Publication Year: 2016 Title: Book Review: Cartier Dazzling: High Jewelry and Precious Objects Abstract: By François Chaille, hardcover, 272 pp., publ. by Flammarion, Paris, 2016, $125.00.

	Another in a near-annual series of beautiful hardbound volumes featuring new collections in the Cartier oeuvre, Cartier Dazzling: High Jewelry and Precious Objects highlights the famed jewelry atelier and its glamorous clients. Cartier has been the architect of renowned jewelry, many incorporating world-famous gemstones. The blue Hope, the Star of South Africa, the Pasha, the Star of the East, and various De Beers diamonds have all been featured in pieces by Cartier’s master jewelers, and figure into the jewelry house’s rich history.

	Cartier’s relocation from the Boulevard des Italiens to the Rue de la Paix in Paris in 1899 proved a strategic move for the young jewelry store. This luxury shopping area was home to established jewelry houses such as Mellerio and Aucoc, as well as nearby sales opportunities with Worth and Paquin couturiers, Guerlain perfumes, Viault-Este shoes, and Charvet shirts at the Place Vendôme. These shops were conveniently near many of Paris’s great hotels catering to wealthy travelers: the Hotel Bristol (dubbed the “Hotel of Kings”), the Ritz, the Hotel des Iles Britanniques, and the Westminster. Sharing important clients due to the close proximity of their stores, Louis Cartier and Jean-Philippe Worth, who were acquainted before the former’s move to Rue de la Paix, eventually became the best of friends.  This link further strengthened by Louis’s marriage to Jean-Philippe’s daughter, Andrée-Caroline at the turn of the century. In 1910, Louis’s younger sister, Suzanne, married Jacques Worth, another member of the powerful family.

	Cartier began to fashion jewelry employing platinum, a metal rarely used, at the end of the 19th century. Platinum helped to create light and airy pieces that would enhance the dresses designed by Worth. This new style of jewelry, known as the “garland” style, epitomized the Belle Époque era of jewelry design.

	An introduction to the maharajah of Kapurthala in 1911 provided Louis Cartier’s brother Jacques access to the high society of the Indian subcontinent. Indian princes brought personal gems to Cartier to be reworked into modern designs using platinum. As a result the renowned Indian penchant for opulence was reflected in the form of carved rubies, sapphires, and emeralds set into Cartier’s signature “Tutti Frutti” (or “fruit salad”) jewelry during the first third of the 20th century.

	Cartier jewelry featured heavily at the “Ball of the Century,” held on September 3, 1951 in Venice. Many of the 1,500 attendees and preeminent members of café society were devoted Cartier followers, such as Singer sewing machine heiress and socialite Daisy Fellowes. She attended wearing her famous 1936 “Hindu” necklace by Cartier, an intricate creation of faceted and carved sapphires, rubies, and emeralds. This iconic necklace eventually found its way into the Cartier Collection, a group of 1,500 exceptional pieces of jewelry from 1860 to the present, including a necklace once owned by Woolworth heiress Barbara Hutton: a strand of 27 jadeite beads of exceptional quality and size, with a clasp of baguette diamonds and calibrated rubies.

	The Étourdissant collection, introduced at the end of 2015, makes use of carved morganite, chalcedony, and jasper to define and accentuate form and color in the guise of flowers and panthers. A discussion of chasing and repoussé highlights the amount of workmanship and masterful technical skill involved in creating a swallow-themed diamond pendant necklace. The collection also features the “threading” of diamonds—the stringing of drilled diamond briolettes on a strong wire, presumably platinum—for use in various designs. A number of exceptional gems grace this collection, including the Bleu Azur diamond, the pink Aube diamond, the Burmese Andaman sapphire, and the Colombian Amazonie emerald. But the apex of this year’s collection is the Romanov sapphire, of Sri Lankan origin and weighing a whopping 197.80 ct.

	Cartier first purchased the Romanov sapphire between 1925 and 1928, during the sale of the Russian imperial jewels by Russia’s newly formed Communist government. The imperial jewels had been seized from the Russian royal family when they were dethroned. The sapphire’s Imperial provenance was confirmed by an illustration plate and description of the stone in the French version of the extremely rare inventory catalog, Les Joyaux du Tresor de Russie (Russia’s Treasure of Diamonds and Precious Stones). The stone was pictured in the French version but omitted from the English version that accompanied the jewels at their original sale. When the catalog, consulted again during the 2014 sale of the sapphire back to Cartier, suggested the gem had belonged to Maria Feodorovna (mother of Nicholas II, the last Romanov emperor of Russia). A brief but thorough description of her life follows to enlighten the audience about the stone’s background. After the stone was acquired by Cartier in the 1920s, it was purchased by Polish opera singer Ganna Walska, who had the sapphire mounted in a necklace several different ways during her ownership. It was eventually auctioned off with most of her vast jewel collection in 1970 to help improve the gardens at her Montecito, California estate. Upon reacquiring the Romanov sapphire in 2014, Cartier set it into a bracelet enhanced with diamonds.

	Readers who are under the impression that Cartier made Mystery clocks only in the 1920s, will be pleased to know that the Étourdissant collection features two: the Pharos Mystery clock and the Target Mystery clock, as well a “Celian” magnetic clock driven by an ingenious arrangement of magnets. A very fine hinged bangle watch bracelet of pink tourmaline, diamonds, and pink gold is also depicted.

