Publication Year: - Title: Paspaley: Inside an Exclusive South Sea Pearl Auction Abstract: View Gallery

The first stop for nearly all saltwater cultured pearls on their way to market is the producer auction. Three or four times each year, the producers of South Sea and French Polynesian black cultured pearls auction their harvests in Hong Kong. Akoyas are auctioned in Kobe, Japan.

In mid-September 2012, I visited the auction held by Paspaley, the largest producer of South Sea cultured pearls, to see exactly how these sales work. Such auctions are normally by invitation only, so it was a rare glimpse inside this part of the pearl world.

The harvest was divided into several dozen lots, based on quality factors; size, shape (roundness), luster and color. Most of the lots carried reserve prices, given in Japanese yen, total weight in momme (1 momme = 3.75 grams) and a quality designation (AAA, AA, etc.). Paspaley’s people matched some of the top-quality pieces into strands, several of which had undisclosed reserve prices.

During the one-day auction, invited dealers were given fifteen minutes to examine each lot on which they planned to bid. Those who wanted a very close look could leave a place card on the auction display and carry the lot to a back table—Paspaley’s staff was quite adamant about the fifteen-minute rule. After looking over the goods, the dealers completed bid forms, which they left in the “ballot box” at the end of the display table.

All of the bidders were pearl wholesalers from the U.S., China, Japan and Europe. The September auction, which included golden cultured pearls from producers in the Philippines, is typically the smallest of the company’s quarterly sales.

Pearl producers developed the auction system about thirty years ago because it was the most efficient way of getting goods to market and determining prices. Before then, Paspaley and others sold their production to the Japanese wholesalers who once dominated the market. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Green Opal Displaying Aventurescence Abstract: Figure 1. Opal with unusual aventurescence, seen with fiber-optic lighting. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

Recently the Carlsbad laboratory received a variegated dark green and blue partially polished rough stone for identification services. The stone measured 23.64 × 20.13 × 15.52 mm and weighed 23.74 ct (figure 1). A vitreous to waxy luster and bright yellow inclusions were observed.
Standard gemological testing revealed a refractive index spot reading of 1.43 and a specific gravity of 2.15 obtained hydrostatically. These properties were consistent with opal. During microscopic analysis, fine hazy clouds and turbidity were seen within the structure, as well as a reddish brown portion with iron staining. Although no play-of-color was observed, an unusual aventurescence was seen in several areas with fiber-optic lighting while rotating the stone. This unusual phenomenon was caused by the scattering of light from the small, eye-visible yellow inclusions (figure 2). These inclusions were later confirmed by Raman spectroscopy as pyrite.

Figure 2. Scattered inclusions in the green opal were identified by Raman spectroscopy as pyrite. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 1.79 mm.
LA-ICP-MS analysis was performed on the sample to investigate which chromophore was responsible for its green color. The results showed that the stone contained approximately 3540 ppma Fe. No other chromophoric trace elements were measured in significant quantities, indicating that iron was most likely the cause of the green color. UV-Vis-NIR spectra were collected and used to quantitatively calculate the color of this material (figures 3 and 4, table 1). In figure 3, a broad absorption band centered at about 741 nm produces the green color of the opal. This absorption band is likely related to octahedral Fe2+. Previous publications have shown that iron can produce green color in quartz due to an absorption band centered at 741 nm relating to interstitial Fe2+ (L.B. Hebert and G.R. Rossman, “Greenish quartz from the Thunder Bay amethyst mine panorama (TBAMP), Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada,” Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 46, No. 1, 2008, pp. 111–124). Octahedral Fe2+ can strongly absorb red, orange, and some portion of yellow light of the visible spectrum to produce a transmission window in the yellowish green region. In this case, a transmission window around 570 nm results in the green color in the iron opal (solid line in figure 3). The presence of some additional Fe3+ cannot be ruled out and may contribute to the rise in absorption at shorter wavelengths into the UV region.

Figure 3. The spectra of the two types of opal were measured and renormalized for comparison with each other with similar lightness (see corresponding color panels in table 1). The solid line represents iron opal. The broad absorption band centered at 741 nm is likely caused by interstitial Fe2+. The dashed line represents chromium opal. The smaller absorption band centered at around 600 nm is caused mainly by Cr3+.
Another type of green opal colored by Cr3+ (Winter 2020 Lab Notes, pp. 520–521) was compared with the iron-colored opal (solid line in figure 3). Cr3+ produces a smaller absorption band centered at about 600 nm, leading to a transmission window in the green region around 540 nm that causes a less yellow and more pure green color (figure 3).
The two color panels calculated from the two spectra were also plotted in the CIE L*a*b* 1976 color circle seen in figure 4. This allows for a more accurate comparison between the two color panels using quantitative colorimetric data. In the plot, the hue angle of the iron opal is smaller than chromium opal, resulting in a more yellowish green hue. The chroma of the iron opal is larger than that of a chromium opal with similar lightness, resulting in a more saturated color.

Figure 4. Color panels corresponding to the two spectra were plotted in the CIE L*a*b* 1976 color circle. The color of the iron opal, looking more yellowish and saturated, has a smaller hue angle and larger chroma than the color of the more greenish and less saturated chromium opal. Both calculated color panels have similar lightness for comparison (table 1).

This green common opal is a clear example of iron contributing to the yellowish green color, in contrast to the more pure green color due to the chromium in the opal previously documented with a slightly grayish green color. Both the yellowish green color and pyrite inclusions are consistent with an iron-rich environment. The pyrite inclusions also add a unique display of aventurescence not typically seen in common opal. @chapter:39


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Books: The Art of Bulgari:La Dolce Vita and Beyond, 1950–1990 Abstract: By Martin Chapman and Amanda Triossi, 174 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by The Arts Museums of San Francisco/Delmonico Books/Prestel, 2013, $34.95.

              For those who associate Bulgari with vivid colored stone cabochons or antique Roman coins mounted in gold jewelry, Chapman and Triossi’s book is an eye-opener. The Art of Bulgari served as the catalog for the exhibition of the same name at the de Young Museum in San Francisco, intended to chronicle the succession of glamorous celebrities who have worn Bulgari from the dolce vita years of Italian cultural creativity through today. The authors also aim to trace the development of Bulgari’s creative aesthetic through compelling and sometimes surprising examples of its work. In both respects, they succeed.

The jewelry and luxury goods firm is so strongly associated with Rome that it may surprise readers to know that the founder, Sortirio Bulgari, opened his first shop in his native Greece. He later relocated to Naples, and finally to Rome in 1881, where the flagship store, opened in 1905, still stands at 10 Via Condotti.

Prior to World War II, the company operated as a traditional goldsmith shop, but thanks to Sortirio’s forward-thinking sons Costantino and Giorgio, Bulgari began to take a more contemporary direction. Jewelry inspired by Greco-Roman classicism, the Italian Renaissance, and the 19th-century Roman school of goldsmiths took hold, as Bulgari acquired important gemstones and created exclusive luxury pieces, including an emerald and diamond necklace commissioned by American socialite Brooke Astor.

In the post-war 1950s and ’60s, American movies were often filmed in Italy, where production costs were advantageous. As a result, many Hollywood stars fell in love with Bulgari’s bold new style, which featured large pieces set with colored gemstones. Most notable of these was Elizabeth Taylor, although Audrey Hepburn, Ingrid Bergman, Ava Gardner, and Gina Lollobrigida were also steady customers. Wealthy and influential socialites, including Barbara Hutton and Diana Vreeland, also became collectors.

Beginning with the 1950s, Chapman and Triossi show us the evolution, decade by decade, of Bulgari’s distinctive style. The use of color in so many Bulgari pieces stands out, but some gold and diamond jewels featured in this book, such as the Fireworks necklace and the Parentese parure, both from the Heritage Collection, are likewise dazzling.

The book devotes a chapter to pieces from Elizabeth Taylor’s Bulgari collection. Taylor is quoted as saying, “Undeniably, one of the biggest advantages of working on Cleopatra in Rome was [the Bulgari store].” It is clear how dearly she loved this jewelry, wearing her Heritage Collection platinum necklace with emeralds and diamonds to receive an Academy Award in 1966 and again when she was introduced to Queen Elizabeth II of England.

The Art of Bulgari also showcases whimsical pieces  that are relatively unknown. Such items include a gold measuring stick (1970), a silver-and-gold St. Moritz cigarette case (1977), a silver-and-gold tennis ball canister (1980), and a wonderful boat paperweight (1974) fashioned of sterling and gilded silver to look like a boat of folded paper. An exotic gold table clock with onyx, mother-of-pearl, and diamond (1980) is set off by two antique Chinese jade belt hooks.

The text is enhanced by excellent photography, with many jewels displayed in full-page plates. Original sketches of jewelry designs also add visual interest and insight, and photos of famous clientele wearing their Bulgari jewels abound. From magnificent bib necklaces and snake bracelet watches, to the whimsical Star-Spangled Banner series and ice cream cone brooches, this is a stunning look at Bulgari.

Chapman is a curator at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, and Triossi, a jewelry historian and consultant, is curator of the Bulgari Heritage Collection. Together, the authors do an admirable job of presenting Bulgari’s history and cultural impact. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Pink Pyrope Garnet Abstract: A 7.26 ct modified round brilliant identified as pink pyrope garnet. Photo by Towfiq Ahmed; courtesy of Bill Vance.
The Carlsbad laboratory received a 7.26 ct pink modified round brilliant (see above) for a colored stone identification report. Standard gemological testing revealed that the stone was singly refractive with a refractive index (RI) of 1.741 and a hydrostatic specific gravity (SG) of 3.77, properties consistent with garnet. Internally the stone was quite clean, with microscopic examination revealing scattered short needles.
The garnet group is composed of more than 20 species, all of them sharing the basic chemical formula X3Y2(SiO4)3. Five of these species are common within the jewelry industry: almandine, andradite, grossular, pyrope, and spessartine. Andradite and grossular are ugrandite garnets; they have calcium in the X site of their chemical formula. Almandine, pyrope, and spessartine are all pyralspite garnets containing aluminum in the Y site. Isomorphous replacement, in which one chemical element substitutes for another in a mineral’s crystal structure, makes it possible for garnets to be a chemical mixture of two or more garnet species. GIA gemologists use a garnet’s gemological properties and chemistry to categorize the stone into its particular species.
Chemical analysis revealed that the 7.26 ct stone was a pyralspite garnet due to the high aluminum concentration (values expressed in wt.%: MgO 18.50%, Al2O3 23.05%, SiO2 41.32%, CaO 1.89%, TiO2 0.05%, V2O3 0.02%, Cr2O3 0.04%, MnO 11.93%, Fe2O3 3.17%). The composition of this garnet and its gemological properties were consistent with pyrope, which has an RI of 1.73–1.75, an SG of 3.78 (+0.009/–0.016), and magnesium dominating the X site and minor amounts of manganese and iron. Pyrope garnet, though, has a color range of red to reddish orange and colorless. Pink pyrope garnet is incredibly rare, especially in stones of this size.
Pyrope-spessartine can have a bodycolor similar to pyrope but has an RI range of 1.75 to over the limit and an SG of 3.78, both higher than the values documented for this pink garnet. The fact that garnet can be a mixture of species can make the identification of these stones challenging. This example is an important reminder to carefully analyze a garnet’s gemological properties to accurately identify it and how the laboratory can use chemical analyses as validation. @chapter:10


Publication Year: - Title: On the Trail of Africa’s Hidden Gems with GIA’s Field Gemologists Abstract: Seeking Africa’s Hidden Gems

	On the trail of Africa’s hidden gems with GIA’s field gemologists

	Join GIA’s field gemologists as they trek through the gem mining areas of Madagascar, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, and Mozambique. This short video reveals the diverse character of colored gemstone mining in East Africa, running the gamut from small-scale artisanal workings to big mechanized mines run by multinational companies.

