Publication Year: 2022 Title: Natural Near-Colorless Type IIb Diamond Abstract: Figure 1. FTIR spectrum of the sample showing a band (2802 cm–1) characteristic of type IIb diamond.
While colorless to near-colorless HPHT laboratory-grown diamonds usually contain detectable boron impurities (classified as type IIb; see S. Eaton-Magaña et al., “Observations on HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds: A review,” Fall 2017 G&G, pp. 262–284), it is uncommon to encounter a boron-bearing diamond of natural origin due to its rarity (0.02% of natural gem diamonds; E.M. Smith et al., “Blue boron-bearing diamonds from Earth’s lower mantle,” Nature, Vol. 560, No. 7716, 2018, pp. 84–87). The boron concentrations in natural diamonds are generally low (typically <1 ppm), but boron is such an efficient coloring agent that it imparts a blue color to most type IIb diamonds. However, exceptions still exist. For example, when boron absorption is accompanied by absorptions from plastic deformation, the combined effects may give rise to other colors (e.g., yellowish green; Spring 2012 Lab Notes, pp. 47–48; see also Summer 2009 Lab Notes, p. 136). Occasionally, some type IIb diamonds are near-colorless because their boron concentrations are too low to cause a blue color (e.g., E. Fritsch and K. Scarratt, “Natural-color nonconductive gray-to-blue diamonds,” Spring 1992 G&G, pp. 35–42), but they are far from common. Therefore, any near-colorless type IIb diamond submitted to a gem laboratory should be given particular attention to determine its possible lab-grown origin.

Figure 2. DiamondView imaging of the 0.24 ct diamond revealed blue fluorescence (left) and moderate blue-green phosphorescence (right). Subtle dislocation networks on the table (red arrow) that resulted from plastic deformation, typically observed in type IIa and IIb diamond, are consistent with a sublithospheric origin. Images by Wenqing Huang.
Recently, we had the opportunity to examine such an example. This 0.24 ct round brilliant cut had an I color grade due to its grayish component, usually seen in natural type IIb diamond. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopy detected a weak band at 2802 cm–1 (figure 1), characteristic of uncompensated boron, and identified the sample as type IIb. The diamond was inert to both long- and short-wave ultraviolet radiation. When observed with the DiamondView, it exhibited blue fluorescence and moderate blue-green phosphorescence (figure 2). The dislocation networks observed on the table (figure 2, left), typically seen in some natural type IIa and IIb diamonds but not previously described for lab-grown diamonds, suggest a natural origin. Further evidence of natural origin came from photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy and inclusion analysis.

Figure 3. Photoluminescence spectra from the type IIb diamond under 473 nm and 532 nm laser excitations. Nitrogen-related defects such as H4 (top) and NV0 (bottom) were observed, along with GR1 (bottom).
Multiple laser excitations (473, 532, and 633 nm) were used to characterize its photoluminescence features at liquid nitrogen temperatures. The PL spectrum measured with a 473 nm excitation revealed the presence of nitrogen-related defect H4 (496.0 nm) (figure 3, top). PL spectroscopy using a 532 nm laser (figure 3, bottom) revealed the occurrence of GR1, NV0, and a sharp peak at 648.2 nm that is probably related to interstitial boron, all of which have been documented previously in type IIb diamonds (S. Eaton-Magaña et al., “Natural-color blue, gray, and violet diamonds: Allure of the deep,” Summer 2018 G&G, pp. 112–131). Nickel defect-related peaks (883/884 nm), a common feature in HPHT laboratory-grown diamonds of various colors, were not detected with any of these excitations.

Figure 4. Inclusions (outlined in red circles) observed in the type IIb diamond tended to show a satellite-like appearance. Fields of view are 2.5 mm (left) and 2 mm (right), respectively. Photomicrographs by Wenqing Huang.

Figure 5. Raman spectra of mineral inclusions in the type IIb diamond. Left: Baseline-corrected Raman spectra of a mineral inclusion (blue line) match the CaTiO3 perovskite reference spectrum (light gray line) from Nestola et al. (2018). The included mineral could be perovskite or CaSiO3 perovskite, since their Raman spectra are almost indistinguishable. Right: Baseline-uncorrected Raman spectrum of a coesite inclusion inverted from the presumed stishovite, showing main bands at approximately 530, 272, and 195 cm–1. Reference spectrum is from RRUFF-X050094.
Magnification indicated several solid inclusions (figure 4), mostly in the crown, that resulted in its SI1 clarity grade. The inclusion scenes were consistent with those described in natural type IIb blue diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Namely, they tended to show a tiny satellite-like appearance composed of the main inclusion and accompanying decompression cracks. Raman spectra using a 532 nm laser revealed that two of these inclusions were coesite (figure 5). This feature confirmed the diamond’s natural origin. Coesite is a relatively common inclusion in lithospheric diamonds that formed at depths of ~150–200 km. However, recent studies show that type IIb diamonds have a sublithospheric origin and are formed in the upper part of the lower mantle (Smith et al., 2018). For type IIb diamond formed at such depths, the coesite inclusion has not been considered to be in its original pristine form, but rather the back-transformation product from stishovite. Another inclusion showed bands matching roughly with perovskite (CaTiO3) (figure 5), but its precise mineralogy was difficult to determine. This is because the Raman spectra of perovskite and CaSiO3 perovskite, both of which have been described in sublithospheric diamonds, are very similar (F. Nestola et al., “CaSiO3 perovskite in diamond indicates the recycling of oceanic crust into the lower mantle,” Nature, Vol. 555, No. 7695, 2018, pp. 237–241). No matter what exact mineral this inclusion corresponds to, its occurrence implies a sublithospheric origin for the host diamond. Other mineral inclusions could not be identified, probably because of their depth within the diamond.
Due to the scarcity of natural type IIb diamonds, any near-colorless diamond that contains boron detectable by FTIR spectroscopy should be given close attention to determine its origin. The near-colorless type IIb diamond examined here, though rarely encountered, was identified as natural on the basis of its gemological and spectroscopic characteristics. @chapter:11


Publication Year: 2017 Title: Book Review: Cartier Magician: High Jewelry and Precious Objects Abstract: By François Chaille, hardcover, 264 pp., illus., publ. by Flammarion, Paris, 2016, US$125.00.

Art historian François Chaille’s beautifully illustrated book focuses on the Magician Collection of high jewelry and precious objects by the House of Cartier. The book is divided into chapters such as “The Magical Art,” “The Magic of Light,” “The Magic of Design,” and “The Magic of Reality.” Each one is illustrated with pieces from the collection, as well as colorful artwork. The author takes the reader to a magical past when diamonds were illuminated by candlelight, then later thrown into a modern world of electric light, and explains how that changed jewelry setting. He explores the innovative designs of Cartier through the last century, and how this new collection is a continuation of the brand’s mystique.

The book begins with the historical belief that some stones hold supernatural properties, that nature is full of miracles and magical virtues. Chaille quotes French writer and diplomat Paul Claudel, a friend of the Cartier family. In 1937, inspired by a visit to the Cartier shop on Rue de la Paix, Claudel wrote of a child who dreamed of taking in his hand a “drop of dew that sparkles in the May dawn like a star.” He continues: “The child knows that this wonder, once on his index finger… would give magical powers.” Then he closed by saying, “But all this is no dream, it is real.”

The concept of Cartier as magician came from the poet Jean Cocteau, a loyal client. In his 1910 poem “The Frivolous Prince,” he called Cartier “that subtle magician who captures fragments of the moon on a thread of sun.” Chaille refers to the company’s workshops as a place where “Merlin the Magician and other conjurers are in attendance,” imparting life to gems. A Mystery clock from 2015 is shown as an example of the magical designs conjured by the House of Cartier. Its hands are suspended in crystal with no apparent connection to a mechanism, yet they still move.

The reader then walks through the history of light and its use in art, from the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles and paintings by Caravaggio to works by Van Gogh, Rothko, and Picasso and light sculptures by James Turrell and Robert Irwin. The author discusses the magic of light in art, and how we react to it as viewers. The importance of light and how it plays on gemstones cannot be emphasized enough; it is vital to the life of the stone and to jewelry. Louis Cartier started to use platinum in the late 19th century to show diamonds at their best, especially in the newly discovered electric light. The age of platinum jewelry had come into its own, and Cartier was at the forefront of this evolution. Platinum and diamond bracelets, tiaras, necklaces, and rings with names such as Clairvoyant, Luminance, Psyché, Oracle, and Incarnation fill these pages, adding to the mysticism of the Magician Collection.

The Illumination bracelet is made to create light through a combination of colorless diamonds and rock crystal. At the center of the bracelet is an impressive 31.16 ct D-IF emerald-cut diamond flanked by rectangular diamond-set platinum frames containing etched rock crystal panels. These panels lie on top of one another. Light reflects off the diamond through the crystal panels, which act like mirrors to reflect the light back. It is a wondrously imaginative design. Cartier creations use each of the major diamond cuts to enhance the shine, sparkle, and luster of their high jewelry. Since the 1920s they have used them in various combinations to bring a kaleidoscope of light effects to their jewelry. This is illustrated in a 1929 platinum and diamond bracelet that contains brilliant-cut, baguette-cut, single-cut, and bullet-shaped cut diamonds. Also illustrated is the Luminance necklace, which continues this tradition today by combining 11 modified triangular-shaped rose-cut diamonds totaling 19.15 carats with round brilliant-cuts to create scintillation and luster.

The chapter titled “The Magic of Design” gives a background on 1950s and ’60s kinetic art, which focuses on motion, and Op Art, a style that uses optical illusions. Alexander Calder, Victor Vasarely, and Yaacov Agam are a few of the artists whose work illustrates these styles. The chapter features Cartier pieces that transform from one thing to another or have a magical sense of movement. One page has six vintage cigarette cases from 1912 through the ’20s and ’30s. These cases have elaborate Art Deco designs that pre-date the Op Art movement by decades, yet look very contemporary with their kinetic optical illusions and use of positive and negative space.

