphire. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

From time to time in the laboratory, we run into problems that we just cannot resolve. Just such a situation was recently encountered when we examined a very unusual 10.82 ct transparent euhedral crystal of orange-pink euclase measuring 14.71 mm wide, pictured in figure 1. We knew from experience that the natural surface striations on this transparent crystal would make conclusive identification of the inclusions difficult at best. The euclase crystal, recently recovered during limited mining in Livramento de Nossa Senhora in Bahia, Brazil, was acquired from Luciana Barbosa of the Gemological Center in Asheville, North Carolina. The cause of the unusual padparadscha-like orange-pink color of this euclase production was determined to result from impurities of Mn3+ (L. Gilles-Guéry et al., “Mn3+ and the pink color of gem-quality euclase from northeast Brazil,” accepted by American Mineralogist, 2021).

Figure 2. Attempts to identify these acicular inclusions discovered in the 14.71 mm euclase crystal proved unsuccessful. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 2.56 mm.
On examination with a gemological microscope, we observed fine branching fibers and rods of white to red-brown color suspended in the euclase (figure 2). The red-brown color of some of the inclusions suggested epigenetic alteration at some point.

Figure 3. With a dark brown fluid and a moving bubble, this tiny cylindrical void was a surprising discovery. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 0.288 mm.
As shown in the photomicrograph in figure 3, we observed a tiny hollow cylindrical void containing a dark brown fluid and a mobile gas bubble. The color of the fluid made it difficult to clearly see the gas bubble, unless it was moving.
As we suspected, laser Raman microspectrometry could not pin down the identification of the inclusions. Raman testing only showed the peaks for the euclase host. We also tried energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) to pick up any hints of unusual chemistry, but again useful information eluded us. After several tries at both Raman and EDXRF, we finally realized that destructive analysis would be needed for a clear identification of the inclusions. Since this well-formed euclase crystal has a very rare and unusual color, we decided not to use destructive analysis. We would keep the euclase intact, to be enjoyed as a gem mineral specimen. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Jewelry Television in Tucson Abstract: Figure 1. Broadcasting from the gem shows helps Jewelry Television educate viewers about colored gemstones. Photo courtesy of Jewelry Television.

Jay Boyle, senior gemstone buyer at Jewelry Television (Knoxville, Tennessee), spoke with us about the importance of the Tucson shows to JTV as well as the impact of television on the trade at large. We saw him conduct live broadcasts from the gem fair and interview dealers at their booths (figure 1). Mr. Boyle said the key to buying for television is finding beautiful gems at low market prices and being able to tell the story and romance the stone while educating the customer.

He pointed out that finding beautiful stones is easy, but it is considerably more difficult to obtain them at a great value price point that is right for the television network’s customers; in fact, there is an art to the process. Major dealers from all over the world come to Tucson and sell all varieties of gemstones, making it advantageous for JTV to attend. These dealers frequently sell stones among themselves at true wholesale prices, so Mr. Boyle has the opportunity to find attractive stones at the right price and value for television (figure 2). In Tucson, buyers can survey everything coming from the sources, including new production, and discover the true market prices, all within one week. He added, “If you have a reputation as a serious, knowledgeable buyer that buys in quantity and has cash to buy, you can find the real market price.”

Figure 2. During times when prices are firm, buying decisions and quality control are even more crucial. Jay Boyle and Natalie Tjaden of Jewelry Television keep this in mind as they examine gemstones in a dealer’s booth. Photo courtesy of Jewelry Television.
According to Mr. Boyle, the best time to purchase is when the material first hits the market. Another good time to buy is when there is a sudden increase in production. In 2001, JTV bought a large tsavorite lot containing more than 2,200 carats of material ranging from 2 to 10 ct per stone. The color and clarity were fine, and the price was a good value at $350 per carat. They took a small margin and sold the production quickly; 5 to 7 ct gem-quality tsavorites went for $500 per carat. Today, the wholesale prices for the material are many times that price, and longtime customers see the value of purchasing at the right time. Another successful venture began in 2006, when Mr. Boyle started buying “best of show” material of all gem species, at the best price possible. These stones were sold during special broadcasts called “The Vault” (figure 3). The highest price recorded on the show was a $400,000 sapphire. Regular viewers know that at times JTV has sold remaining inventory below cost, and some actually make a business out of reselling this merchandise.

Figure 3. The pendant worn by host Dawn Tesh (left) contains a 102 ct aquamarine that was sold during a 2009 broadcast of “The Vault” on Jewelry Television. Photo courtesy of Jewelry Television.
Founded in 1993, Jewelry Television broadcasts 24 hours a day, reaching 84 million homes. Ninety-five percent of the gemstones sell for $10 to $5,000 apiece. Viewers are introduced to gemstones they had never encountered, such as padparadscha sapphire, Paraíba tourmaline, and color-change garnet, while learning about the gem business and how to recognize bargains. Some steady customers tune in for 10 hours a day. When Jewelry Television first started offering loose colored stones, they were thrilled to sell $15,000 in an eight-hour period. Now they sell up to $400,000 of loose colored stones in an hour, and it is common to ship between 18,000 and 25,000 packages in one day. Mr. Boyle feels that JTV is driving business throughout the retail industry by promoting colored stones, as some viewers will learn about a given gemstone and then visit a local jeweler to make a purchase.

Between 30% and 35% of the company’s $400–$500 million in annual sales are online at jtv.com, which complements rather than replaces television sales. The website is also used to clear inventory from television at liquidation prices. Due to the extremely high cost of airtime in the U.S., JTV must not only sell the entire inventory, but also sell it in a short time. That means the Internet can be used to move leftover inventory while fresh, faster-moving products are sold on television. The network plans to eventually host web-only streaming video broadcasts.

Interestingly, one of the most successful periods for Jewelry Television was during the global economic crisis. While many industry players had stopped buying by January 2009, Mr. Boyle had learned over the years that dealers sell below cost during a recession. At the 2009 Tucson show, he bought $7 million in gemstones, including $3 million in tanzanite from one dealer alone. Since Mr. Boyle had well-established buying relationships with dealers, they were willing to accept his plan to promote a buying opportunity for TV customers. The promotion of below-market prices created a frenzy of activity for Jewelry Television. While these bargains were more plentiful in 2009, Mr. Boyle said there are still great opportunities below market value every year in Tucson. Although he was buying less than usual this year, JTV still actively sought material throughout the show. Among the stones we saw Mr. Boyle buying were rhodochrosite and Ethiopian opal. @chapter:33