	On one end of the scale, you’ll catch a glimpse of the independent miners’ tough working conditions in Madagascar, Kenya, and Tanzania, and perhaps witness a little of their irrepressible spirit as well. “We come here to give the Devil a hard time,” says Peter, a Kenyan miner laboring in the dust of an underground tunnel. “So we tell him to release the stones now…they don’t belong to him anymore.”

	“They all live in darkness until they’re taken out into the light…,” he continues with a smile.

	At the other extreme is Zambia’s KAGEM emerald mine, with its heavy machinery and geological surveying, backed by the multinational corporation, Gemfields. “It’s all about economics…your revenue per carat versus cost per carat,” says Gemfields geologist Robert Gessner.

	Finally you’ll stop off in Mozambique with the GIA team for a brief visit to the Montepuez ruby mine, another Gemfields operation.

	These GIA Field Expeditions (FE39 and FE55) took place in 2012 and 2014 respectively. Along with Vincent Pardieu and cameraman Didier Gruel, expedition participants included GIA gemologist Jonathan Muyal, researcher Boris Chauviré of the Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique de Nantes, France, and Dr. Gaston Giuliani, Director of Research at the Institute of Research for Development (IRD) in Nancy, France. @chapter:24


Publication Year: 1981 Title: Nonfading Maxixe-Type Beryl? Abstract: It is sometimes stated that there exists some Maxixe-type deep blue beryl (occasionally misnamed "aquamarine") that does not fade. All specimens ever reported in the literature did fade, typically to almost colorless in one to two weeks in bright sunlight or over a somewhat longer period under less intense illumination. A "nonfading" specimen recently examined proved to be typical fading Maxixe-type beryl. A possible reason why such a stone might give the impression that it is nonfading is discussed. With the exception of some brown topaz and some kunzite, no significant gemstone material fades on the same time scale as does Maxixe-type beryl. @chapter:9


Publication Year: - Title: Spring 2011 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Large HPHT-Treated Cape Diamond
A Very Large Colorless HPHT-Treated Diamond
Thermoluminescence from Type IaB Diamonds
Two Diamonds Cut to Exhibit Inclusions
Halite Submitted for Identification
Three Similar-Appearing Green Stones: Jadeite, Omphacite, and Hydrogrossular
Beryllium- and Tungsten-Bearing Sapphires from Afghanistan
Aggregate of Black Synthetic Moissanite and Crystalline Silicon
Synthetic Star Spinel Imitation of Moonstone

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:32


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Agate Inclusion in Quartz from Brazil Abstract: Two faceted quartz with agate inclusions from Brazil, weighing 66.61 ct and 12.28 ct (shown in two positions and in short-wave UV). Photos by Jaroslav Hyršl.
Agates are undoubtedly one of the most common precious stones from Brazil. They come from basalts in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the border with Uruguay. This region is probably also the source of several unusual faceted quartz samples, purchased by the author in Brazil in 2019. These stones are up to 35 mm long and, except for abundant two-phase inclusions, contain flat, irregularly shaped inclusions. On two stones (see above), these inclusions reach the surface and show a typical agate structure, with several black, gray, and light brown layers. Their identity was proved by very weak quartz peaks in the Raman spectrum. Unexpected was their strong fluorescence in UV light, which is much stronger in short-wave UV. This fluorescence is concentrated in gray layers and is very likely caused by a trace presence of uranium, quite common in many agates and opals. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 2007 Title: Spring 2007 Gem News International Abstract: Tucson 2007
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            “Emerald” Green Fluorite from India
            Cat’s-Eye Leifite from Mont Saint-Hilaire, Canada
            Play-of-Color Opal from Piauí, Brazil
            Prehnite from Merelani, Tanzania
            Colorado Rhodochrosite Near End of Availability
            Serpentinite from Argentina, Marketed as “Andes Jade"
            New Variscite Production from Western Australia
Instruments and Techniques
            Portable Raman Spectrometer and the Crystal Sleuth Software
GNI Regular Features
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            Amethyst from the Democratic Republic of the Congo
            Color-Zoned Andradite from Iran, with Calcite Inclusions
            Emerald with Unusual Growth Features
            Grossular and Clinozoisite from San Diego County, California
            New Pegmatite Gem Production from Tsarafara, Madagascar
            Pezzottaite from Myanmar
            Cat’s-Eye Prehnite
            Cat’s-Eye Topaz from Sri Lanka
            Tourmaline (Dravite and Liddicoatite) from Northeastern Mozambique
            Turquoise from Nacozari, Sonora, Mexico
Treatments
            Lead Glass–Filled Rubies with Hollow Backs Set in a Closed Back Mounting
Miscellaneous
            October 2006 Myanmar Gem Emporium, and Other Gem News from Myanmar
Announcements
G&G Online Calendar
Exhibits
            Colored Diamonds at the London Natural History Museum
            Bernd Munsteiner Carvings at the GIA Museum
            Symbols of Identity—Jewelry of Five Continents
            French Jewelry at the Legion of Honor
            Native American Jewelry
            Gold at AMNH
            Jewelry of Ben Nighthorse

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:1


Publication Year: - Title: Winter 2007 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Colored Diamonds Break $1 Million per Carat with Record Auction Prices
            Namibian Diamond Mining by Namdeb
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            Double Jeopardy in Amber
            Inclusions in Andradite from Namibia
            Andradite from Baluchistan, Pakistan
            Two Axinite Species from Tanzania
            Baddeleyite from Mogok, Myanmar
            Chrysocolla Chalcedony from Iran/Armenia Area
            Yellow-Green Clinohumite and Yellow Chondrodite from Tanzania
            Transparent Dumortierite and Sapphirine from Tanzania
            Brazilian Blue Opal, with Cristobalite and Quartz
            Otolith Pendant
            Goethite and Hematite Inclusions in Quartz from Mina Da Batalha, Brazil
            Sinhalite from Myanmar
            Field Study of Cu-bearing Tourmaline Mines in Mozambique
            New Cu-bearing Tourmaline from Nigeria
Synthetics and Simulants
            New Tairus Synthetic Beryl Simulating “Paraíba” Tourmaline
            An Unusual YAG with a “Reverse” Color Change
Conference Reports
            Geological Society of America 2007
            Goldschmidt 2007
            The Madison Dialogue Ethical Jewelry Summit
Announcements
            Visit Gems & Gemology in Tucson
Exhibits
            Exhibits at the GIA Museum
            Gems! Colors of Light and Stone at the Bowers Museum
            The Aurora Collection at “The Vault” at the London NHM

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:1


Publication Year: - Title: Topaz Description Abstract: This selection of gems from Ouro Prêto, Brazil, and Russia's Ural Mountains, displays the golden orange to pinkish red color range of precious topaz. The gems range from 7.61 to 14.33 carats in size.

                      Many consumers know topaz as simply an inexpensive blue gem. They’re surprised to learn that its blue color is hardly ever natural: It’s almost always caused by treatment. They might also be surprised to know that topaz has so many more colors to offer gem lovers, including pinks and purples that rival the finest fancy sapphires.

	This superb reddish purple pear-shaped topaz from Brazil's Capão mine displays the gem’s top color. - Courtesy Dr. Wagner Colombarolli
Topaz is allochromatic, which means that its color is caused by impurity elements or defects in its crystal structure rather than by an element of its basic chemical composition. The element chromium causes natural pink, red, and violet-to-purple colors in topaz. Imperfections at the atomic level in topaz crystal structure can cause yellow, brown, and blue color. Brown is a common topaz color, and the gem is sometimes mistakenly called “smoky quartz.”

	So far, commercial deposits of imperial topaz are found in a single area of the world: Ouro Prêto in Brazil. The 6.00-carat pear shape and 3.82-carat antique cut display nuances of the gem's color. - Courtesy Suwa & Son

	Against the light, this crystal's color zones and high clarity stand out clearly. It might be possible to fashion a unique gem from this piece. - Courtesy Dr. Wagner Colombarolli
Topaz actually has an exceptionally wide color range that, besides brown, includes various tones and saturations of blue, green, yellow, orange, red, pink, and purple. Colorless topaz is plentiful, and is often treated to give it a blue color.

	Topaz crystals are typically elongated, with grooves parallel to their lengths. For this reason, they're commonly cut into long oval or pear shapes. These crystals show orange, pink, and brown colors. - Eric Welch/GIA
The color varieties are often identified simply by hue name—blue topaz, pink topaz, and so forth—but there are also a couple of special trade names. Imperial topaz is a medium reddish orange to orange-red. This is one of the gem’s most expensive colors. Sherry topaz—named after the sherry wine—is a yellowish brown or brownish yellow to orange. Stones in this color range are often called precious topaz to help distinguish them from the similarly colored but less expensive citrine and smoky quartz.