The sense of movement and transformation is echoed in pieces from the Magician Collection. The Incantation necklace is made of platinum set with round and baguette-cut diamonds on a petal-like fringe. Hanging from this fringe is a 22.84 ct cushion-shaped Ceylon sapphire. The sapphire can be removed and worn as a ring, and the curve of the necklace can be inverted to make a completely different design. The Ubiquité set is a pair of platinum and diamond-set rings that can be worn as one ring or easily converted into two: one set with a 15.06 ct cushion-cut Kashmir sapphire, the other a 10 ct D-IF cushion-cut diamond. When locked together they create the Cartier Toi et Moi (You and Me) or Crossover ring. A piece that captures the sense of movement is a black jade bypass bracelet in the Apparition suite. The terminals of each bypass have a platinum, diamond, and onyx cap set with a cushion-cut Colombian emerald. These “caps” can be removed and transformed into earrings with a total emerald weight of 15.1 carats.

This final chapter, “The Magic of Reality,” focuses on the pieces inspired by nature and the world around us. Under the direction of head designer Jeanne Toussaint, Cartier began to create naturalistic depictions of flowers and three-dimensional animals. The iconic Cartier panther collection became very popular in the early 1920s. Designer Peter Lemarchand, like Toussaint, loved animals and birds, and together they designed some of the most iconic Cartier creations. In this final chapter, the focus on three-dimensional animals and flowers continues throughout the century and into the Magician collection. Elephants with raised trunks made of platinum and diamonds support an 85.25 ct oval emerald in a design for the Ganesh bracelet. On the opposite page is a design for Ganesh earrings that have pear-shaped sapphires, totaling 14.65 carats, suspended from pavé platinum elephant heads. The Jouesue ring has the famous Cartier platinum panther, paved in diamonds with black onyx spots, wrestling with a python coiled around a cabochon-cut 30.64 ct East African ruby. Another stunning piece is the Panthère Hypnotique necklace, where the panther stands upon a 52.53 ct black opal. The Crocodiles necklace, from 1975, is a bold pair of three-dimensional yellow gold crocodiles, one pavé set with yellow diamonds and the other with emeralds. One of the most whimsical pieces is the Adwaita ring, in which a turtle crawls over the top of the white gold mounting of pavé diamonds and cuddles up to a heart-shaped 29.37 ct spinel. Its shell is made of a cabochon gray-blue star sapphire.

Flowers are another inspiration in the Cartier workshops. Photos of a wide variety of floral pieces are included in this last chapter. A brooch from 2013 captures the virtuosity of the master jewelers. It is a flower set with a 46.12 ct cushion-cut pink tourmaline surrounded by pavé diamonds, and plique-à-jour enamel creating delicate petals. The Illyrie necklace combines carved morganite flowers with briolette-cut morganite drops and pear-shaped spinels to create a cascade of pastel flowers from a pink gold color of pavé diamonds. Carving of stones into three-dimensional flowers is an art form. Cartier has created many of these in brooches such as the Iridacée brooch, a purple iris carved from a piece of amethyst and set with a pear-shape yellow diamond along with accents of pavé white diamonds. The Gardenia brooches are carved in pink or blue chalcedony set in pink or white gold.

In the 1920s Cartier, influenced by the maharajahs, created what has come to be known as their Tutti-Frutti jewelry. It combines carved rubies, sapphires, and emeralds with diamonds to create an Indian look. The carved colored stones are combinations of pumpkin-cut and leaf-shape stone, some engraved with floral designs. It was quite popular in the ’20s and ’30s, and Indian motifs were revived in the 1960s. Recently this Indian-style jewelry has been brought back by Cartier. One of the most impressive pieces in this book is the Rajasthan set of necklaces that can be worn together or separately. The first necklace is a row of graduated pumpkin-cut emeralds with a pendant that contains a 136.99 ct carved emerald suspended from a pear-shaped carved ruby. This can be worn with another necklace—a bib of carved emeralds, sapphires, and rubies suspended from pavé diamond branches—to make a major statement piece. The large emerald can be transformed into a brooch, and the suite comes with earrings, ring, and bracelet to complete the set.

François Chaille’s knowledge of art, combined with his love of fine jewelry, creates a fascinating read for those who have a passion for both. He uses archival and modern jewels to weave history and art history to tell the story of the Cartier Magician Collection.

This book is sumptuously illustrated with high-resolution photos and archival preliminary sketches, as well as important art works. It is a scholarly work but easy to read, as informative as it is enjoyable. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2015 Title: Book Review: Collector’s Guide to Herkimer Diamonds Abstract: By Michael R. Walter, softcover, 96 pp., illus., publ. by Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. Atglen, PA, 2014, US$19.99.

	Quartz, chemically the simplest form of the silicates, is abundant in the earth’s crust. Herkimer diamonds are a unique form of quartz crystal found in the state of New York. Most of the brilliant, water-clear crystals show the classic 18-sided, doubly terminated hexagonal form.

	Author Michael Walter gives us an in-depth look at every aspect of Herkimer diamonds. Mineralogical properties such as crystal shapes, sizes, surface growth features, and crystal combinations are fully described. Calcite, dolomite, iron sulfides, and hydrocarbons are associated minerals. Inclusions that provide clues to the origins of the Herkimer diamonds are solids, liquids (salt water or petroleum), gases (most often carbon dioxide), two- and three-phase inclusions, and negative crystals. Anthraxolite, formed by polymerization of petroleum over geological time periods, is the most common solid inclusion.

	The geological history of Herkimer diamonds is an intriguing one that begins at the bottom of a shallow sea about 495 million years ago. The material that would later form the crystals was deposited as a waxy organic material along with quartz sand and masses of pyrite. All of this was encased in a rock made up of two carbonate minerals: dolomite and calcite. Sediments slowly buried the rock and its temperature rose. As a result, molecules that had been holding quartz dissolved from the sand in solution were broken apart by thermal splitting. This caused the quartz to come out of solution very slowly and resulted in the growth of quartz crystals of exceptional clarity.

	The book’s main purpose is about where to go for treasure hunting and how to work the rock based on firsthand experience. No single aspect of field collecting goes undiscussed. Collecting is only possible during the favorable weather of summer. The rock is hard, and the author gives invaluable information on equipment and tools and how to use them. Specific methods used to effectively extract Herkimer diamonds are described.

	A full chapter is dedicated to the preparation of specimens: cleaning, trimming and preservation. Some of the mines are operated as fee locations and open to the general public. These and some closed mines and locations outside the traditional Herkimer diamond region are documented. A handy appendix section contains maps and GPS coordinates of Herkimer diamond localities, including Ace of Diamonds, Herkimer Diamond Mines, Crystal Grove Mine, Diamond Acres, and Hickory Hill.

	Good rock and mineral collecting field guides are hard to find. This guide offers 210 vivid color images and a well-written, easy-to-read text. This book is a must have if you are thinking of prospecting for Herkimer diamonds. @chapter:29


Publication Year: - Title: Recycled Diamonds: ‘Mining’ the World’s Largest Diamond Resource Abstract: At a recent auction of recycled polished diamonds in Hong Kong, White Pine offered more than 200 lots of mainly smaller diamonds, ranging from 20 carats total weight to nearly 1,200 carats. This lot contains 1,160.68 carats of approximately 0.01 ct. stones of mixed qualities. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

                      Diamond mining companies continue to explore promising sources in Africa and Canada, but perhaps the world’s largest diamond resource is well above ground in the U.S.: Jewelry owners.

During the second half of the last century, according to De Beers’ market surveys, American jewelry buyers accounted for between two-third and three-quarters of all diamond jewelry sold at retail. And in the past five years they have been sending several million carats – numbers approaching a large diamond mine – back into the market each year.

One of the largest buyers of pre-owned diamonds is White Pine Trading of New York, which handled more than 500,000 carats of stones in 2015. This will make it, by its own account, the world’s largest buyer of pre-owned diamonds.

The company was created in 2010 as the world economy struggled to right itself from the financial crisis that began at the end of 2008. At the time, gold was climbing strongly in price toward $1,900 per ounce, and a flood of sellers were eager to convert their jewelry pieces – many of which often contained small diamonds − to cash.

A 2010 GIA survey of the U.S. “secondary market” by this author estimated that 1.4 to 1.8 million diamonds larger than 0.30 carats (cts.) – or a total of 500,000 to 700,000 carats − were channeled from consumers back to retail jewelers, pawnbrokers and gold buying firms. The number of smaller diamonds totaled an estimated 3 million carats.

There are immense numbers of diamonds in consumers’ hands. De Beers’ annual surveys conducted between 1976 and 1999 found that U.S. consumers bought a total of nearly 400 million pieces of diamond jewelry, representing 1.3 billion diamonds. Within that total there were more than 37 million engagement rings averaging about one-third of a carat. De Beers stopped publicizing its surveys after 2000, but later surveys from other sources indicate that acquisition rates have continued.

Last year, industry analyst Chaim Even-Zohar estimated the “recycled diamond market” at $450 million, which represents a significant decline from the peak of 2010-12 when economic necessity, combined with extremely high gold prices and rising diamond prices, probably resulted in more than $1 billion worth of diamonds returning to the market.

	The majority of buyers at White Pine’s Hong Kong auctions were the jewelers who line
	Nathan Road, one of the main shopping streets in the city. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA
White Pine said its 2015 sales will total $100 million. “We believe that’s it’s extraordinary to carve such a huge niche in a market that is basically contracting,” said Myles Schakler, vice president of Diamond Melee Sales and Auctions.

The company grew by networking, he said. First, it recruited agents to buy melee from gold dealers, retailers and pawnshops around the U.S. These small diamonds were mostly by-products of their gold buying activities and the company offered them a ready outlet for tiny stones for which they had no viable use. White Pine parlayed this business into buying larger diamonds – quarters-, thirds- and even some one-caraters.

White Pine has expanded its buying activities to Japan and several European nations and has about 20 buying agents. It has expanded acquisition beyond pawnshops and gold buying operations to cover store closeouts, bank and estate liquidations. This expansion was necessary, Schakler said, because consumers are selling back much less gold jewelry than they did when the price of the metal hovered at $1,900 an ounce.

The company sells melee goods back into the trade through regularly scheduled auctions in various venues around the world. Schakler notes that the melee is sold in mixed quality lots, from .01 ct. to 0.1 ct., because it is not economical to sort them further. The lots range from a total of 20 carats to 1,100 carats.