Topaz is also pleochroic, meaning that the gem can show different colors in different crystal directions. @chapter:3


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Color Study of Fancy Sapphire from Greenland Abstract: Figure 1. Part of the suite of sapphires studied for this project (weighing 0.23–1.41 ct). Photo by Sasithorn Engniwat; courtesy of Greenland Ruby.
Over the past 70 years, several ruby and pink sapphire localities have been documented in the region of Greenland’s capital city, Nuuk (P.W.U. Appel and M. Ghisler, “Ruby- and sapphirine-bearing mineral occurrences in the Fiskenaesset, Nuuk and Maniitsoq regions, West Greenland,” GEUS, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, 2014). Several of these localities are currently exploited on a small scale by the local communities. In 2017, Greenland Ruby A/S started a large-scale mining operation at the Aappaluttoq ruby and pink sapphire deposit, located 160 km south of Nuuk.
The corundum extracted at Aappaluttoq is heated in air at temperatures over 1500°C for several hours, with some flux added. In rare cases, the heating significantly alters the color of light pink and near-colorless sapphire, resulting in fancy-color sapphire. GIA recently studied a parcel of 22 of these fancy-color sapphires mined and treated by Greenland Ruby (figure 1).
A combination of ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectra and trace element chemistry using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) were collected at GIA in Bangkok to identify the causes of color. For full quantification of the chromophores, it is necessary to do this analysis in oriented, clean samples with a known path length. Since most of the Greenland material is polished as cabochons and contains some inclusions, it is very challenging to calculate or even estimate the absorption coefficients. We limited ourselves to a rough interpretation of the chromophores based on the shape of the spectra. Orientation of the samples was estimated based on the pleochroism.
Additionally, we could not precisely identify which area of the stone was analyzed during the spectroscopy, and thus all UV-Vis spectra were bulk measurements and combined the color of different zones. In contrast, the LA-ICP-MS analysis was performed at very specific spots, allowing the analysis of specific zones.
The literature describes six chromophores responsible for color in natural corundum (E.V. Dubinsky et al., “A quantitative description of the causes of color in corundum,” Spring 2020 G&G, pp. 2–28). Four of the chromophores from that study are responsible for the colors in this suite.

Figure 2. A UV-Vis-NIR spectrum dominated by Cr3+ features often results in a pink to red stone, depending on the concentration of Cr3+ (in ppma). When the sample is oriented down the c-axis, the color often trends toward reddish purple (i.e., fancy sapphire).
Most stones from the Aappaluttoq deposit are colored by the Cr3+ chromophore, giving them their typical pink to red color (figure 2). The intensity of the color is directly linked to the concentration of Cr3+, which can go up to several 1000 ppma, and in exceptional cases even to 15,000 ppma. Most of the lighter-colored material has a concentration of a few 100 ppma, resulting in a pink color.

Figure 3. The peaks at 550 and 430 nm in the o-ray spectrum (black) suggest the presence of Cr3+, causing pink to red in the stone. The trace element analysis (in ppma) shows a clear excess of Mg2+ compared to the Ti concentration, highlighting that trapped hole creation is very likely. When we remove the absorbance spectrum of Cr3+ from the stone’s absorption spectrum (blue), it is obvious that the combination of Cr3+ with the trapped hole is the cause of the remaining color and the strong orange tint observed in the stone.
Depending on the orientation, it can appear more purple (when viewed through the c-axis). In some cases, this is so strong that the face-up color of the stone is modified to an extent that it cannot be defined as ruby or pink sapphire and falls into the fancy reddish purple range. Some of the stones develop a more orangy tone after treatment. (A bright orange oval brilliant seen at the 2023 Tucson shows is highlighted in this issue.) This color can be attributed to the creation of trapped holes in combination with Cr3+ (figure 3).
To create trapped holes, the chemical balance in the stone needs to be correct. Only when a stone is acceptor dominated will trapped holes be present. In the case of Greenland ruby, this comes down to the balance between Mg2+ vs. Ti4+, Si4+, and H+. Since the stones have all been treated in air (oxidizing atmosphere), we can assume that H+ has diffused out of them. With the method used to measure trace elements (LA-ICP-MS with a quadrupole MS), we cannot correctly quantify the Si4+ content in these stones. The possibility that Si4+ plays a role in the color cannot be excluded. Regardless, there is no indication here that Si4+ is required to tilt the balance of chromophores when comparing trace elements vs. observed color. Since we do not aim to quantitatively analyze the color, we ignore any potential presence of Si4+. This means that the concentrations of Mg2+ and Ti4+ are the determining factors: Only if the amount of Mg2+ is larger than the Ti4+ concentration can trapped holes develop in sapphire from Greenland.
Two ions in sapphire can pair with trapped holes: Fe3+ and Cr3+. Since the trapped hole preferentially pairs with Cr3+, this is the chromophore observed in these stones. The quantity of trapped holes that can form in corundum is very low, and as such, not all the Cr3+ couples with a trapped hole. The final color will be a combination of the trapped hole color and the pure Cr3+ chromophore, resulting in a combination of pink to red and orange colors. Trapped holes are very strong coloring agents that can have a major impact even when their concentration is very low.

Figure 4. This plot shows the o-ray spectrum of a pale yellow sample (black) and a modified o-ray spectrum where some contribution by Cr3+ is subtracted (blue). When the Cr3+ spectrum is removed, a pure Fe3+ spectrum remains. This spectrum is characterized by the double peak at 377–388 nm and one at 450 nm. The ratio of the 388 to 377 nm band suggests a relatively low Fe3+ chromophore concentration, which matches the observed color and analyzed chemistry (in ppma).
The Fe3+ chromophore is the weakest one encountered in natural corundum. Very high concentrations of Fe3+ are required to create a yellow color, often exceeding several thousand ppma. Since the Greenland rubies have a maximum iron concentration under 1500 ppma, this chromophore creates only a very weak yellow color (figure 4). Other common chromophores are much stronger and more common, which makes it very difficult to notice any color contribution by Fe3+. Only when the Cr3+ concentration is extremely low can we detect the pale yellow color from the Fe3+ chromophore.

Figure 5. The extremely low Cr3+ contents allow other features to be dominant. In this case, Fe2+-Ti4+ charge transfers with a large peak at 580–620 nm are responsible for a blue color. The absorption spectrum of the stone also shows some features related to Fe3+, which is a very weak chromophore and does not influence the color.
The Fe2+-Ti4+ chromophore creates a blue color in corundum and is relatively strong (figure 5). When observed in ruby from Greenland, its effect is usually limited to a slightly increased purplish hue in the chromium-rich corundum, occasionally modifying the color to a dominant purple hue. Only when the Cr3+ concentrations are extremely low is there a chance for the corundum to have a blue color. We still observe some cloudiness after the treatment in the blue zones.
We assume that this type of rough corundum had a milky appearance caused by a high concentration of fine rutile particles before treatment. During treatment at temperatures over 1200°C, some of the particles dissolved into the lattice, becoming available to pair with Fe2+ that was already present and creating a blue bodycolor. Due to the large amounts of Ti4+ that diffused into the crystal lattice, the iron was forced to remain in a reduced state (Fe2+).
The nature of the treated corundum from Greenland makes high-quality spectroscopy a challenge. Nevertheless, we were able to isolate and identify the chromophores responsible for the fancy colors observed in these sapphires.
It is important to note that many of these fancy colors developed as a result of heat treatment. The trapped hole–related chromophores only become visible after H+ diffused out of the stone under oxidizing conditions. These same conditions also allow the iron to oxidize and create the pale yellow color by Fe3+ chromophores. The high temperatures were also required to dissolve rutile particles into the corundum lattice and form Fe-Ti pairs.
While these fancy-color stones remain a curiosity, they make for a welcome addition from a mine that is known for its ruby and pink sapphires. @chapter:6


Publication Year: - Title: Pearls: Nature's Sustainable Gem Abstract: A research group is studying marine cultured pearls, like these Tahitians, and their potential as a sustainable gem. Photo by Amanda Luke/GIA.

	Pearls – unlike any other gem – are organic, created inside a living mollusk. Regardless if it forms naturally or is cultured with care, pearls develop beneath the water’s surface amidst plants, animals and an often fragile ecosystem. But have you ever wondered if pearls can help the environment? That’s the question at hand for a group studying the ecological effects of marine cultured pearls.

	Dr. Saleem Ali, director of the Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining at the University of Queensland, Australia, visited Carlsbad, CA on Friday, June 7, 2013 to share his research on the benefits of pearls as a renewable gem and sustainable pearl farming practices with students studying at GIA. Dr. Ali is part of a team researching pearls and their effect on the environment.

	The research group works directly with pearl farmers to understand the pearl supply chain and will use their research to create a set of sustainability standards for the industry. The three-year project, funded by the Tiffany & Co. Foundation, is exploring the environmental impact of pearl farming and ways it can improve water quality, positively impact coral reef conservation and reduce overfishing.

	Already midway through the project, Dr. Ali and his team have identified a distinct positive connection between pearl farming and conservation. According to their research, the need for clean water is an essential part of the cultured pearl industry. “If you want a good quality marine pearl, you need happy oysters, and happy oysters need pollution-free waters,” Dr. Ali said.

	Other environmental factors – such as marine life – also play a significant role. Dr. Ali and his team examined the effects of pearl farming on coral reefs to learn what practices can help sustain the reefs. The critically endangered ecosystems are home to many species of fish that help maintain ocean biodiversity and provide nutrients for mollusks. Climate change and bleaching from pollution threaten these delicate reefs. Dr. Ali and his team study all potential threats since even small things – such as the type of netting material used in pearl farming – can have a negative effect on the health of coral reefs.

	Dr. Ali also reviewed the impact of pearl farming on local economies. He said their research shows that pearl farming diversifies these economies and is able to coexist with tourism and the fishing sector. In fact, pearl farming also provides more income opportunities for residents so they don’t have to rely on fishing, which reduces the risk of overfishing.

	As the project continues in the next year and a half, Dr. Ali and his team will explore opportunities to brand pearls as sustainable and promote their environmental benefit. “Pearls are unique – they are the only renewable gemstone in the human timescale,” said Dr. Ali. Since 1999, however, pearl exports in French Polynesia have increased, but value decreased. The team hopes that if consumers know pearls are a renewable resource and can improve the environment, their value will increase.

	Students were very interested in how Dr. Ali’s research could affect the pearl industry. One student, whose family works in the cultured pearl industry, said she was eager to share what she learned back home. “It was great to get a different perspective… and know there is a way to be more sustainable in this industry,” she said.

	Dr. Ali emphasized that sustainability is a natural part of pearl farming – the key is to allow everything to exist together. There is “a lot of potential” for students planning to enter the cultured pearl industry, he added.

	Dr. Saleem Ali presents his research to GIA students and staff in Carlsbad, CA. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA.

	Marine pearl farms, like this one in the South Pacific, are the focus of a three-year research project on the environmental impact of pearl farming. Photo by Amanda Luke/GIA.

	Students at the lunchtime presentation learned how the research group is exploring ways to brand pearls as sustainable. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2024 Title: Chinese jewelry market in 2023 grows strongly Attracting both Chinese and foreign brands Abstract: The jewelry and accessories industry can be categorized into various types, such as home interior decorations, fashion accessories, and automotive accessories. Fashion accessories can further be divided into categories like earrings, headpieces, necklaces, wristwatches, bracelets, rings, and more. Currently, the consumption behavior of Chinese consumers towards fashion jewelry or jewelry has been increasing compared to the past. According to iiMedia Research, retail sales of jewelry reached a cumulative value of 47.2 trillion yuan in 2022, representing a 7.2% increase from the previous year. Within this figure, sales of gold, silver, and jewelry totaled 3.31 trillion yuan, marking a 9.8% increase. Sales of gold, silver, and jewelry accounted for 0.7% of total retail sales of consumer goods. The consumer market in the jewelry industry in China is showing a continuous upward trend.

Trends in the consumption behavior and target group preferences for jewelry among Chinese consumers.

Factors that Chinese consumers consider when deciding to purchase jewelry prioritize product quality, accounting for 39.1% of their considerations. This is followed by product design, price, and discounts. However, the least influential factor is word-of-mouth from reputable sources. More than half of consumers prioritize brand, design, and quality of jewelry when making purchasing decisions, followed by price discounts. Currently, consumers tend to make more rational purchase decisions, focusing on practicality, beauty, and purchasing capabilities as their main goals. This has become the main target for consumers when buying products. The consumer group in the jewelry industry has evolved beyond just working-age individuals to include younger consumers and post-90s millennials, who have become significant buyers of gold jewelry. In recent years (2023), fashion jewelry brands have utilized marketing strategies by collaborating with popular games and cartoons to design products that align with trends and have unique identities. These marketing techniques attract new-generation consumers, making them more interested and easily captivated by the products, thereby increasing sales opportunities for jewelry brands. With the increasing presence of new-generation consumers, co-branding strategies will be a key strategy to expand opportunities for the jewelry industry in the future.  The development of the economy and improvement in living standards among Chinese citizens has significantly increased the demand for jewelry, as evident from clear trends. According to iiMedia Research, the jewelry demand among Chinese consumers reached 1.05 billion people in 2023, marking a 1.9% increase compared to the previous year, with a continuing upward trend. The main objective that Chinese consumers favor in purchasing jewelry is to create a social image. Consumers predominantly choose to buy earrings, followed by hair accessories and necklaces, respectively. Additionally, up to 20.2% of consumers opt to purchase watches primarily for social reasons. Furthermore, purchasing jewelry as a reminder of individuals or significant events in life is another factor influencing consumer behavior. Among the top 5 countries whose jewelry brands are favored by Chinese consumers are China itself, Switzerland, France, Italy, and South Korea. More than half of consumers (57.6%) prefer Chinese brands. Over the past few years, Chinese jewelry brands have successfully blended traditional culture with national design styles, which resonates well with Chinese consumers. Notable brands that have found success in the Chinese market include Pandora, known for contemporary designs, diverse options, and affordable prices, as well as Chow Tai Fook and Chow Tai Seng, renowned Chinese brands that blend traditional culture with modern design.

     The online live streaming marketing in the jewelry industry in China continues to grow.

The distribution channels of the jewelry industry in China are following the growth of internet users in China. Online sales have become a significant channel for industry development. According to data released by China's Internet Network Information Center in June 2022, the number of internet users in China is nearly 1.08 billion. It is estimated that by 2031, China's live streaming e-commerce market will exceed 6 trillion yuan. This indicates that online channels remain crucial for this industry and are expected to expand further over time.

    The Office of Trade Promotion in Shanghai: In 2023, Thailand's exports of jewelry and gemstones ranked third, valued at $14,787.26 million US dollars, down 2.15% from the previous year. Thailand's top five export markets were Switzerland, Hong Kong, Singapore, the United States, and India, in that order. Excluding processed gold, the top five export markets were Hong Kong, the United States, India, Germany, and the United Kingdom, respectively.

Statistics from the Ministry of Commerce indicate that the jewelry and gemstone industry is one of Thailand's highest-earning industries. Thailand's strength lies in blending unique designs with Thai craftsmanship, which is highly regarded internationally. The 69th Bangkok Gems and Jewelry Fair (BGJF) held from February 21-25 this year was highly successful, with trade expected to reach no less than 385 billion baht. The fair attracted significant interest from Chinese visitors, ranking second after India in attendance. Many Chinese influencers attended the event and live-streamed the jewelry sales, showcasing new marketing channels targeting the Chinese market. The positive response indicates that Thai entrepreneurs should prepare for live streaming commerce to adapt to modern trade formats and seize opportunities for expanding foreign markets. @chapter:27


Publication Year: 2015 Title: Books: Bright Lights in the Dark Ages: The Thaw Collection of Early Medieval Ornaments Abstract: By Noël Adams, hardcover, 432 pp., illus., publ. by The Morgan Library & Museum, New York, 2014, US$95.00.

Bright Lights in the Dark Ages is the seventh volume in which the Morgan Library and Museum documents a segment of the Eugene Thaw collection. Thaw’s many collections have been assembled over a lifetime, and he is considered the museum’s greatest benefactor since J.P. “Pierpont” Morgan himself. Art collector and dealer Eugene Thaw began acquiring ornaments from the early medieval period in the 1980s, leading to a systematic effort in 2001 to bridge the gap between the Museum’s ancient collections and its late medieval holdings. Thaw’s choices were based on aesthetic rather than scholarly merit, and he was advised on his acquisitions by the author of this book.

	This volume focuses on small personal ornaments (brooches, buckles, and pendants), from Western Europe, including the United Kingdom and Scandinavia, to the Black Sea, that were fabricated in the early Middle Ages, often referred to as the “Dark Ages.” These small objects, often found interred with their owner in gravesites, are considered “portable wealth” and are usually interpreted by historians and archeologists as emblems of power and status.

	The book’s narrow focus allows the author to address two objectives. The first is to challenge the preconceptions of art and culture of the “Dark Ages,” and the pejorative use of that term to describe a time that was actually quite culturally dynamic. The second is to demonstrate the continuity and evolution of metalworking from the 2nd century to the 10th century AD. To provide helpful context, the introductory sections outline the declining Roman Empire, the migration and invasion of new peoples and tribes from the East and the North, and the contraction of the Byzantine Empire.

	The term “Dark Ages” refers to the death of classical literature in the sense that pagan tribes, specifically Germanic and Slavic “barbarians,” had rich oral traditions that eclipsed the written word following the disintegration of the Roman Empire. Other scholars of the 14th century regarded the dearth of written history, building activity, and artistic output as an indication of a “dark” time in history. Even today, “Hun,” “Goth,” “barbarian,” and, to a lesser degree, “Middle Ages” have negative connotations. Yet the barbarians and nomads, dismissed by the Greeks and Romans as having no culture or heritage, did recognize the sophistication of the Romans and sought to incorporate aspects of their culture, including classical forms and realistic imagery. In the 20th century, some scholars attempted to discontinue the pejorative use of “Dark Ages” and “barbarian,” promoting for a time the use of “migration period,” but the appellation and connotation appears to have been thoroughly embedded. The title of the volume seeks to challenge that preconception and to point out that all was not “dark” in this historical era.

	The book features more than 100 examples of personal ornaments from this period from the Thaw collection, including fine metal, inlay, cloisonné, and mounted gemstones. The pieces were collected as singles and not as part of a grave burial collection. Through extrapolation from similar objects interpreted in a grave context, the pieces can be assigned to specific periods and regions. In interpreting the significance and meaning of the objects, Adams admits to having “committed one of the graver sins for the archeologist—the purposeful mixing of different types of evidence” in having used historical information to explain archeological findings and vice versa.  The result, however, is a coherent narrative in which the reader can understand the significance and the sequence of the featured objects in an appropriate framework.

	Following the introduction are six chapters examining different facets of the migration and invasions that bridged the transformation of Western Europe from a Greco-Roman world to the modern nation-states. The chapter introductions weave together history and cultural shifts (illustrated with maps), theories of visual art and personal adornment, and the state of craftsmanship/technology. Examples from other collections are included to better illustrate concepts. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to examples from the Thaw collection. Each is illustrated by a large-scale photo plus detail views. For those wanting technical details, the gemstones are identified and the jewelry making techniques are described. The stylistic attributes are discussed and the placement of the piece in its historical and cultural context is elaborated on, usually referencing other documented pieces. The photography and description are detailed enough to inspire and serve as a guide for a contemporary jeweler to design or manufacture archeological “revival” pieces that vastly differ from the Renaissance, Etruscan, or Egyptian objects associated with medieval influence.

	The book ends rather abruptly, in the style of a catalog. The glossary could be more extensive, being dominated by geographic and historical periods rather than jewelry and stylistic terms. The bibliography attests ultimately to the scholarly nature of this work—it is an overwhelming 50 pages.

	Trained as a geologist, art historian, and archeologist, Noël Adams brings her unique scholarly perspective to the technological aspects of metalwork. Less attention is paid to historiography, historical gender studies, cemetery analysis, dating analysis, and anthropological interpretations of burial ritual. The body of historical knowledge is augmented by examining how the pieces were physically made and the origin of materials, though one can only speculate how pieces were commissioned, supplied, bought and sold, or their meanings.

	One favorite of Adams that was unfamiliar to me was “garnet cloisonné” or “framework cloisonné,” where garnets or glass pieces are collet set, giving the appearance of fired glass enamel. She defines this technique as “cold cloisonné” in the glossary. Examples are given of its evolution through Hunnic, Visigothic, and Merovingian periods of the 5th and 6th centuries.