He acknowledges there will be a certain number of rejection goods in the parcels. “The experienced buyers know how to factor them into their offers,” he said.

Buyers leave sealed bids, and lots that don’t sell are opened to new offers after the sale. “We usually have a good idea of what the parcels will bring,” Schakler said. “But if we do not have offers that meet the reserve, we generally will sell within reason.”

The company sends diamonds larger than 0.20 cts. to GIA for grading, then lists them on trading sites like RapNet. Some of these goods, particularly older stones, have to be recut before they are sold. “In fact, it is surprising how poorly cut some goods are,” Schakler said.

The exception, Schakler said, is very low quality diamonds, which go into the melee auctions.

The 2010 GIA survey found that the majority of melee and diamonds under 0.30 cts. were purchased at steep discounts from the prevailing wholesale price and were then brokered back into the trade. Retailers who purchased larger goods from consumers or estates often paid well below wholesale, had them recut if needed, and added them to their own inventories. @chapter:38


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Wittichenite from the Cattle Grid Pit, Mount Gunson Mine, South Australia Abstract: In 1981, large, attractive wittichenite crystals found at the Cattle Grid Pit in South Australia were mistaken for chalcocite. Then in 2008, they were correctly identified by the Smithsonian Institution. Electron microprobe analysis of this species shows Cu, Bi, and S (weight percentages of 38.67%, 41.70%, and 19.90%, respectively).

					The Cattle Grid wittichenite is brittle, with strongly conchoidal fractures and a relatively low hardness. The colors vary from highly lustrous silvery white to bronze to a deep purple-black. The crystals are predominantly tabular-prismatic in habit, but some show myriad crystal faces and deeply striated prisms. The Miller indices for these crystal forms, and their intricate and complicated crystal morphology, are discussed in depth.

					The article contains 16 large photos of wittichenite, some crystals weighing more than 75 grams, as well as the mine site and the copper localization stratigraphy. The number of wittichenite crystals larger than 2 cm in maximum dimension is estimated to be about 30, and these are held in only three collections (two institutional and one private). Unfortunately, the entire production of copper sulfide concentrate from the Cattle Grid Pit is now owned by a private smelter, where the bismuth-containing wittichenite is considered an undesirable impurity.

Abstracted by Edward R. Blomgren @chapter:0


Publication Year: 2015 Title: Treated Pink Diamond with HPHT Synthetic Growth Structure Abstract: Figure 1. This multi-step treated 1.62 ct Fancy pink natural diamond shows what appears to be HPHT synthetic growth structure. Photo by Sood Oil (Judy) Chia.

	HPHT synthetic diamonds are grown using high pressure and high temperature but with a much higher growth rate than natural diamond. Consequently, their growth structures are different. GIA’s New York lab recently examined a multi-step treated diamond with a growth structure similar to that of HPHT synthetics. The 1.62 ct Fancy pink type IIa round brilliant seen in figure 1 showed spectral characteristics suggestive of HPHT treatment, irradiation, and annealing. This diamond was internally clean, except for the presence of strong, colorless internal graining (figure 2). Tatami and banded strains with strong interference colors could be seen under cross-polarized light (again, see figure 2). Based on these microscopic features, we concluded that this was a natural diamond.

Figure 2. Tatami strain (left, field of view 3.20 mm), banded strain (middle, field of view 3.20 mm), and heavy internal graining (right, field of view 2.45 mm) are evidence of a natural diamond.  Photo by Kyaw Soe Moe.

	DiamondView imaging of the stone showed cuboctahedral growth with dark sectors and pink coloration (figure 3). This crystal habit is usually observed in HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds. As seen in figure 3 (left), the cubic {100} sector can be located in the pavilion, along with octahedral {111} sectors. In order to understand more about this growth, we compared it with a type IIa 0.27 ct HPHT synthetic, which was treated post-growth to induce a Fancy Intense orangy pink color (figure 3, right). Both specimens showed similar fluorescence patterns; however, the natural diamond’s greenish blue phosphorescence was evenly distributed, as seen in the middle image of figure 3. This is unlike the dark images yielded from type IIa pink HPHT synthetics, which are not phosphorescent.

Figure 3. DiamondView fluorescence images of the treated 1.62 ct pink natural (left) and the post-growth treated 0.27 ct pink HPHT synthetic (right) showed similar growth patterns, containing cubic {100} sector and octahedral {111} sectors. The middle image of phosphorescence of the 1.62 ct pink natural diamond showed even color distribution without growth sectors. Type IIa pink HPHT synthetic diamonds are usually not phosphorescent. Images by Kyaw Soe Moe.

	Although most natural diamonds show octahedral growth structure in DiamondView images, some natural gem-quality colorless and yellow diamonds may show cuboctahedral growth (Winter 2010 Lab Notes, pp. 298–299; Winter 2011 Lab Notes, p. 310; Spring 2013 Lab Notes  pp. 45–46). Some non-gem-quality diamonds possess cuboctahedral form (D.G. Pearson et al., “Orogenic ultramafic rocks of UHP (diamond facies) origin,” in R.G. Coleman and X. Wang, Eds., Ultrahigh Pressure Metamorphism, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 456–510). Growth rate, pressure, and temperature of geological environment control the habit of a diamond crystal. A slow growth rate causes octahedral crystal growth, but a high growth rate can facilitate cubic {100} and octahedral {111} sectors developing simultaneously. As a result, cuboctahedral habit can be formed naturally.

	While the DiamondView is very reliable at revealing the growth structure of natural vs. synthetic diamond, it is important to correctly interpret all identifying characteristics. When cuboctahedral growth structure is observed, one should look for other features to support the origin. Microscopic features and spectral characteristics are useful for this purpose. @chapter:15


Publication Year: 2022 Title: In Memoriam: Peter Keller Abstract: Dr. Peter Keller during his time as director of education at GIA. Photo by GIA.
Gems & Gemology mourns the passing of Dr. Peter Keller (see above) on November 8, 2022. Keller dedicated 50 years of his life to the gemological community and made countless contributions to GIA and G&G.
Born in 1947 in Allentown, Pennsylvania, Keller became interested in rocks and minerals at an early age. After obtaining his undergraduate degree in geology from George Washington University, Keller earned a master’s degree and a PhD in geology and earth science from the University of Texas. Keller began his career as curator of the Gem and Mineral Hall at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County before joining GIA as director of education in 1980.
For more than a decade, Keller was instrumental to G&G as an author and as associate editor. In the first half of the 1980s, he wrote several landmark articles documenting his visits to gem deposits worldwide. “Emeralds of Colombia” (Summer 1981) received third place in G&G’s annual Most Valuable Article awards. He was a key contributor to G&G’s Spring 1986 special issue on China, reporting on the emerging gem resources in various Chinese provinces.
In addition to writing for G&G, Keller wrote and published two influential books, Gemstones and Their Origins (1990) and Gemstones of East Africa (1992). He even ventured into filmmaking earlier in his career, serving as associate producer on a documentary film titled Gems of the Americas, which was coproduced by the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County and GIA.
Keller spent much of his career as president and CEO of the Bowers Museum in Santa Ana, California. He is survived by his wife, children, stepchildren, and grandchildren. We extend our deepest condolences to his family, friends, and colleagues. @chapter:24


Publication Year: - Title: Searching for Emeralds in Afghanistan Abstract: Afghanistan's Panjshir Valley, home to world-class emeralds. Photo © Andy Lucas

                      GIA field gemologists are a different breed. When Andy Lucas, GIA manager of Field Gemology in Carlsbad, decided to take some vacation time, he didn’t make for the usual destinations. No beaches, ski resorts, or cosmopolitan cities. Lucas instead headed off to Afghanistan, lured by deposits of fine emeralds.

	Emerald Adventuresin Afghanistan

Lucas’ destination was the remote emerald mines of Panjshir Valley. It’s a place where few dealers go, as it’s a difficult trek with its share of hazards. So before setting out, Lucas and his traveling companion, Arthur Groom of Eternity Emerald (who arranged the trip), met with Abdullah Abdullah, a prominent politician. With Abdullah's support, the two set out on their emerald adventure to the Panjshir Valley located on the Panjshir Province.

	Gem trading happens on Chicken Street, which formerly was an antique and poultry market. Photo © Andy Lucas

	Arthur Groom (right) sits across from a gemstone dealer at Kabul’s Chicken Street – the gem trading center of the country. Groom is dividing a parcel of emerald rough by the quality of the gemstones. Photo © Andy Lucas
Rugged beauty and breathtaking vistas were the welcome to Panjshir Valley. The valley’s name means “five lions,” a tribute to five spiritual brothers who once lived there.

“Come as a foe and leave defeated. Come as a friend, and you will find some of the most hospitable and friendly people on the planet,” reflects Lucas about their trip to the Panjshir Valley. “The miners and dealers I traveled with, in fact, were constantly concerned about my welfare,” Lucas recounted with obvious affection.

	The way to travel the rugged, mountainous terrain is by horse. Photo © Andy Lucas
Upon their arrival at the town of Pawat, Lucas started climbing the steep mountain trails in hopes of reaching the emerald mines before dark. After a four-hour hike to the mining area, he arrived at sunset.

	Mountainside homes of the miners. Photo © Andy Lucas
Lucas paints the scene: “A few hundred miners were working at the camp. Most were winding down for the day, but another shift, which worked through the night, was starting. I had a most unusual serenade that evening – the wind whistling through the mountains, punctuated by dynamite blasts from the mines.”

Dinner at the mining camp was a meal of fresh lamb, rice, and Nan-e Afghani, the national bread, baked as it has been for centuries. The next day’s breakfast, says Lucas, was just as tasty: fresh goat milk and more Nan-e Afghani.

	A miner cooking in an open-air kitchen bakes bread for his comrades. Photo © Andy Lucas
Lucas then visited the mining tunnels to watch the mining and ore processing operations. The mining was typical for hard rock deposits – a diesel-powered drill was used to make holes in rock. Charges were placed in them to remove the overburden rock but not to destroy the emeralds – a tricky task!

Once the explosives were detonated, miners returned, removed the rocks, and searched for emerald. Promising rocks were sent to a processing area, where they were broken apart by hand tools and washed using screens.

Lucas noted that emerald mining benefits many: “Like many colored gemstone mines, business people provide the capital to purchase food, equipment, and whatever else is needed to run the operation. Profits are divided between the owners and miners. Many of the owners once were miners.”

	"Pencil" emeralds – named for their shape – mined in the Panjshir Valley. Photo © Andy Lucas
Lucas is now home, incorporating his findings into GIA educational materials. Insights include updated content on the type of gem material coming out of Afghanistan, mining practices, and the nature of the trade. If you’re planning to take the Colored Stones and Gem Identification courses, expect to benefit from Lucas’ travels.

	A Primer on Emeralds from Afghanistan

		Emeralds from Afghanistan can have excellent color – so much so that they “rival any source,” according to Lucas.

		The shape of Afghanistan emeralds can make for a good retention rate, meaning that less stone is lost when they are cut.

		Even small crystals mined in Afghanistan still tend to have rich colors.

		Longer pieces of rough (called pencils because they have a similar shape to one) are often cut into melee and used in fine watches. @chapter:24


Publication Year: - Title: Industry Experts Share Encouraging Advice with Job Seekers Abstract: Students plan their day before the start of “Job Success in Today's Market,” which kicked off the event. Photo by Eric Welch/GIA

                      Act with integrity. Adapt to change. Know what your next job will be. Don’t be afraid to fail.

These are just some of the words of advice offered to job seekers at GIA’s 20th annual Jewelry Career Fair on Oct. 22. The event, held at the Institute’s world headquarters in Carlsbad, is a free, one-day-only opportunity for attendees to connect with companies through panel discussions, one-on-one career coaching sessions and networking. It also included three panel sessions: “Job Success in Today’s Market,” “From Design to Finish” and “Creative Careers.”

Here is some of their best advice:

Alan Bell, managing director of The Bell Group, Inc., shared principles he learned from his father: “It’s not enough to conduct yourself with integrity in the jewelry industry. You must conduct yourself in a manner that leaves no doubt about your integrity. You must always do what you agree to do.”

Douglas Kazanjian, CEO of Kazanjian Bros. Inc., on how to get into the estate jewelry business: “(Look for) the company that has the most turnover of goods. You really want to go in looking for the experience first. Salary and compensation should be the last things you think about – it takes a long time to become valuable (because of your knowledge) in the estate business.”

David Pomije, chairman and CEO of Top Hat, Inc.: “People don’t care how much you know until they know how much you care.”

Mark Smelzer, publisher of JCK magazine: “Take advantage of the slower economy to rethink, replan, reimagine. Think about what your core strengths are, do your homework, think about how you present yourself.”

Jewelry designer Erica Courtney: “You can’t get lucky if you don’t get out there. You can’t get lucky if you’re sitting at home waiting for someone to discover what a genius you are. You have to make them know you’re a genius.”

Steven A. Mindel, managing partner of Feinberg, Mindel, Brandt & Klein, LLP: “There are a million different opportunities for people coming into the jewelry industry. You’ve got to keep your eyes really open because there may be a strange path to get in.”

Steve Shonebarger, executive vice president and chief operating officer of Montres Corum USA, always had his next job in line: “I always had aspirations to work for the next big company, but you don’t want to have a resume that shows you’ve changed jobs every year or two. You want to have at least 4 to 5 years with every company.”

Debra Dolphin, director of fulfillment for Blue Nile: “Give yourself a break if you fail once in a while. You’re going to learn from it, pick yourself up and be better next time.”

George Blodwell, celebrity stylist: “We’re already successful just being human beings. We are gems; we are so special and priceless. Remember that when you’re waking up in the morning. Be happy, be yourself – people respond to that authenticity. Don’t try to be something you’re not, don’t try to be impressive. Just be a real person and say what comes from your heart.” @chapter:36


Publication Year: 1986 Title: Some Unusual Sillimanite Cat's-Eyes Abstract: Brown-black sillimanite cat's-eyes from Sri Lanka present an unusually sharp band, which would make them extraordinary gems were it not for the rather unattractive body color of the stones. A study of six of these stones found that they contain 0.5 wt. % iron oxide. The principal inclusion mineral is ilmenite, which occurs in elongated, submicroscopically thin lamellae. Complex thicker lamellae consist of hercynite spinel grown together with a member of the pyroxene group. These thicker inclusions were not found in all of the specimens investigated. @chapter:13


Publication Year: - Title: Boron Carbide: A New Imitation Black Diamond Abstract: Figure 1. This 1.04 ct black submetallic round brilliant, initially represented as diamond, was identified as boron carbide. Photo by G. Choudhary.

                      As black diamond has gained popularity in the past few years, so have aggregates of black synthetic moissanite and crystalline silicon (Spring 2011 Lab Notes, pp. 54–55). One specimen received by the Gem Testing Laboratory in Jaipur, a 1.04 ct black submetallic round brilliant (figure 1), appeared to be synthetic black moissanite but proved otherwise. The specimen was presented to the owner as a diamond.

Due to the prevalence of black synthetic moissanite in the marketplace and laboratories, we immediately checked for the typical aggregate structure under the microscope. Although a granular pattern was distinctly visible in reflected light (figure 2), it was much denser and finer than the kind usually seen in black synthetic moissanite. This raised uncertainty, so additional gemological tests were performed. The specimen had an over-the-limit RI, an SG of 2.43, and a hardness above 9 on the Mohs scale. The low SG value ruled out the possibility of synthetic moissanite (3.22), but otherwise offered no clues as to the specimen’s identity.

	Figure 2. Under reflected light, the boron carbide specimen displayed a dense fine granular structure typically associated with aggregates such as ceramics. Photomicrograph by G. Choudhary; magnified 48x.
Qualitative EDXRF analysis revealed Fe with traces of Si and K. Raman spectra taken from several points using 532 nm laser excitation showed major peaks at approximately 260, 320, 480, 532, 720, and 1088 cm-1, with smaller peaks at about 800,824, 874, 967, and 998 cm-1. This combination of features did not match anything in our database, but an extensive literature search revealed an exact match with the Raman spectra of boron carbide (V. Domnich et al., “Boron carbide: Structure, properties, and stability under stress,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 94, No. 11, 2011, pp. 3605–3628).

Boron carbide is an advanced ceramic material with high hardness, low density, thermal stability, and extreme abrasive resistance, making it suitable for nuclear, military, and aerospace applications. The material is typically produced by reacting and fusing carbon with boric oxide (B2O3) in an electric arc furnace, followed by a sintering process of hot pressing in graphite dies under a vacuum or argon atmosphere at temperatures of 1900–2200oC and pressures of 0.02–0.04 GPa for 15–45 minutes (Singhal and Singh, “Sintering of boron carbide under high pressures and temperatures,” Indian Journal of Engineering and Materials Sciences, Vol. 13, April 2006, pp. 129–134).

Although boron carbide is common in engineering and materials science—uses such as scratch-resistant coating and plating in tank armor, bulletproof vests, and padlocks—this was our first encounter with it as a diamond simulant. Research also did not reveal any gemological uses of this ceramic product. Distinguishing boron carbide from black diamond or synthetic moissanite was straightforward based on SG, but Raman spectra and reference data were needed for identification. The possibility of market penetration cannot be ruled out.

Acknowledgment: Mr. Sandeep Vijay, staff gemologist at the Gem Testing Laboratory, for conducting a thorough literature search. @chapter:32


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Rare Faceted Hexagonite Abstract: Figure 1. This 3.27 ct pinkish purple hexagonite is the largest example examined by the authors. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Vance Gems.

A saturated pinkish purple hexagonite (figure 1) was recently examined at the Carlsbad laboratory. Standard gemological testing revealed a refractive index of 1.599–1.629 and a specific gravity of 2.97 obtained hydrostatically. Microscopic examination showed needle-like inclusions and iridescent cleavage cracks (figure 2).

Figure 2. Iridescent cleavage cracks and needle-like structures were present in the faceted hexagonite. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 3.50 mm.
When observed with a dichroscope, pleochroic colors of pink, orangy pink, and violet were observed. These results were consistent with the mineral tremolite. The pinkish purple variety of tremolite is recognized as hexagonite, which owes its color to manganese. Hexagonite was once thought to be a hexagonal form of tremolite, which is how its name was derived, but was later confirmed to be monoclinic (Summer 1985 Gem News International, p. 110).

This particular stone was faceted by Bill Vance of Vance Gems, who sourced the rough that was reportedly from the original type locality, the Balmat-Edwards zinc mining district in St. Lawrence County, New York. Hexagonite is also found at the town of Fowler in St. Lawrence County. The saturated pinkish purple color and large size make this rare stone an exceptional example of this material. While very few faceted hexagonite gems have been tested at GIA, this 3.27 ct stone is the largest one examined by the authors. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 1991 Title: Summer 1991 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            DeBeers Unveils Centenary Diamond
            Large "Chameleon" Diamond
            Soviet Production Estimates Updated
            Australian Marine Search for Stones
            World-Record Auction Price for a Diamond
            Update on Diamond Mining in Brazil
            Jewelry-Quality Diamond Crystals
            Bluish Gray Synthetic Diamond thin Films Grown on Faceted Diamonds
Colored Stones
            African Gem Update
            Amethyst from Afghanistan
            Unusual Corundum/Mica Carving Material
            Joint Venture for Russian Emeralds
            Large Carved Labradorite
            Fine Greenish Blue Opal
            Another Phenomenal Organic Gem Material
            Cultured Pearls Auction
            Green Zoisite
Enhancements
            Faceted Aqua Aura Update
            Plastic-Treated Jadeite
            Dyed Quartzite Imitation of Dyed Jadeite
Synthetics and Simulants
            Chatham Signs Agreement with Japanese Crystal Grower
            Chatham Issues Warning on Trademark Infringements
            Novel Fiber-Optic Glass
            New Glass Imitation of Lapis Lazuli
            "Encapsulated" Mexican Opal
            Plastic Imitation Opal from Thailand
            Update on Soviet Synthetics
Instrumentation
            Loupe with True Darkfield Illumination
            New Cutting Machines Developed
Announcements
            Canadian Gemmological Assn. to hold Conference in October

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:23


Publication Year: - Title: Chow Tai Fook Expands Blockchain Initiative with GIA Abstract: Chow Tai Fook plans to expand the offering of blockchain-secured, digital diamond grading reports for its T MARK diamonds to additional stores in Hong Kong and mainland China. The addition of GIA’s secure digital reports documents the diamond journey and grading information in one place.