	I enjoyed this book because it gently made me aware of my own preconceived notions about the so-called “Dark Ages,” and then dispelled those notions. The early medieval period is one of the most complex in history—transitioning from long-established cultures of the Roman and Byzantine Empires to domination and displacement by very different peoples. The resulting turmoil eventually settled into an era of assimilation and comingling that would set the stage for a new era of creativity and progress, the “high” Middle Ages that eventually led to the Renaissance. In the introductory sections, the historical and cultural context is presented with just enough information to keep the interest of the average reader. Some of the chapters go into a level of historic detail that may be overwhelming to some, but gemological or jewelry enthusiasts can be satisfied by skipping to sections and illustrations focusing on medieval techniques and styles. Overall, Bright Lights in the Dark Ages is a worthwhile read. @chapter:21


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Inclusions and Spectroscopic Features of Yellowish Green Enstatite Abstract: Figure 1. Two faceted and four cabochon bright yellowish green enstatites. Left to right: a 1.02 ct pear (sample no. e102), 1.32 ct cushion (e132), 2.78 ct cushion (e278), 1.44 ct pear (e144), 0.65 ct oval (e065), and 0.67 ct modified triangle (e067). Photo by C. Kamemakanon; courtesy of American-Thai Trading.
Gem-quality enstatite is the magnesium end member of the enstatite-ferrosilite series in the clinopyroxene subgroup of the pyroxene group. While the most common color is brown, it can also be colorless, green, or gray. Myanmar, Tanzania, and Sri Lanka are the main sources of gem-quality stones currently in the market. Enstatite can yield clean faceted gems but can also display four-, six-, or eight-rayed asterism.
Enstatites have been documented many times from various sources. Six-rayed star brown enstatite was reported from India (W. Eppler, “Star-diopside and star-enstatite,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 10, No. 6, 1967, pp. 185–188). Sri Lankan samples were reported in U. Henn and H. Bank, “Sternbronzit aus Sri Lanka,” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 40, No. 2–3, pp. 145–148. Star enstatite from Madagascar was described in T. Cathelineau, “Six-rayed star enstatite from Madagascar,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 36, No. 8, 2019, pp. 688–690. Four-rayed star brown enstatites from Sri Lanka were documented in E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Volume 3, Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, 2008. Faceted brown enstatite was reported in Koivula et al., “Gemmological investigation of a large faceted East African enstatite,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1988, pp. 92–94. Yellowish green enstatites from Africa were discussed in K. Schmetzer and H. Krupp, “Enstatite from Mairimba Hill, Kenya,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1982, pp. 118–120, as well as in B.M. Laurs et al., “Yellowish green enstatite (and star enstatite) from Tanzania,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 36, No. 8, 2019, pp. 691–693. Norwegian stones were documented in F. Schmitz et al., “Polymer-filled star enstatite from Norway,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2016, pp. 98–101.
Recently, GIT Gem Testing Laboratory (GIT-GTL) received six bright yellowish green enstatite samples weighing 0.65 to 2.78 ct (figure 1) that were reported by author SD to be from Africa. The stones appeared fairly similar to the previously documented four-rayed star yellowish green enstatite from Tanzania documented by Laurs et al. (2019). In that article, needle-like inclusions were found to be the cause of the four-rayed asterism, but their mineralogical identity was not reported.
Of the six stones examined in this study, four were cabochons displaying a four-rayed star effect while two were faceted (figure 1). The five stones with at least one polished flat surface gave refractive indices of α = 1.655–1.660, β = 1.661–1.665, and γ = 1.668–1.669, with a birefringence of 0.009–0.014, and are therefore biaxial positive. The spot RI reading of one cabochon without a flat surface was ~1.66. The hydrostatic specific gravity of all samples was 3.22–3.25. All these values fall well within the range of enstatite. The stones appeared weak orange under the Chelsea color filter and showed moderate yellow and yellowish green pleochroism. All were inert to both long-wave and short-wave UV.

Figure 2. A and B: Using oblique fiber-optic lighting, the four-rayed star enstatite cabochons reveal two sets of densely and regularly oriented fine needle-like inclusions intersecting at approximately 57° to 60°. C–E: The pear cabochon shows patches of densely oriented minute white particles (C), a plane of oriented tubes partially filled with small brownish white to colorless magnesite crystals (D), and oriented tubes filled with magnesite (E). F: Rectangular platelets and needle inclusions with bright interference colors in the modified triangle. Photomicrographs by S. Promwongnan; fields of view 3.6 mm (A–D) and 1.5 mm (E–F).
The main diagnostic internal features were the two sets of dense and regularly oriented needle-like inclusions (figure 2, A and B). The two sets measured on the same plane at the top of three cabochons (e278, e132, and e144) were found to intersect at an approximate angle of 57° to 60°, producing the four-rayed star effect seen on the cabochon surface (figure 1). While the two faceted stones also contained fine needle-like inclusions, they were not cut to display a star.

Figure 3. Raman spectra of the exposed fine needle inclusions plus host mineral (green line) show the superimposed peaks of rutile and enstatite that match with the RRUFF reference spectra (black and blue lines, respectively). Similarly, the spectra of exposed white to colorless crystals in short tubes plus host mineral (red line) display peaks of magnesite and enstatite that match with the RRUFF reference spectra (pink and blue lines, respectively).
Close examination also uncovered two sets of needles that did not produce asterism. In addition, patches of densely oriented minute white particles (figure 2C) and a plane of oriented short tubes (figure 2, D and E) were found in one stone (e144). These tubes were partially filled with tiny brownish white to colorless crystals identified by Raman spectroscopy as magnesite (figure 3). The presence of epigenetic magnesite (MgCO3) could have resulted from alteration of the host enstatite. The other feature consisted of sparse rectangular platelet inclusions occurring in various directions within the dense mesh of needle inclusions (e067, figure 2F).
The Raman spectra of all host mineral samples, recorded using 532 nm laser excitation, similarly showed dominant peaks that matched the enstatite reference spectrum from the RRUFF database (not shown here). Moreover, the Raman spectrum of the exposed fine needle inclusions plus host mineral in one sample (e078) gave the superimposed peaks of rutile (440 and 610 cm–1) and enstatite (238, 343, 662, 685, 1010, and 1030 cm–1), consistent with the RRUFF reference spectra in figure 3. Similarly, the Raman spectrum of exposed white to colorless crystals in short tubes plus the host in a sample (e144) showed overlapping peaks of magnesite (213, 330, 737, and 1094 cm–1) and enstatite, also consistent with the RRUFF reference spectra. The identity of the rectangular platelet inclusions, however, could not be resolved due to their sparsity and their depth below the surface.

Figure 4. Polarized UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of an enstatite (e132) showing a dominant Fe2+-related broad band around 900 nm and additional Fe2+-related absorptions at 1750 nm in addition to a continuous rise from ~700 nm toward the UV with smaller absorptions at 427, 506, and 546 nm. The iron absorptions are superimposed by two broad bands around 420–490 nm and 600–700 nm due to the presence of V3+ plus trace Cr3+ in the stone lattice (see table 1). Spectra are offset for clarity.
Polarized ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectra of a sample (e132) showed features dominated by broad absorption bands of Fe2+ in the NIR region centered at ~900 and ~1750 nm (figure 4). The spectra rise continuously from ~700 nm toward the UV with small Fe2+ peaks at 427, 506, and 546 nm in the visible range (Cathelineau, 2019). In addition, these iron absorption features were superimposed by absorption bands around 420–490 nm and 600–700 nm due to the presence of V3+ with trace Cr3+ (see table 1). These two bands cause the absorption of the violet-blue and orange-red ends of the visible spectrum. Such overlapping absorption features allow the transmission window in the green to the yellow region, giving rise to the bright yellowish green color (Laurs et al., 2019). The origin of the absorption band at ~2220 nm, however, could not be resolved.

Semi-quantitative EDXRF chemical analyses revealed enriched contents of silicon (58.1–59.2 wt.% SiO2), magnesium (26.5–31.5 wt.% MgO), and aluminum (6.3–8.1 wt.% Al2O3), with trace amounts of iron, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, and zinc (table 1). Furthermore, the end-member compositions were calculated and appeared close to the enstatite end members (92.0–96.2% enstatite, 3.5–7.5% ferrosilite, and 0.3–0.5% wollastonite) of the enstatite-ferrosilite series.

In summary, the attractive bright yellowish green colors of these enstatites are caused by the combination of significant iron and vanadium with a trace of chromium substituting magnesium in the crystal lattice. The four-rayed asterism phenomenon is caused by light reflection from two sets of very dense fine rutile needle inclusions intersecting one another at approximately 57° to 60°. The similarity of these stones and those reported by Laurs et al. (2019) (tables 1 and 2) leads us to conclude these stones could also be from Tanzania. @chapter:4


Publication Year: - Title: Susan Jacques’ Top 20 Traits to be Successful in Retail Abstract: Susan Jacques, pictured at GIA's Carlsbad World Headquarters in 2014, shared her tips for success in the retail industry at GIA's mini Jewelry Career Fair in 2010. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA

                      Susan Jacques spent more than 30 years in retail before becoming president and CEO of GIA in January 2014. She began her career at Borsheims in 1982, after earning her GG from GIA, and was appointed president and CEO in 1994.

She offered these traits for success during a panel discussion at GIA’s mini Jewelry Career Fair held on June 6, 2010 in Las Vegas:

PASSION: Warren Buffett says: “Tap dance to work.” Love what you do every day! Have it show.

LOYALTY: Remember who signs your pay check -- be loyal to your company. If you are unhappy and your job is not what you want to do, leave and find your passion elsewhere.

RESPECT: Know everyone in the company by name; show the same respect regardless of titles and treat people as you wish to be treated.

COMMITMENT: To your company, your job, your teammates, your success.

 DEDICATION:  Give 110 percent every day to ensure your and your company’s success.

 HONESTY:  Be a person of your word, always be honest and ethical in everything you do.

 INTEGRIT Y: Have the  highest standards of integrity, personally and professionally. Earn your stellar reputation and guard it with every action that you take and decision that you make.

TRUSTWORTHINESS: Trust is essential in our industry and in your company.  Be known for your trustworthiness.

TEAM PLAYER: Work well with others, be supportive and helpful. There is no I in TEAM! No prima donnas!

INITIATIVE: Don’t wait to be asked, take initiative, see the global picture.

CONFIDENTIALITY: NEVER breach confidentiality, what happens at X or with x stays there or between you.

DRIVE: Have the personal drive to succeed, do your best, set high goals and strive to exceed them.

EXCELLENCE: Always strive to exceed expectations and excel at what you do.

ATTITUDE: Keep a positive, optimistic, friendly, professional attitude EVERY day.

DETERMINATION: Be determined to succeed and be the best you can be and give every task your best effort.

FOCUSED: Focus on your goals and your ability to exceed customer expectations with every transaction.

MULTI-TASK: Learn to do many things simultaneously and excellently. Retail seldom allows you the ability to finish one thing before moving on to the next.  Be flexible.

EMPATHY: Be empathetic to fellow associates and customers. LISTEN to what they say.

CONFIDENCE: Exude self-confidence and believe in yourself and your ability to succeed.

KNOWLEDGE: Constantly learn and share your knowledge. It’s important to stay up to date on industry news, changes in treatments, product knowledge, social responsibility and sustainability. Stay in touch with GIA and continue to grow through learning! @chapter:36


Publication Year: 1988 Title: An Economic Review of the Past Decade in Diamonds Abstract: The diamond industry was buffeted by extreme price volatility during the last decade, unlike any encountered since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Although the industry is currently enjoying a resurgence of activity worldwide, particularly in the Far East, today's market differs significantly from what it was 10 years ago. This article reviews the factors that led to the enormous demand for diamonds in the late 1970s, examines the causes of recession in the early 1980s, and provides an analysis of the comeback of diamond in 1986. Inasmuch as events during this period ushered many changes into the diamond trade, an understanding of how economic forces affect the supply, demand, and value of diamond is critical to all gemologists. Factors such as inflation, recession, interest rates, and disposable income, as well as fluctuations in worldwide exchange rates, had, and undoubtedly will continue to have, an impact on the health of the diamond market. @chapter:38


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Spiral Nacre in Natural Pearl Abstract: Concentric spiral nacre formations seen on a natural saltwater pearl. Photomicrograph by Britni LeCroy; field of view 2.34 mm.

Nacreous pearls are known to have platelet growth resembling fingerprints or topographic maps, but a less common appearance is nacre with a concentric spiral pattern. The feature is sometimes seen in small patches in unprocessed saltwater pearls. One recent example was exceptional as it showed spiral formations throughout its entire surface (see above). The pearl was determined to be a natural saltwater pearl from the Pinctada genus. Nacre is composed of aragonite crystals and conchiolin protein, with the crystals acting like bricks and the protein acting like mortar. The explanation for spiral patterns is complex and involves the development of screw dislocation defects during nacre formation as predicted by the Burton-Caberra-Frank theory (J.H.E. Cartwright et al., “Spiral and target patterns in bivalve nacre manifest a natural excitable medium from layer growth of a biological liquid crystal,” PNAS, Vol. 106, No. 26, 2009, pp. 10499–10504). @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Fissure with Moiré Pattern in Spinel Abstract: A precipitation of an unidentified mineral in a fissure of a purple spinel creates this highly intricate moiré pattern. A combination of oblique fiber-optic and darkfield illumination was used. Photomicrograph by Tyler Smith; field of view 2.90 mm.
Surface-reaching fissures commonly host precipitates of epigenetic minerals, as was the case with a 4.22 ct purple spinel recently examined by the author. “Islands” of unidentified birefringent inclusions occupied a near-planar fissure. These inclusions were inert to Raman spectroscopy. Delicate depositions radiating from these islands interacted to create a complex moiré pattern (see above). Moiré patterns, named after their resemblance to a type of fabric, form when parallel or concentric lines overlap. It is unclear whether the islands formed first and were partially dissolved in a secondary event, or if they formed simultaneously with the spinel. Although moiré patterns have been observed in partially healed fluid fingerprints and surface-reaching fissures, it is rare to see them expressed in such a spectacular form. @chapter:19


Publication Year: 2008 Title: A New Type of Synthetic Fire Opal: Mexifire Abstract: Synthetic opals have been produced and used in jewelry for more than three decades, and various imitation opals have been introduced in the trade. This article describes a new type of synthetic fire opal marketed as “Mexifire.” Some of the gemological properties of this synthetic are similar to those of natural fire opal. However, a low SG value (1.77) offers strong evidence of synthetic origin, and further indications are provided by a relatively low RI value (<1.40) and the presence of scattered pinpoints when examined with magnification. @chapter:39


Publication Year: 2017 Title: Mixed-Type Treated Red HPHT Synthetic Diamond Abstract: Figure 1. This 0.27 ct Fancy Dark red specimen is a multi-step treated HPHT synthetic diamond. Photo by Meili Wang.

A multiple-treatment process involving irradiation and HPHT annealing can produce pink to red color in natural and synthetic diamonds; specimens treated by this process have been on the market for over 10 years. To the best of our knowledge, nearly 95% of the studied red HPHT synthetic diamonds treated by the multi-treatment process are classified as type Ib or type IIa. Recently, we examined a treated red HPHT-grown synthetic diamond that was confirmed to be mixed type (IaA + IaB + Ib).

The 0.27 ct round brilliant sample, graded as Fancy Dark red (figure 1), had a metallic inclusion under the table. The DiamondView image showed strong red fluorescence and cuboctahedral growth structure; the latter is a typical feature of HPHT-grown diamonds (figure 2). Ni-related defects at 883.1/884.8 nm and 793.6 nm were revealed by a photoluminescence (PL) spectrum at liquid-nitrogen temperature with two different laser excitations (532 and 785 nm). The H2 defect corresponding to a sharp peak at 986.2 nm and the NV center associated with a strong peak at 637 nm were also found. In addition, the Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectrum (figure 3) confirmed the material was an uncommon type of IaA + IaB + Ib, with absorptions at 1282 cm–1 (A center), at 1175 cm–1 (B center), and at 1131 and 1344 cm–1 (C center), respectively (again, see figure 56). This mixed type is similar to that observed in treated natural diamonds. A moderate 1450 cm–1 absorption (H1a), which correlates with irradiation and subsequent annealing (Clark et al., “Absorption spectra of natural and irradiated diamonds,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A, Vol. 234, 1956, pp. 363–381), was also present. Thus, this diamond was identified as a multi-step treated HPHT synthetic diamond, with irradiation and HPHT annealing indicated as treatment processes.

Figure 2. The DiamondView fluorescence image shows cuboctahedral growth structure, a typical feature in HPHT-grown diamonds. Photo by Wen Han.

Figure 3. FTIR spectroscopy reveals that this diamond is type Ia + Ib, with the existence
of aggregated nitrogen atoms (A center at 1282 cm–1 and B center at 1175 cm–1) and
isolated nitrogen (C center at 1131 and 1344 cm–1) impurities. The H1a absorption
at 1450 cm–1, correlating with irradiation and subsequent annealing, is also observed.
Although most of the recent treated red HPHT synthetic diamonds are reported to be type Ib or type IIa (e.g, Fall 2016 Lab Notes, pp. 308–309; C.M. Breeding and J.E. Shigley, “The ‘type’ classification system of diamonds and its importance in gemology,” Summer 2009 G&G, pp, 96–111), such diamonds with mixed type Ia + Ib are available in the jewelry market, as exemplified by this study. Therefore, caution is still needed to distinguish such treated synthetic diamonds from treated stones of natural origin, as they may show similar characteristics. @chapter:15


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Exquisite Butterfly in Diamond Abstract: When light reflects from this crystal in a 1.01 ct diamond, the halo resembles a colorful butterfly. Photomicrograph by Tejas Jhaveri; field of view 2.90 mm.
Examination of a 1.01 ct triangular portrait-cut diamond with E color and I2 clarity revealed an inclusion in the center of the table resembling a butterfly (see the figure above and the video below). The butterfly inclusion was composed of a crystal with a stress halo. The crystal did not break the surface and was completely enclosed within the diamond. The rough was skillfully cut in such a way that this crystal was positioned on the center of the table when polished. The play of light reflects artistically on the stress halo, creating the appearance of a colorful butterfly.

	“Butterfly” Inclusion in Diamond @chapter:31


Publication Year: 2010 Title: Possible “Sister” Stones of the Hope Diamond Abstract: For more than a century, historians have debated the existence of “sister” stones to the Hope diamond, most notably the Brunswick Blue and the Pirie diamonds. The recent discovery of a lead cast of the French Blue, the Hope’s precursor, has provided a more accurate model of that diamond, which disappeared in 1792.Computer models of the French Blue and its parent stone, the Tavernier Blue, were used to determine whether other diamonds might have been created when the Tavernier Blue was cut into the French Blue, or when the latter was cut into the Hope. The results show that it was not feasible for other significant diamonds to have been created during any recutting. @chapter:31


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Blue Spinel Crystals in the MgAl2O4-CoAl2O4 Series, Part I: Flux Growth and Chemical Characterization Abstract: Synthetic CoAl2O4 spinel, a high-temperature oxide (melting point of 1955°C), is the most stable compound of a family of spinel-structured oxides obtained from CO3O4 at progressive increase of Al contents. High-quality spinel single crystals with compositions closely corresponding to the solid-solution series spinel sensu stricto (MgAl2O4)-cobalt spinel (CoAl2O4) were produced by flux growth method, with Na2B4O7 as the flux. Low cooling rates and linear temperature profiles were applied in the thermal interval 1200–800°C, followed by rapid cooling. Thermal runs were performed in a reducing atmosphere. Selected crystals were investigated by SEM/EDS X-ray mapping to check for compositional homogeneity and by electron-microprobe analysis to obtain the chemical formula.

								Crystals were found to be chemically homogeneous and entirely representing the MgAl2O4-CoAl2O4 solid-solution series, with the latter component ranging from 7% to 100%. The saturation of the vivid blue color increased with total cobalt content, but no shift in color hue was observed along the series. The unit-cell parameter a increased from 8.084 to 8.105 Å along the solid-solution series. The observed linear increase of the a parameter was seemingly due to the higher CoAl2O4 component. This was a premature and misleading conclusion, however, because structural changes in spinel may depend on both chemical composition and inversion parameter, which in turn is a function of thermal history. The composition of crystal products does not correspond to the composition of the starting oxide mixture: cobalt enriched in the crystals. A tentative explanation of this behavior is suggested by considering possible ionic potential as well crystal field stabilization effects.

Abstracted by Guy Lalous @chapter:19


Publication Year: 2004 Title: Winter 2004 G&G Book Reviews Abstract: “Bernd Munsteiner: Reflexionen in Stein [Reflections in Stone]”
Edited by Wilhelm Lindemann, 224 pp., illus., publ. by Arnoldsche, Stuttgart, Germany, 2004 (in German and English). US$75.00

“Illustrated Guide to Jewelry Appraising, 3rd Edition”
By Anna Miller, 200 pp., illus., publ. by GemStone Press, Woodstock, VT, 2004. US$39.99

“Magic World: Inclusions in Quartz”
By Jaroslav Hyrsl and Gerhard Niedermayr, 240 pp., illus., publ. by Bode Verlag, Haltern, Germany, 2003 [German and English]. € 49.00

“Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin”
By Hans-Rudolf Wenk and Andrei Bulakh, 668 pp., illus., publ. by Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2004. US$130.00 (hardcover); US$70.00 (softbound)

“Rocks Pebbles and Stones: Confessions of a Private Jeweler”
By Fred Feldmesser, 100 pp., publ. by Farrington Press, Boston, 2004. US$30.00 (E-mail: parker@ feldmesser.com)

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:22


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Update from the Responsible Jewellery Council Abstract: The Responsible Jewellery Council (RJC) has announced plans to include colored stones and silver in the next revision cycle for its Code of Practices, which RJC members are certified against. The organization has begun updating its existing standards, a process that takes place every five years. These plans dovetailed with the release of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which outlines 17 goals and 169 targets for member nations to meet. The author sat down with Edward Johnson and Anne-Marie Fleury of the RJC during the 2018 Tucson gem shows to discuss the status of these efforts.