One year after Chow Tai Fook Jewellery Group and GIA announced a pilot program to give customers who purchase the Chow Tai Fook’s T MARK diamonds blockchain-secured, digital diamond grading reports, the company announced that it will expand the program to additional stores in Hong Kong and mainland China.
“Launching our T MARK diamond brand represented a significant breakthrough as we were the first retailer to share the life journey of a diamond,” said Kent Wong, managing director of Chow Tai Fook Jewellery Group, a Hong Kong-based jewelry retailer that has more than 3,000 outlets globally.
According to Wong, the addition of GIA’s secure digital reports makes the T MARK program truly complete because it documents the diamond journey and grading information in one place.
The pilot program was launched in September 2018 and reached 10 Chow Tai Fook stores in Hong Kong by March 2019. Customers who buy T MARK diamonds can choose to receive a digital GIA grading report through the dedicated T MARK app on their phones instead of the usual printed document. All of the GIA grading report data is secured through blockchain technology using the IBM Blockchain Platform.
“It made perfect sense to add GIA’s secure digital blockchain reports into our T MARK program to add another layer of trust for our customers,” said Chow Tai Fook executive director Bobby Liu.
Chow Tai Fook executives say the blockchain initiative has gone down well with its customers, particularly the younger generation, who are excited about blockchain technology because it aligns with their pursuit of authenticity, higher security and a paperless lifestyle. The company also said customers liked the idea of storing the digital GIA reports in the T MARK app because the diamond grading information is just a few taps away and can be retrieved anytime.
“Ensuring consumers’ trust in their diamond jewelry purchases is fundamental to GIA and Chow Tai Fook,” said Tom Moses, GIA executive vice president and chief laboratory and research officer. “This innovative collaboration enhances that all-important consumer trust and helps meet expectations around transparency, trust and sustainability.”

A GIA blockchain diamond grading report on the T MARK app. The featured icon on the top of this report and in GIA Report Check indicates a blockchain-enabled report number. The blockchain diamond grading report includes the key GIA grading data – Color, Clarity, Cut, Carat Weight, Shape and Cutting Style – and GIA’s Statement of Authenticity.
Secure, Easy-to-Access Info on Diamond’s Journey
Of course, there is also a great deal of curiosity about the T MARK app because many customers are not familiar with the concept of blockchain. According to Chow Tai Fook, a well-prepared sales staff is the key to making the T MARK program work. Their sales staff are well-trained to explain the benefits of this technology:

Greater data security – the grading report is digital and secured in the blockchain database. Importantly, this digital record of the diamond’s grading information is linked to the customer when they purchase a diamond and register on the T MARK app - a first for grading reports.
A more streamlined experience – instead of a separate printed grading report, the digital report is incorporated into the T MARK app, so all of the diamond’s information is available in one place, anytime and anywhere, easily accessible with the tap on the screen. This eliminates the risk of losing, and the inconvenience of handling physical reports.
Enhanced assurance – consumers are receiving the same independent, accurate and unbiased analysis that GIA has been providing since 1931, integrated into the T MARK app, which provides full transparency about their diamond’s journey. Customers know everything about their diamond - its source, its journey and its 4Cs grading information from two trusted sources: Chow Tai Fook and GIA.

Chow Tai Fook sales staff stress to customers that blockchain technology is already used to protect high-value assets such as in fine wines, works of art and other luxury products, and critical data in other industries. Chow Tai Fook and GIA are the first to offer this technology to diamond purchasers. Chow Tai Fook also notes that once a record is added to the blockchain database, it is permanent and cannot be changed, ensuring the security of the data.
Most importantly, though, the retailer tells all of its customers that blockchain technology is simply a tool that helps to enhance what they have already come to expect from Chow Tai Fook and GIA.
“Using blockchain technology to link a customer to their diamond’s grading report and history is an important milestone for the diamond industry,” said Pritesh Patel, GIA senior vice president and chief operating officer. “Together, Chow Tai Fook and GIA brought blockchain security to gem and jewelry consumers.”
Education is Key to Explaining the Benefits of Digital Diamond Information
Chow Tai Fook acknowledges that not every T MARK customer is ready to go without the printed reports. There is a period of transition, and as with any new product or service, its executives said, education is a key factor during this time.
Indeed, just as when companies like Apple or Nike introduced digital receipts and warranties, there were some customers who were early adopters and some who preferred paper. In the initial stages of the project, the company plans to give customers both options.
The company will make a continuous effort to adopt digital reports as the norm, especially after it expands the offering to Chinese consumers in mainland China in the coming months.
As Chow Tai Fook expands beyond its pilot blockchain program, it believes there is ample room for growth, especially as it adds more stores, trains more front-line staff and works with GIA to closely monitor the program. @chapter:30


Publication Year: 1990 Title: Spring 1990 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Simulated Amethyst
Cat's-Eye Andalusite
Diamond Cutting Risks
Diamond with a Rare Inclusion
Emerald with Filled Fractures
Unusual Natural Opals
Gray Cultured Pearls
Rock Crystal Quartz with Lazulite Inclusions

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 1982 Title: Summer 1982 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Alexandrite
Diamond
Emerald Fakes
Grossularite Garnet
Dangers of Heating Jadeite during Jewelry Repair
Kornerupine with Apatite Inclusions
Flow Structure in Opal
Oolitic Opal
Opal Doublet
Mysterious Pearls in Shells
Unusual Natural Pearl
Synthetic Star Ruby
Dangers of Heating Sapphires during Jewelry Repair
Natural Sapphire with Heat-Induced Star
Treated Synthetic Sapphire
Inclusions in Spinel
Cat's-Eye Tourmaline

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 1984 Title: Inclusions in Taaffeites from Sri Lanka Abstract: This article reports on a gemological and mineralogical study of inclusions in taaffeites from Sri
Lanka, with photomicrographs of some of the most characteristic occurrences. The presence of minerals such as apatite, phlogopite, spinel, and muscovite is noted and their significance in the genesis of taaffeite is discussed. @chapter:37


Publication Year: - Title: Gems for Pantone Colors Spring/Summer 2015 Abstract: When Pantone announces its colors for the year and season, the fashion world takes notice. So does the jewelry industry.

We looked for interesting gems that matched Pantone’s Color of the Year (Marsala) and the other gemstones in the Spring/Summer family. We also went a step further and followed Pantone’s lead by identifying gems that “pair well with” the primary colors of choice.

We’ve done the research. Now get ready to use our finds in your gemological work and jewelry creations.

	Marsala
Leatrice Eiseman, executive director, Pantone Color Institute described it as “hearty yet stylish tone,” and that it “embodies the satisfying richness of a fulfilling meal while its grounding red-brown roots emanate a sophisticated, natural earthiness.” Gem connoisseur can rejoice. There is a wealth of gems that mirror Marsala.

View Gallery

	Scuba Blue
One of Pantone’s Spring/Summer 2015 colors is Scuba Blue – which “offers a feeling of escape that is reminiscent of a tropical ocean.” It is a soothing hue that conjures lazy days spent on secluded beaches. We dove into gemological waters to find matching gemstones.

View Gallery

	Lucite Green
Fresh…cool….clarifying – that’s how Pantone describes Lucite Green. It’s a paler shade of green that’s soothing to the spirit. Chrysoprase, tourmaline, and tsavorite are some gemstones that capture this gentler hue.

View Gallery

	Classic Blue
Called the “anchor of the Spring/Summer 2015 palette,” Classic Blue is said by Pantone to create calmness and to evoke the sea. A number of gemstones mirror the colors of the ocean. Sapphire is a familiar one; benitoite and apatite are two less-familiar ones.

View Gallery

	Tangerine
Pantone says Tangerine is “spontaneous,” “energizing” and “friendly.” The gem world is filled with beautiful options that fit the description. These stunning stones make for colorful center stones in statement pieces.

View Gallery

Now that you know some of the gems that match up with the Pantone 2015 Spring and Summer colors, you can create and sell matching jewelry with greater confidence. As the days shorten, look for GIA to provide suggestions to Pantone’s Fall and Winter colors. @chapter:25


Publication Year: 1984 Title: Spring 1984 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Beryl, with Iridescent Coating
Coral, Dyed Blue with Plastic Coating
Diamond with Unusually Large Laser Holes
A Successful Laser Experiment with Diamond
Oiled Emerald,
Magnetic Hematite
Dyed Jadeite
Dyed Nephrite
Hollow Natural Pearl
Ruby, "Manufactured" Mineral Specimen
Scapolite, a New Cat's-Eye from Kenya

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Fine Linear Structures in Non-Bead Cultured Pearls Abstract: Four non-bead cultured pearls (samples 1–4, left to right) weighing 0.22 to 4.84 ct. Photo by Gaurav Bera.
Saltwater non-bead cultured (NBC) pearls are defined by the World Jewellery Confederation (CIBJO) as those without an internal bead nucleus that have “formed accidentally or intentionally by human intervention in marine pearl oysters.” These are commonly referred to as “keshi” pearls in the trade. GIA’s Mumbai laboratory has received many pearl submissions that revealed internal structures typical of NBC pearls such as large voids, elongated linear structures, and some with loose concentric “gaps.” However, a recent submission of 23 loose pearls for pearl sorting service proved quite challenging to identify. Externally, all of them looked similar, with a white to light cream color and a medium to high luster. Some possessed a few surface blemishes, but on the whole they were quite clean and appeared cultured.
A majority of the pearls in the lot exhibited concave bases, while a few showed bases with concentric, graduating white to cream-colored rings, with distinct central white frosty patches which were part of the inner subsurface nacreous layers. Four pearls revealing different forms of linear structures were selected from this lot. All were white and button shaped, with sizes ranging from 3.24 × 2.55 mm to 10.33 × 6.84 mm (see above). Externally, all their surfaces exhibited typical nacreous overlapping aragonite platelets, with a fingerprint-like pattern when viewed under 40× magnification.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry on the four pearls revealed low manganese levels ranging between 12.60 and 41.10 ppm and high strontium levels between 1767 and 2883 ppm. Additionally, optical X-ray fluorescence analysis yielded an inert reaction, thus confirming their saltwater origin. The pearls showed a moderate bluish green reaction when viewed under long-wave ultraviolet radiation and a weaker bluish green reaction under short-wave ultraviolet radiation. Raman analysis using 514 nm laser excitation showed a doublet at 702 and 705 cm–1 and peaks at 1085 and 1463 cm–1 indicative of aragonite.

Real-time microradiography (RTX) and X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT) analysis revealed internal structures that were not straightforward and required more work to reach conclusive results. RTX imaging of pearl 1 showed a prominent, very fine central linear feature horizontal to the base (table 1, row 1). Analysis with μ-CT revealed a more obvious linear feature showing that it was unaligned with the other growth arcs that generally followed the shape of the pearl. This structure was observed in most of the samples in the submitted lot. Externally, a small white frosty central spot was visible on the concave base surrounded by graduating circular rings.
RTX images of pearl 2 revealed a small circular light gray core associated with undefined gray arcs curving along the core in a distorted pattern (table 1, row 2). Moreover, only a couple of weak growth arcs were observed in the outer nacre layers. The structure was very similar to those observed in some natural pearls with small dense cores, making it inconclusive (A. Homkrajae et al., “Internal structures of known Pinctada maxima pearls: Cultured pearls from operated marine mollusks,” Fall 2021 G&G, pp. 186–205). Further μ-CT analysis helped define the main feature, a short and fine linear structure accompanied by a minute void-like feature.
RTX images for pearl 3 revealed a medium-size button-shaped central organic-rich core, which was radiotranslucent and had a thin gray outline (table 1, row 3). This was surrounded by numerous fine growth arcs that followed the shape of the core. Although this organic-rich core looked quite natural from the RTX images, μ-CT images revealed a short linear feature in the center of the core, suggesting an NBC pearl.
The largest sample, pearl 4, had been partially drilled, and the drill hole was quite large (table 1, row 4). It was unlike the thinner and shorter drill holes often used for weight retention in natural pearls. While the choice of drill hole thickness is not decisive evidence on its own, it may be a useful indicator (Spring 1986 Lab Notes, pp. 51–52; Summer 1986 Lab Notes, p. 111). Externally, the pearl had a rounded base and a circled circumference with multiple deep indentations associated with the circled grooves. The RTX images showed minute metal remnants (visible as radiopaque white specks) within the drill hole and extensive curved growth arcs throughout the pearl, with additional arcs located on adjacent boundaries. The pearl showed minimal tight growth structure, and its external appearance aroused suspicion. Further examination via μ-CT analysis revealed a small linear feature that had been partially removed by the drilling. Reaching a conclusion would be very challenging, if not impossible, using RTX analysis alone.
Given the volume of button-shaped pearls the Mumbai laboratory has been testing, it is quite evident that large quantities of such pearls are circulating in the market. These pearls mostly have smooth surfaces and high untreated luster. The linear features could not be identified in all the pearls using RTX alone due to a number of factors including size, appearance, radiotranslucency, and orientation. It is not difficult to remove minute linear structures by drilling, and such pearls could easily be passed off as natural due to the presence of fine growth features around the center. But with the availability of advanced technology, especially μ-CT imaging, remnants of the linear structure were evident in certain orientations. In some cases, with the proper alignment of the drill hole, such small linear structures may also be visible in the RTX images. This requires considerable skill and patience to align, starting from the thickest direction first with respect to the shape of the pearl and then repositioning the same pearl 90° in the profile view. Therefore, it may be risky to rely on RTX results alone (S. Karampelas et al., “X-ray computed microtomography applied to pearls: Methodology, advantages, and limitations,” Summer 2010 G&G, pp. 122–127).
By analyzing these challenging internal structures using modern equipment, GIA and other laboratories aim to protect consumers by creating awareness of them and minimizing the chances of misidentification. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Natural Colorless Type IIa Diamond With Bright Red Fluorescence Abstract: Figure 1. This 0.40 ct, D-color type IIa round brilliant diamond showed very bright red fluorescence due to strong emission peaks from the nitrogen-vacancy centers. Photo by Nuttapol Kitdee.

The nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center is produced in nitrogen-bearing diamond through the combination of a single nitrogen atom and a vacancy. It can exist in neutral (NV0) and negatively charged (NV–) states. Using photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, NV centers can be detected by the occurrence of zero-phonon lines (ZPL) at 575 nm for NV0 and 637 nm for NV–. In natural type IIa diamonds, the emissions of NV centers are usually weak, and the relative intensity of NV0 (575 nm) is typically stronger than that of NV– (637 nm). As a result, the vast majority of natural type IIa diamonds show blue fluorescence, attributed to the occurrence of defects such as N3 or dislocations, when excited by the short-wave UV radiation of the DiamondView. Recently, however, the Bangkok laboratory examined a natural colorless type IIa diamond that showed very bright red fluorescence due to high concentrations of NV centers.

This 0.40 ct round brilliant diamond received a D color grade and an SI1 clarity grade based on surface-reaching fractures at the girdle and on the pavilion (figure 1). The infrared absorption spectrum confirmed a type IIa diamond with no measurable defect-related absorptions. Microscopic examination with cross-polarized light revealed a relatively strong tatami strain pattern with a weak interference color (figure 2). Further examination with the DiamondView showed that this stone exhibited an unusual red fluorescence (figure 3), similar to that of nitrogen-doped CVD synthetic diamonds. However, the DiamondView images revealed dislocation networks of typical natural type IIa diamond along with a tree-ring growth pattern, which is very rare for natural type IIa diamond but typical for natural type Ia diamond.

Figure 2. Viewing the diamond under cross-polarizing filters revealed a tatami strain pattern with a weak interference color, a characteristic of natural growth. Photo by Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 3.1 mm.

Figure 3. DiamondView images of the 0.40 ct diamond showed red fluorescence, which is unusual for natural type IIa stones. This red fluorescence was related to the intense emissions of the NV centers. Also observed was a dislocation network typical of natural type IIa diamond, along with a tree-ring growth pattern. Photo by Wuyi Wang.
In order to detect any possibility of treatment, we employed PL spectroscopy at liquid nitrogen temperature with several laser excitations. With 514 nm laser excitation, the PL spectrum revealed very strong emission peaks from NV0 (575 nm) and NV– (637 nm) (figure 4). This is very rare in natural type IIa diamonds. The higher intensity of the NV0 emission was observed. For this diamond, short-wave UV excitation close to 230 nm was very effective in exciting fluorescence from the NV–, which has a ZPL at 637.0 nm and its strong side bands at longer wavelengths. Due to the relatively high concentration of the NV– defect, strong red fluorescence was observed.

Figure 4. The photoluminescence spectrum at liquid nitrogen temperature using 514 nm
laser excitation displayed strong emission peaks at 575 and 637 nm due to NV0 and
NV– centers, respectively. In natural type IIa diamonds, the intensity of NV centers is
usually weaker than the diamond Raman peak at 552 nm.
Both spectroscopic and gemological features clearly indicated a natural diamond. The excellent color and the red fluorescence, which is rare for a natural colorless type IIa diamond, make this a notable stone. @chapter:11


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Book Review: The Classic Goldsmith Abstract: By Mark Maxwell, softcover, 122 pp., illus., publ. by Maxwell Press, Oceanside, CA, 2015, US$29.95.

Benchie… Do you know that term? Well, this is a great little book, by a benchie, for benchies. That doesn’t mean you can’t appreciate it if you aren’t one, but it’s really geared to that demographic. By the way, benchie is an affectionate name for bench jewelers: the folks who take bits and pieces of precious metals and some gemstones and work their magic to create the wonderful delights of ornamentation we call jewelry. They’re also the ones who will take in a treasured jewelry heirloom that has seen better days, and they’ll either breathe life back into it or transform it into something completely new.

	What this book is not: It is not quick and easy, comprehensive, exhaustive, encyclopedic, the beginner’s guide to anything, or a coffee table edition. So how can I call it a great little book? It’s a bit like the old-time baseball player with the high batting average whose motto was, “Hit ’em where they ain’t.” There are numerous books about jewelry that fit into the above categories, but the field is much more open for a book full of projects for intermediate to advanced jewelers, and this is where it shines.

	The book is a collection of projects that were originally published by Mark Maxwell in MJSA Journal’s “At the Bench” column over a period of years. As a trade publication published by Manufacturing Jewelers and Suppliers of America, it is clearly aimed at insiders. This collection is not a simple reprint, though. This well-illustrated, self-published effort (available through Amazon.com) has expanded upon those articles and added more in-depth instructions and insights.

	Organized into seven chapters of increasing complexity, from sawing and filing to metal inlay and even CAD, it is a guide to instruct you through a range of projects, and also a nudge to go beyond the project at hand. Thinking ahead, planning the work, and precision and accuracy are repeatedly emphasized, so that finished projects will show to their best advantage and function correctly. The assumption here is that as a bench jeweler, you already know how to use your tools, and these projects will broaden your horizons and stretch your abilities. There are no magical skills required, but you must set your standards high to succeed with these projects. There are also optional workflow suggestions, depending on the availability of some advanced tools such as a laser welder.

	Some projects end up as finished jewelry—rings, pendants, earrings, bracelets, and so forth—while others are exquisitely contrived components such as latches, clasps and hinged mechanisms. Being able to fabricate specialized components such as these is another skill that sets apart a master goldsmith.