The first round of public consultation, which focused on the scope of changes to the standard, took place in 2017. As of February 2018, RJC’s Code of Practices were under review prior to a second public consultation phase, which targets industry and non-industry stakeholders, of proposed changes to the Code. These consultation phases are in line with RJC’s annual auditing of their standard-setting approach, assurance framework, and measuring impacts program.

Like previous versions, the revised Code will certify business practices rather than products. The certification will cover all the important social, environmental, and health and safety issues in the jewelry supply chain. RJC’s priorities for change, which must work for businesses of all sizes, involve several areas, including:

Due diligence for responsible sourcing: RJC recognizes that traceability does not automatically translate to sustainability. As a standard for alignment with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, RJC encourages companies to adopt a due diligence approach to managing risks in their supply chain. Traceability remains a powerful tool for making responsible sourcing claims and is a voluntary certification option.
Gender equality: RJC endorses best practices that promote diversity, including gender equality. To this end, it is partnering with Business for Social Responsibility (BSR), a nonprofit organization dedicated to sustainable business practices, to develop better guidance on gender equality in the gem and jewelry sector. Topics to be covered include working conditions, facilities, and approaches to family leave.
Updating requirements on responsible mining: Many of the most challenging issues in the industry occur at the mining stage, and RJC continues to evolve its responsible mining provisions to address these challenges.
Reducing audit duplication: As it continues to work with jewelry industry members of all sizes, RJC continues to harmonize with and cross-recognize other industry initiatives already in place from other organizations so that businesses do not have to duplicate efforts at their own cost.

The consultation phase of the Code of Practices review is scheduled to run from April to July 2018. Announcements about the process can be found at https://www.responsiblejewellery.com/standards-development/code-of-practices-review-2/. @chapter:33


Publication Year: 1995 Title: A History of Diamond Sources in Africa: Part I Abstract: For more than 100 years, Africa has produced large commercial quantities of diamonds and important individual stones. The earliest official finds were made from approximately 1867 onward, in sands and gravels of the Orange and Vaal Rivers in South Africa. Subsequently, diamonds were found in "hard rock" kimberlites and, most recently, in off-shore deposits along the western coast of South Africa and Namibia. Important discoveries have been made in many other African countries. Angola, Botswana, Central African Republic, Ghana, Namibia, and Zaire have now joined South Africa as being among the top 10 diamond-producing countries worldwide. Part I of this two-part series examines the fascinating history of these numerous discoveries in southern and central Africa from the 19th century to the present. Part II will look at eastern and western Africa, as well as the history of diamond prospecting, mining, and production on the African continent. @chapter:24


Publication Year: 2005 Title: Treated-Color Pink-To-Red Diamonds from Lucent Diamonds Inc. Abstract: Lucent Diamonds has developed a new treatment process for natural type Ia diamonds that produces colors ranging from pink-purple through red to orangy brown, using a multi-step process that involves HPHT annealing, irradiation, and low-pressure annealing at relatively lower temperatures. Those stones that achieve a predominant pink-to-red or purple color are marketed as “Imperial Red Diamonds.” Gemological properties and characteristic spectra are presented for 41 diamonds, representing the range of colors produced thus far. These treated-color natural diamonds can be readily identified by internal graphitization and surface etching seen with magnification, distinctive color zoning, and reactions to long- and short-wave UV radiation. The color is caused primarily by the absorption of the (N-V)- center, with further influence from the (N-V)O, H3, H4, and N3 centers. Other characteristic infrared and UV-visible absorption features include the H1a, H1b, H1c, 6170 cm-1, and, frequently, 594 nm bands. This type of defect combination is not known in naturally colored diamonds. @chapter:11


Publication Year: - Title: US Retailers Continue to Cite ‘Challenging’ Environment, Synthetic Melee Detected Abstract: Good demand for diamond jewelry at the March Hong Kong Gem and Jewellery Show helped buoy industry sentiment. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

	U.S. employment figures continue to rise along with the stock market – and other economic indicators remain strong – but Signet Group’s latest lower results continue to point to a “challenging” retail environment. Signet is the largest jewelry chain in the U.S. and other large retail jewelers are seeing sales decline as well.

	So, what are the issues here?

	Signet’s CEO Mark Light spoke of weakening traffic in shopping malls, where nearly all of its stores are located, and a move to “omnichannel” retailing, which includes physical stores, online shopping and mobile phone/tablet buying. Signet’s online sales are down as well, however, and Blue Nile, which is expected to report later this month, may show stagnant or a decline in sales.

	Signet’s Kay/Jared division sales declined 4% while transactions declined 11%. Its Zale division fell 2.5% while e-commerce sales fell 1.6% all for the fourth quarter, which ended Jan. 25.

	Economists, both liberal and conservative, recognize that the decline in middle class purchasing power is directly affecting some consumer products – and jewelry is one of those categories. This trend is accelerating, they note, because millennials are making less money than the previous generation at this point in their lives. In jewelry, retailers serving the top end of the market generally have kept their numbers up and brands like Pandora are seeing large sales increases in the lower end. This is what drove the 3.8% increase in overall jewelry sales for 2016 that the U.S. Department of Commerce reported.

	In addition, diamond producers and other segments of the industry are trying to develop marketing campaigns designed to appeal to a millennial audience, which is besieged by competitive products and experience-oriented (travel, dining) opportunities, with incomes that have not kept pace.

	A fairly positive Hong Kong show this month lifted the spirits of the diamond trade and helped keep prices firm for most categories of polished stones. While there was some downtrading and discounting, Chinese retailers have reported demand improving after a long slump.

	De Beers remains optimistic and its $545 million February cycle (sight) saw prices slightly higher on average with few deferrals. Its January sale of $727 million was the highest in several years. Alrosa sold $390 million worth of rough and $12 million in polished during the same period, saying “demand appears to be stable.”

	Both DeBeers and Alrosa noted that the results of the Hong Kong Show give reasons for optimism.

	The upcoming Baselworld Fair should provide a bellwether for the luxury market; the early June JCK Show in Las Vegas will be a good indicator of the U.S. market.

	SYNTHETIC MELEE

	GIA’s lab in Mumbai flagged more than 100 synthetic melee diamonds in a parcel of 323 stones in early March, which brought home trade concerns that parcels of melee that normally do not go through grading labs could contain synthetic stones.

	The GIA Melee Analysis Service, which provides an automated analysis to identify possible synthetic and treated diamonds in melee-sized parcels, found 101 chemical vapor deposition (CVD) melee diamonds in the parcel, which averaged 0.14 and 0.15 ct. stones.

	Dr. Wuyi Wang, GIA director of research and development, said that the Melee Analysis Service launched in December has regularly identified small numbers of synthetics mixed into parcels. This, however, is the first time that such a large percentage of man-made material was identified.

The Jonker No. 5 diamond – to be auctioned by Christie’s on May 30 – is a key part of a legendary collection of diamonds from the world famous 726 carats Jonker rough, discovered by Jacob Jonker in 1934. Photo courtesy of Christie’s Images

	AUCTIONS

	Christie’s will auction the 25.27 ct Jonker V in Hong Kong on May 30. It is the fifth largest diamond from a piece of rough that made headlines when it was found 93 years ago.

	The 1934 discovery of a 726-carat diamond in South Africa by an artisanal miner named Jacob Jonker made world headlines that followed the diamond to New York, where it was purchased by Harry Winston. Winston entrusted the job of cutting it to the master diamond cutter Lazare Kaplan, who studied the diamond for several months before attempting to cleave it, according to a 1936 article in National Geographic Magazine.

	At the moment when Kaplan was about to strike the first blow, he noticed a slight bend in a surface crack that told him his calculations were wrong. After recalculating, he successfully cleaved the diamond into 13 stones – including the 25.27 ct diamond that Christie’s will auction.

	The D, VVS1 diamond, graded by GIA, is a rectangular cut and is conservatively estimated to sell for between $2.2 million and $3 million. @chapter:27


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Aquamarine from a New Primary Deposit in Mexico Abstract: Figure 1. Aquamarine was recently discovered in San Luis Potosí State in north-central Mexico. Here the aquamarine is shown in association with muscovite and quartz. The approximate size of the visible aquamarine crystal is 12.04 × 5.68 × 4.57 mm. Photo by M. Ostrooumov.

Scientists still have not adequately surveyed Mexico from a mineralogical or gemological point of view. But recent finds of amazonite, jadeite, topazolite, demantoid, and labradorite demonstrate the importance of systematic research of the Mexican subsoil, which may lead to the discovery of other gemstones and gem localities (M. Ostrooumov, “Gemstones from Mexico—A review,” Summer 2011 G&G, p. 141).

Recently, the author discovered transparent blue crystals with hexagonal-prismatic habit in a granitic pluton in the hills of Guadalcázar municipality, San Luis Potosí State, in north-central Mexico. These crystals, the largest of which measured 12.04 × 5.68 × 4.57 mm, were embedded in a single quartz vein in association with muscovite (figure 1). All observed aquamarine crystals were generally characterized by a lighter blue tone, lacking visible inclusions. The samples were submitted for identification at the Institute of Earth Sciences at the University of Michoacan in Morelia, Mexico.

Standard gemological testing yielded the following properties: refractive index (RI)—no=1.582−1.587 and ne=1.575−1.580; pleochroism—strong blue and near-colorless; birefringence—0.007, with a uniaxial negative optic sign; hydrostatic specific gravity (SG)—2.70−2.71; fluorescence—inert to both long- and short-wave UV radiation. These properties suggested beryl, which we later confirmed with UV-Vis-NIR and infrared reflection spectroscopy and Raman microprobe.

UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy showed absorption bands at 428, 452, 575, 630, and 805–815 nm. Narrow, weak absorption lines at 428 and 452 nm are attributed to the spin-forbidden transition of six-coordinated Fe3+. A broad intense band at 575 nm and a much weaker line at 630 nm, which are responsible for the aquamarine color, are assigned to an Fe2+-O-Fe3+ intervalence charge transfer transition (A.S. Marfunin, Advanced Mineralogy, Vol. 2, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1995, pp. 113−114). Finally, an intense broad band at approximately 805–815 nm is attributed to spin-allowed transitions of Fe2+.