	The only thing that would be disappointing would be to see a pristine copy of this book. Don’t get me wrong: I love and collect books of all stripes, but this book is meant to be used. It needs to have smudged margins, some gold and silver filings wedged in the spine, and even a few dog-eared pages. @chapter:21


Publication Year: 2020 Title: The “Fragility of the Eternal” Kunzite: Origin, Cutting, and Identification Abstract: Figure 1. The pronounced pleochroism of the rough spodumene crystal weighing 2,950 grams, seen here in two orientations, was one of the properties that had to be considered during fashioning. Photos by Arjuna Irsutti.
Lapidary, the art of colored stone fashioning, is an art that requires a keen eye, talent, and great patience. Different gem materials have their particular quirks that must be considered when planning the various steps required to reach the ultimate goal of obtaining the most aesthetic stone while usually also optimizing weight yield.
Spodumene is known to challenge even the most experienced cutter owing to its high fragility, perfect cleavage planes, and unpredictability in different cutting directions. This is further magnified when the rough is exceptionally large and the cutter’s goal is to produce the largest faceted kunzite in the world.
This was author VT’s aim as he prepared to work on a piece of rough spodumene that weighed 2,950 g. The untreated crystal (figure 1) originated from Kunar Province in Afghanistan. Although a wide crack was visible at one end and about 30% of the opposite end contained numerous inclusions, the removal of both sections still left more than 1.5 kg of relatively clean rough after 20 hours of wire sawing (the safest method under the circumstances). Since the rough was oversized, some of the routine cutting accessories such as dops and transfer holders, as well as the cutting tactics, had to be adapted for the job.
Prior to the start of the process came the design element. No journey can be completed without knowing the destination, and so rather than playing it safe and opting for a simple design, the artist, VT, chose a truly challenging facet pattern of his own design that incorporated 914 facets. The “Fragility of the Eternal” design is based on the stained glass window of the iconic Notre Dame cathedral in Paris. The stone is the fifth in a series of six cut designs that fall under VT’s “World Heritage” project.
VT would also have to revise his usual strategy due to the size. So instead of cutting the pavilion first, followed by the girdle, crown, and finally the table facet, it was necessary to start with the table facet for this masterpiece. This presented its own challenges since the faceting required specialized equipment belonging to a friend in Moscow. The choice of equipment was also dictated by the material’s fragility and perfect cleavage, which prevented the use of coarse laps. This combined to make the work time-consuming, especially since large facets were the order of the day.

Figure 2. A working diagram showing the facet positions. These helped estimate the final weight of the finished stone before work began on the rough. Photo by Victor Tuzlukov.
The next step required the rough to be rounded in order to achieve the basic outline of the stone in its face-up position. This meant that sufficient pressure had to be applied to the 1.5 kg preform using both hands. Eventually the correct shape resulted. The diameter measured approximately 85 mm, while the table facet came in at 65 mm. This allowed the final weight to be approximated using formulas and the facet plan shown in figure 2. The result, between 2,500 and 3,000 ct, indicated that it would supersede the largest known faceted spodumene, an 1,800 ct green spodumene cut by John Sinkankas in 1959 that was destined for the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto.
Although the rest of the preforming could not be done traditionally by hand, VT managed to use his faceting unit with custom-made dops provided by his friend and former student Danial Hu. The pre-faceting step took considerable time to complete because the goal was to create an important piece of art and each facet needed to be cut in a pattern that matched the stained glass window in the Notre Dame cathedral with a precision of tenths of a millimeter. Perhaps the most complex part of the process was creating 16 mains and 16 additional lines extending from the center (culet) to the girdle, each containing eight (main) and five (additional) parallel-sided facets, continuous with one another. An equally challenging task was ensuring the proportions were correct while cutting 18 rows of facets of different sizes and shapes, where one often does not depend on another, and finally making the last row of facets correspond exactly with the girdle, which was already pre-shaped. It was impossible to change the width of the final facets without breaking the pattern, which meant that the pavilion had to finish precisely where the girdle started. In other words, the width of all 18 rows had to be exactly proportional to the diagram. Another look at figure 2 is enough to show that the girdle does not simply separate the crown from pavilion as in traditional faceted stones: It is an essential element of the design.
Many chances for something to go awry existed during the cutting process. Only a slight error in judgment or calculation would result in disaster. For example, if the rows of facets were just a bit too wide, there would not have been enough space for the design and the pavilion would have required a complete recut. If some were too narrow, the girdle would have needed recutting, resulting in a smaller stone, which would also have meant recutting the table facet. Fortunately, the final facet positions aligned perfectly around the girdle, and the stone’s final diameter (83.7 mm) was off by just over 1.0 mm from the initial calculations.

Figure 3. The polishing step on the stone’s pavilion begins to show the intricate optical effects of the completed piece. Photo by Victor Tuzlukov.
The next steps, pre-polishing and polishing of the pavilion facets (figure 3), were straightforward in comparison. Yet, as mentioned previously, the sheer size meant that the vertical pressure had to be applied equally over the whole stone during pre-polishing, requiring modification of the technique used for routine work on smaller stones. If too much force was applied to the left or right side, or back and forth, the facets would become too large and the pattern would be broken. To overcome this, the stone’s own weight provided sufficient force on the rotating lap so that the pressure was always equally distributed.
After more than two months of daily work, the pavilion was polished. The next step was transferring the stone to a new dop to polish the crown. Unlike traditional lapidary procedures, directly heating the stone as part of the transfer was not an option, as the process could crack the stone along the twin plane in the direction it needed to be dopped, and because the size was once again a factor when it came to how evenly the heat warmed the stone. This resulted in the application of a technique that the late Jeff Ford from Michigan shared with VT in 2006, using a combination of wax and superglue. The wax is placed on the hot dop, which is softened by the heat. The cold stone is then placed, pavilion first, in contact with the wax, and an impression of the surface is made in it. One drop of superglue is enough to secure the stone firmly in position, and it can be removed by reapplying a little heat to warm the wax again.

Figure 4. The 3,051 ct “Fragility of the Eternal,” containing 914 facets, is believed to be the world’s largest cut kunzite. Photo by Adisorn Wattanavanich.
After three months of work, the final polishing step was completed. The gem’s removal from the dop was an exciting moment, and it was wonderful to finally see the end product in all its glory (figure 4). The finished piece weighed 3,051 ct, very close to the maximum estimated weight of 3,000 ct.
The final step in the stone’s journey was its submission to GIA’s Bangkok laboratory for examination and a report. The gemologists were excited to study such a large kunzite, although the size, 83.75–83.79 × 65.00 mm, presented challenges that limited the testing equipment that could be used. Hence, basic gemological techniques came to the fore, with Raman spectroscopy the only advanced technique used as a final confirmation. The stone was found to be anisotropic with a loupe and microscopic observation up to 70× magnification, and this property was also apparent in terms of the strong pleochroism that could be easily seen as the stone was turned. The same purple and green colors are also clearly evident in figure 1.
The RI readings of 1.660–1.676 (birefringence of 0.016) together with the trichroic colors seen through a dichroscope showed it was optically biaxial. Inclusions such as growth tubes, transparent crystals, negative crystal fingerprints, and a “natural” retained on the girdle all proved the stone was natural. Combined with the weak and moderate orange zoned long-wave ultraviolet fluorescence reaction, the data were consistent with spodumene, kunzite variety.
Since the stone was cut and submitted by VT with a series of photographs documenting this fact, the GIA report (dated May 27, 2020) also mentioned that it was represented as cut by him. Since it was the largest known faceted kunzite examined by GIA at the time, and indeed the largest faceted example of its kind known to exist, a GIA Notable Letter was issued to accompany the report. @chapter:1


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Tourmaline in Emerald Abstract: Prismatic black tourmaline in a Zambian emerald. Photomicrograph by Virginia Schneider; field of view 1.76 mm.
The author recently examined a 3.80 ct emerald with well-formed black, opaque prismatic crystals (see above). The surface-reaching crystals were identified as tourmaline through the use of Raman spectroscopy. While tourmaline crystals are relatively uncommon inclusions, they have been documented in emeralds from Zambia, Pakistan, Russia, and Ethiopia, all of which are schist-hosted deposits. Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry chemical analysis combined with inclusion observation revealed this emerald to be of Zambian origin. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Finders, Keepers: Field Trip to Crater of Diamonds, USA Abstract: Figure 1. These diamonds from Crater of Diamonds State Park were mined previously by other prospectors. They range up to approximately 0.06 ct. Photo by Roy Bassoo.
There’s only one place on earth where the general public can prospect for diamonds directly from a primary kimberlite pipe: Crater of Diamonds State Park. This park is nestled among the pines, 100 miles off the interstate near the town of Murfreesboro, Arkansas. It boasts a network of scenic walking trails, picnic sites, and campsites. At its Diamond Discovery Center, visitors can learn about the local geology. Staff are also on hand to identify any minerals that are taken home, per their “finders, keepers” policy. The park is an ideal spot for a field trip. The state also hosts many other unusual igneous rocks, including carbonatite, lamprophyre, and lamproite. With this in mind, our university petrology class piled into a van to visit Arkansas and learn about mantle-derived magmas and associated volcanism. As a side quest, we wanted to try prospecting.

Figure 2. Prospecting for diamonds at the Mauney mine, now Crater of Diamonds State Park, circa 1908. Photo courtesy of the Crater of Diamonds Archives.
The park’s main attraction is diamonds, but there are also olivine, pyrope, almandine, and amethyst to be found. Most of the diamonds recovered there are small (approximately 0.20 ct or less); see figure 1. Rarely, prospectors have found stones larger than 1 carat, including the famous Uncle Sam, a whopping 40.23 ct. The park’s diamond-bearing rocks are comprised of hypabyssal olivine lamproite and phlogopite-rich tuffs and breccias, characterized by high Mg# values (atomic ratio of Mg to Fe in an igneous rock) and K2O content (E. Walker, “Petrogenesis of the Prairie Creek, Arkansas, diamondiferous olivine lamproite,” PhD thesis, University of Western Ontario, Ontario, Canada, 1991). The deposit grades between 0.01 and 1.25 carats per 100 tons (D.P. Dunn, “Xenolith mineralogy and geology of the Prairie Creek lamproite province, Arkansas,” PhD thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 2002). In the early twentieth century, when the richest material was mined, there was a brief diamond rush in the area (figure 2). After a string of ownership changes and failed business ventures, visions of a South African–style diamond district never materialized. In 1972 the state of Arkansas purchased the land and opened it to public prospecting. Since then, visitors have found more than 33,000 diamonds (www.arkansasstateparks.com).