Infrared reflection spectroscopy and Raman microprobe are methods of “fingerprinting,” and a combination of these techniques permits the user to identify a wide range of mineralogical, gemological, and archaeological objects (M. Ostrooumov, “Infrared reflection spectrometry analysis as a non-destructive method of characterizing minerals and stone materials in geoarchaeological and archaeometric applications,” Geoarchaeology, Vol. 24, No. 5, 2009, pp. 619−637).

Figure 2. Infrared reflection spectra and Raman microprobe results of the samples
confirm their aquamarine identity. The IR spectrum at the top is from the {1010} orientation,
while the middle spectrum shows the {0001} orientation. The bottom plot shows the
unoriented Raman microprobe results, with principal peaks at 322, 396, 447, 528, 684,
773, 916, 1011, and 1068 cm–1.
This study confirmed that the crystals belonged to the beryl group (http://rruff.info). The infrared reflection spectra were obtained on oriented crystal faces {0001} and {1010} in order to take into account the effect of orientation (figure 2, top and middle). These results indicate the presence of the typical Be-O band vibrations at 743–807 cm–1 and 1215–1276 cm–1. The infrared absorption spectra showed the presence of hydroxyl groups with a prominent band at 3450 cm−1 and a secondary band at about 3558 cm−1 due to the fundamental OH stretching vibration of water molecules, as well as the water-bending vibration at approximately 1630 cm−1. The Raman microprobe spectra (figure 2, bottom) showed excellent agreement with a reference spectrum for aquamarine from Ilmen, Russia, in the author’s FT-Raman database (http://www.mineralog.net). The Raman spectra of aquamarine in the water range from 3700 to 3500 cm−1 using 532 nm excitation wavelength showed two Raman bands at 3608 and 3598 cm−1 with different intensities. Water molecules in the channels are classified as type I or type II according to their orientation to the beryl structure. The Raman band at 3608 cm−1 is assigned to the vibration of type I water, and the Raman band at 3598 cm−1 is ascribed to the vibration of type II water molecules. UV-Vis-NIR, infrared reflection, and Raman microprobe techniques, as well as standard gemological testing, confirmed the discovery of aquamarine in the Guadalcázar granitoid deposits of San Luis Potosí State.

The recent discovery of in situ aquamarine in Mexico has renewed interest in the geology and mineralogy of gem deposits in that country. More discoveries are anticipated with further exploration in the region. @chapter:4


Publication Year: - Title: Insider View of the Colored Gem Market Abstract: Evan CaplanEvan Caplan Fine Gemstone

Interview with Evan Caplan, Evan Caplan Fine Gemstone

It’s an emotional roller coaster following veteran gem dealer Evan Caplan in this exclusive GIA interview conducted at the 2013 Tucson Gem Show. At one moment, Caplan is despairing over how Brazilian environmental protection laws have made mining there prohibitively expensive for small companies. In another moment he’s nearly giddy at what a great success the gem show has been. At still another instant, he’s painting a bleak picture of the global availability of quality stones at reasonable prices. The next instant, he’s looking forward to a rosy future.

The laws in Brazil require the miners to restore the environment to its previous state after mining, making it only affordable for the biggest firms. In Sri Lanka, where no such laws exist, the digging is prolific as is the yield, but because of the overall tight market the prices are exorbitant. The prices are exorbitant in part, Caplan says, because the Internet has come to the Third World, and the suppliers are seeing the prices retailers are getting and want in on it.

Still, Caplan says, he had never seen a better and busier Tucson gem show—so busy in fact that he didn’t even have time to eat. But that busyness feeds his optimism about the gem trade in the long term. He remains philosophical throughout. “Sources come and go,” says Caplan. “Life is a roller coaster.” And so is this interview. Catch it here. @chapter:38


Publication Year: - Title: Book Review: Stories In Stone: The Enchanted Gem Carvings of Vasily Konovalenko Abstract: Stephen E. Nash and Richard M. Wicker, softcover, 304 pp., publ. by University of Colorado Press, Boulder, Colorado, 2016, $39.95.

	Vasily Konovalenko (1929–1989) was a Ukrainian-born artist who spent most of his career in Soviet Russia. His whimsical and charming figures, carved in stone, have delighted collectors and museum visitors alike. Stories in Stone, written by Stephen E. Nash, curator of archaeology at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, gives the reader an in-depth look at the life of this passionate artist. Konovalenko often said, “One can learn to paint with stone.” And paint he did. Through his carving, he created small vignettes of life in the Soviet Union in which he grew up, focusing not on the political dogma that the government demanded from artists, but of the lives of ordinary people, often just village folk in their homemade birchbark shoes, enjoying a drink with friends, playing musical instruments, or ice fishing. Often humorous, and delightfully whimsical, Konovalenko’s characters come to life in his “paintings” in stone. Nash has interviewed Konovalenko’s widow and friends as well as museum academics, and he has researched archival documents for this book. He delves into the incredible journey of Konovalenko’s life, from his early days as a sculptor and set designer at the Donetsk Musical Theater and Stalin Theater for Opera and Ballet in Ukraine, to his successful career at the Mariinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. Nash tells stories of Konovalenko navigating the complex bureaucracy of Soviet Russian politics to bring his art to the public, and his eventual emigration to America in 1981.

	With a background in sculpture and set design, Vasily Konovalenko found an art form that ignited his artistic passion. While making a malachite box as a prop for a Mariinsky production of The Stone Flower, he fell in love with working in stone. The Stone Flower is a story of a young stonecutter Danila, and the trials he endures trying to woo his beloved Katerina with a beautiful stone flower he carves from malachite. Among the 20 Konovalenko sculptures on display at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science is a sculpture of Danila holding a malachite box. Nash states that Danila is “the totemic leader of all of Konovalenko’s sculptures,” perhaps representing Konovalenko himself. Danila, along with many other sculptures in this book, is photographed in great detail. The photographs show these sculptures close-up and from multiple views; as Nash points out, this is something not possible when viewing them in a display case. The reader can see the details of the young Danila’s face carved of Beloretsk quartz, the folds carved in his cacholong shirt with pearl buttons, and the brown jasper boots on a parquet floor, also made from pieces of jasper. The innocence and sincerity of Danila’s character is communicated with great sensitivity in Konovalenko’s carving.

	In “Sultry Midday,” he has created a scene of two heavyset women gossiping over bowls of soup and cups of tea as they sit bathing in a pool of water. Between them on a wood table is an intricately carved crystal samovar with a carved cacholong teapot. This theme of buxom, round-faced ladies gossiping over tea while bathing is repeated in “Twins.” Here, the charmingly ample-bodied women enjoy bathing in a pool of water created by agate edged by a ring of malachite. But this samovar is gold-plated silver with pastel cloisonné enamel decoration. An umbrella, also made of intricate cloisonné enamel patterns, shades the ladies, showing Konovalenko’s virtuosity in metalsmithing as well as stonework.

	His humorous creations include men as well. In “Sultry Afternoon 1,” he has created a portly man sitting in a pool of water eating a slice of watermelon. In “Sauna 1: The Thin and the Fat,” he shows a plump man on a table getting a massage from a skinny man; the juxtaposition between the two is quite humorous. Saunas have been very popular in Russia, and once a person had been in the warm steamy sauna, they emerged only to jump into ice-cold water. In “Walruses,” Konovalenko creates the illusion of a hole in a frozen pond by using layers of agate surrounded by snow made of calcite. Out of the hole pokes the head of a chubby woman wearing a red cap and an expression on her face that one can interpret only as “Brrr!” Standing outside on the ice is her husband, shirtless and wearing only a pair of shorts, boots, and a hat. Hunched over with his arms close to his sides and his hands clasped between his legs, he shivers in the cold winter air. These whimsical glimpses into the lives of everyday Russian people show not only the affinity the artist has for the subject, but also his wonderful sense of humor-- even when living under an oppressive government.

	Not all of Konovalenko’s work is humorous; he created some serious and emotionally powerful pieces, too. The sculptural group “Prisoners,” for example, shows two men dressed in prison uniforms made of black and white striped zebra jasper and building a wood shelter in the snow at their Siberian work camp. It was the norm in Stalin’s gulags that new prisoners would be forced to build their own barracks. On the back of each figure is a red target over where their heart would be, in case the order to shoot to kill was given. The red target, made of ruby, is the only bright color in this somber composition. Another moving sculpture is “Bereaved Mother,“ commissioned to commemorate the end of WWII. Here, a bereaved mother mourns over the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. The dates 1941–1945 are carved into the tombstone, and white calcite flowers grow in a planter. It has a dark color palette, all set on a large, roughly cut piece of black obsidian. The scarf on the woman’s head is modeled jasper, emulating the colors of traditional Russian headscarves. Poignant pieces such as these show Konovalenko’s empathy for the suffering evident in his Soviet world, and are a strong contrast to the sculptures that show the simple joys of everyday life.

	In a chapter “Unfinished Business,” found toward the end of the book, the reader gets a glimpse into Konovalenko’s creative process through sketches of pieces that were never completed. The humorous and whimsical characters he is known for are here in vignettes such as “Family Bath,” which shows a mother and father with children all bathing in a large barrel, and another drawing of two “Gypsy Women Arguing.” His design skills are very evident in these drawings with rich bold colors and larger-than-life characters dressed in elaborate costumes. Konovalenko was always thinking of subjects and compositions he could sculpt, and what gems and minerals he could use to make them come to life.

Stories in Stone documents the life and work of an artist that is little known in America, even though he lived the last few years of his life here creating some of his most interesting pieces. As master set designer, enameler, metalsmith, and “painter in stone,” he has left a small part of himself in every piece. This book is a fitting tribute to Vasily Konovalenko and to his legacy to the Russian tradition of stone carving. This book would be of interest to anyone fascinated by sculpture, stone carving, and gemstones in general; those interested in 20th century Russian history and decorative arts would find Konovalenko’s life story and work particularly intriguing. @chapter:21


Publication Year: 2004 Title: An Updated Chart on the Characteristics of HPHT-Grown Synthetic Diamonds Abstract: A new chart, supplementing the one published in the Winter 1995 issue of Gems & Gemology, summarizes the features of both as-grown (“non-modified”) and treated (“modified”) synthetic diamonds currently in the gem market (that is, those grown by the high pressure/high  temperature technique). It includes photographs of visual features, information about visible-range absorption spectra, and illustrations of growth-structure patterns as revealed by ultraviolet fluorescence imaging. The chart is designed to help gemologists recognize the greater variety of laboratory-created diamonds that might be encountered today. @chapter:15