Figure 3. A local prospector digging for diamond ore and demonstrating sieving technique. Photos courtesy of Glenn Worthington.
After a couple of days learning about the igneous rocks in the area, it was time to test our luck at treasure hunting. We gathered buckets, shovels, and sieves from park headquarters for a small rental fee and headed out to 15 hectares of routinely plowed “blue ground.” We chose a spot, shoveled soil into buckets, and carried these heavy parcels of dirt to the wash station for sieving (figure 3). The trick is to shake the sieve back and forth just beneath the water in the horizontal plane, then rotate and repeat. This motion should concentrate the heavy minerals in the center and bottom of the sieve. Then, like a master chef, the prospector flips the entire mineral concentrate upside down and examines the heavies that sink to the bottom.

Figure 4. Three of the diamonds the authors collected from Crater of Diamonds State Park (approximately 0.01–0.05 ct). Note the irregular and fragmented morphology and brown to yellow colors. Photos by Roy Bassoo.
In three hours, we found a small collection of diamonds! Granted, they were also very small in size, ranging from 0.01 to 0.05 ct (figure 4). Most prospectors at Crater of Diamonds miss stones this small, but as trained mineralogists we were attentive to small crystals. The diamonds were predominantly colorless, although a couple were yellow to brown. Their dominant morphology was octahedral with uncommon dodecahedrons and macles. Resorption pits and terraced surfaces were pervasive. The diamonds were also fragmented, likely due to the explosive nature of the diatreme crater.

Figure 5. Terraced dissolution surface textures and inclusions of rutile and diopside embedded within the diamond. The diopside inclusions are aligned along a growth band. Photomicrograph by Roy Bassoo.
Treasure in hand, we then turned to the science. Back in our lab, we ground and polished the diamonds into wafers to examine their composition and crystal interiors. Raman spectroscopy determined that inclusions of rutile and diopside were common (figure 5). N contents, measured with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, ranged from trace amounts (type IIa) to 1250 ppm (type IaAB). Cathodoluminescence imagery showed blue to turquoise response colors, typical of diamonds mined from primary deposits worldwide. They also feature fascinating patterns of growth banding and resorption truncations, which indicate a complex mantle crystallization history (figure 6).

Figure 6. Cathodoluminescence image of a polished diamond wafer, showing complex banding and truncations that highlight different diamond growth conditions. Image by Roy Bassoo.
We found Crater of Diamonds to be a thoroughly enjoyable treasure hunting adventure. Our visit gave us hands-on experience with diamond-bearing igneous rocks and challenged us to imagine how diamonds formed beneath the North American craton. We have new appreciation for the back-aching labor required by the artisanal miners worldwide who are the foundation of the gem trade. Scientific understanding and trade awareness were the substance of our visit, highlighted by moments of joyful discovery. We encourage readers to put Crater of Diamonds State Park on their gemology “bucket list” to hunt for their very own American diamond. @chapter:20


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Spectacular Yellow Sapphire from Sri Lanka Abstract: Figure 1. This 160 ct yellow sapphire rough was found in a deposit outside of Ratnapura, Sri Lanka. Photo courtesy of Kreis Jewellery GmbH.
A return to the Tucson shows meant the opportunity to see the latest findings and designs from the Kreis family—stunning yellow sapphire from Sri Lanka. As G&G has reported in previous Tucson reports from 2014, 2015, and 2017, father Stefan buys the rough, mother Sonja designs the jewelry, and Alexander cuts the gems for the family business (Kreis Jewellery GmbH, Niederworresbach, Germany). Locating the sapphire rough in Sri Lanka required a combination of planning and luck, relying on the family’s previously established network while also acting on rumors of possible sources. Two successful trips in 2020 and 2021 yielded five exceptionally large rough stones from five different deposits in the area surrounding Ratnapura, Sri Lanka (figure 1).
Back in Germany, Alexander cut the five rough stones, and Sonja designed an exquisite bracelet (figures 2 and 3) to complete a suite of jewelry for a private collector. (Her previously designed pieces included a pendant, brooch, ring, necklace, and earrings.) The family aimed to create a harmony between the gems and the materials used, concentrating on gold colors that would not overshadow the sapphires. Alexander opted for a traditional cut for the outer shape but faceted the back to allow for more cross-reflection, mimicking this faceting in the diamonds that appear on the side of the bracelet. The creative combination of faceting and design perfectly captures the sunlight, creating magnificent reflections for the admirer. With an impressive total weight of 168.27 carats (containing 50.33, 32.80, 33.70, 23.98, and 27.46 ct sapphires), the bracelet is truly a breathtaking sight.

Figure 2. The yellow sapphires faceted by Alexander Kreis were set in a bracelet designed by Sonia Kreis. Photo courtesy of Kreis Jewellery GmbH.

Figure 3. The stunning finished bracelet features five yellow sapphires from Sri Lanka with a total weight of 168.27 carats. Photo courtesy of Kreis Jewellery GmbH. @chapter:25


Publication Year: 2010 Title: An Era of Sweeping Change in Diamond and Colored Stone Production Markets Abstract: The diamond, colored stone, and pearl businesses have witnessed unprecedented change since the turn of the 21st century. Not only have new markets for gems emerged around the world, but channels of distribution have also changed dramatically as a result of economic forces and political pressures. De Beers abandoned its single-channel seller role, which created —for the first time in over a century—a competitive rough diamond market. Political problems in Madagascar and a ban on gem exports from Myanmar disrupted supply channels for sapphire and ruby. And the proliferation of new sales avenues, through the Internet and TV, has given consumers much more information about gems and forever changed the way they buy them. The use of gems to subsidize bloody conflicts and repressive regimes has moved the trades to become more accountable, as concerns over terrorism and illicit trading have created a new legal environment. At the same time, a new class of consumers who value ethically, socially, and environmentally friendly products are making their demands known in the gemstone business. @chapter:38


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Unusual Laser Drill Holes in a Laboratory-Grown Diamond Abstract: Figure 1. Flux inclusion in a laboratory-grown diamond connected to a laser drill hole. Photomicrograph by Najmeh Anjomani; field of view 3.57 mm.
Diamonds with dark inclusions have been laser drilled to enhance their clarity for more than 60 years. The internal inclusion is drilled from the diamond surface and then acid-boiled to bleach it out. GIA has identified many natural diamonds treated by this technique, but the Carlsbad laboratory recently received for a colored diamond identification and origin report an undisclosed laboratory-grown diamond with unusual laser drill holes.
The diamond was a Fancy yellow cushion modified brilliant weighing 2.02 ct. Gemological and spectroscopic analysis confirmed it was an HPHT-grown synthetic diamond. The diamond was attracted to a small magnet due to the numerous metallic inclusions. No strain was visible under crossed polarizers, and DiamondView imaging showed the typical cuboctahedral HPHT growth pattern.
Clarity was low due to the presence of numerous large flux inclusions, so laser drilling was likely done to enhance the appearance and clarity. One of the laser drill holes connected to a large flux inclusion can be seen in figure 1. A metallic flux inclusion cannot be bleached as some mineral inclusions can and so it must be dissolved out, which could pose additional challenges to improving the clarity. It appears there was an unsuccessful attempt to remove the flux, as the inclusion was still eye visible.

Figure 2. Clusters of unusual laser drill holes in a laboratory-grown diamond. Photomicrographs by Najmeh Anjomani; fields of view 3.57 mm (left) and 2.61 mm (right).
Three clusters of intersecting laser drill tubes resembling corals were observed (figures 2 and 3). We could see numerous roundish openings on the surface filled with dark materials. Raman spectroscopy confirmed they were all non-diamond carbon materials. Here the laser beam was likely reflected off a flux inclusion and refocused to a new point farther than intended, resulting in the unusual branching pattern. Other flux inclusions could have been successfully dissolved by acid because they were smaller than the one in figure 1 or because there were more drilled tubes for the acid to enter. This may have caused the unique crossed tubes inside the stone. Burn marks on the surface next to some of the laser drill holes might have been due to the heat generated by the laser beam (figure 3).

Figure 3. Burn mark on the surface next to laser drill holes. Photomicrograph by Najmeh Anjomani; field of view 2.01 mm.
This diamond was identified as a laboratory-grown diamond. It was issued a laboratory-grown colored diamond report stating, “Laser drill holes are present.” @chapter:31


Publication Year: 1991 Title: Fall 1991 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Argyle Set to Expand with Mining at Home
            Argyle Also Plans to Expand Cutting in China
            Operations Re-Established at Elizabeth Bay
            Warnings of Large-Scale Theft
            New Soviet Diamond Source
            Additional Diamonds Recovered at Fort a La Corne, Saskatchewan, Canada
            Conference on Synthetic Diamond and Diamond-Like Coatings
            New Diamond Cuts
            Historical Diamond Photographs
Colored Stones
            Colombia Reports Record Emerald Exports
            Large South Sea Pearl
            Myanmar to Authorize Thai Buyers
            Postage Stamp Commemorates Large Burmese Ruby
            Small-Scale Sapphire Mining Continues in Thailand
            Tanzanian Spinel
            Update from Tanzania
            Tanzania Invites Tenders for Mineral Rights
            Large Paraiba Tourmalines
            Tourmaline with Unusual "Color Change."
            Tourmaline/Andalusite: A Pleochroism Caveat
            Purple and "Chrome" Green Vesuvianites from Quebec
            Unusual Red Zoisite
Enhancements
            Faceted Gems Coated with Diamond-Like Carbon
            Montana Sapphire Heat Treatment
            More Experimentation with Blue Diffusion-Treated Sapphires
            Red Stones Also Experimented With
Synthetics and Simulants
            Porous Gilson Synthetic Opal
Instrumentation and New Techniques
            Distinguishing Diffusion Treatment from Surface Coating
            New Setting Method Challenges Diamond Testers
            Jewelry Imaging/Teleconferencing System Introduced
            Tweezer Improvement
Announcements
            Tucson Gem and Mineral Show 1992
            American Craft Assn. Supports Legislation

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:20


Publication Year: 2006 Title: Abstracts; Fall 2006 Abstract: This article, from the Fall 2006 issue of Gems & Gemology, is a compilation of abstracts of important gemology-related articles published outside of Gems & Gemology.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Table: Magnetic Characteristics of Various Gem Materials Observed by the Direct Method
	Submitted by Sylvia M. Gumpesberger
	Fall, 2005
Table: Degree of Defect Formation in Natural, Synthetic, and Treated Diamond Samples
	Submitted by Joe C.C. Yuan
	Fall, 2005 @chapter:35