	True to form, color is employed masterfully in Cartier’s Étourdissant jewels, the intense red fire of ruby or the green vortex of an emerald playing off the neutrality of white diamonds or black onyx. The current collection features newly interpreted designs of Cartier’s ever popular and appealing “Tutti Frutti” jewels, first created in the 1920s and now updated for a modern take. Perhaps the most stunning jewels from the collection are those depicting wild animals, especially the Cartier panther. Symbolic of Cartier as early as 1914, the panther is today incorporated as an animal of intrigue.

Cartier Dazzling will be useful for jewelry historians, designers, and those with a love of iconic brands and superb workmanship of great ingenuity. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2023 Title: In-depth report on the jewelry and accessories market in the Philippines. Abstract: Overview of the Jewelry and Gem Industry in the Philippines
The Philippines is a country rich in natural resources, with abundant deposits of gold, silver, and valuable gemstones, as well as renowned South Sea pearl sources. The Philippine jewelry and gem industry is known for its long history and skilled craftsmen in design and production. Additionally, the Philippines is one of the top 20 gold producers in the world, with 70% of its gold coming from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), an industry flourishing in the Philippines, employing approximately 500,000 miners across over 40 provinces out of 81. In recent years, the jewelry and gem industry has seen significant growth, with a considerable increase in the number of manufacturers, stores, retailers, and designers who sell and promote their products through digital platforms or a mix of online and offline stores.
Jewelry and gems have been an integral part of Filipino life for a long time, dating back to before the Philippines became a Spanish colony. Jewelry was used to enhance beauty and served as a symbol of social status, marriage, membership in groups, religious faith, rituals, and beliefs in healing, which are still evident today. However, gems and jewelry have only recently become associated with fashion and modernity after the American colonial period up to the present day.
The Philippines is home to primary mineral deposits, including gold, iron, zinc, chromite, copper, and minor reserves of silver, nickel, iron, cadmium, and manganese. Additionally, there are other significant valuable minerals such as:
1. **Garnet** - A gemstone available in various colors, predominantly red and orange, with a minor presence of green. The color of garnet is the most significant price-determining factor.
2. **Opal** - Noted for its play of color, displaying all the colors of the rainbow. The color play and transparency of opal are crucial market price determinants.
3. **Jade** - The most popular green gemstone, also available in colors like orange, blue, yellow, red, and white.
4. **Jasper** - Available in both opaque and patterned forms, mainly red (Bloodstone jasper), with other colors like green, yellow, and various patterns such as orbicular and poppy. The clarity of color and pattern is a significant price-determining factor.
5. **Tektite** - A glass-like stone originating from meteorite debris. Its value depends on size, translucency, color, and cutting quality, with light-colored and translucent tektites being more valuable.
6. **Epidote** - Available in colors ranging from green, yellow, gray, to black. High-value epidotes are characterized by transparency, large size, unusual colors, or unique mineral cutting features.
The Philippine jewelry and gem industry can be divided into two main segments:
1. **Fine Jewelry**, accounting for about 25% of all jewelry and gem sales. The Philippine Gem Development Law (RA 8502) defines fine jewelry as:
   - Personal adornments made of precious metals such as stones, pearls, or their combinations (e.g., rings, bracelets, necklaces, brooches, earrings, watch bands, pendants, tie clips, cufflinks, combs, hairpins, religious coins or other coins, and insignias).
   - Items made of precious metals, which may or may not include gemstone, for personal use (e.g., wallets, handbags, or items for personal use like cigarette boxes, powder cases, and storage boxes).
Fine jewelry in the Philippines uses precious metals and stones, with gold and silver being the most used metals and diamonds and other colored gemstones being the most used stones. The majority of fine jewelry in the market includes rings, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and tie pins.
The Fine Jewelry market in the Philippines can be divided into three main segments: high-end, medium-range, and low-end. High-end products are made from the finest raw materials, with exquisite craftsmanship and design, making high-end consumers less price-sensitive. In contrast, medium-range and low-end markets are more price-sensitive and consider buying gems and jewelry as an investment.2. **Costume Jewelry**, categorized as fashion jewelry by the Department of Trade and Industry, often reflects changing consumer preferences over time. The costume jewelry industry mainly relies on domestic raw materials, with significant sources in Samar, Leyte, Bohol, and Panay. Other components of costume jewelry are usually imported through agents or wholesalers, such as connectors and plastic beads.
Costume jewelry raw materials are divided into processed, semi-processed, and unprocessed:
- **Unprocessed** materials include natural shells, wood, bones, or stones.
- **Semi-processed** materials are those that have undergone some processing and are partly prepared for final products, such as painting, molding, or dyeing.
- **Processed** materials are ready for assembly, such as beads, chains, metal components, and packaging materials.
Processed materials are most commonly used in the costume jewelry industry. The production process in the Philippines is mostly a blend of machinery and craftsmanship, often producing custom orders or for local market sales only. Medium and large companies engaged in export business are relatively few. Meycauayan City in Bulacan is a major gem-producing area, but the industry there has declined, and there is no encouragement for younger generations to continue the gem crafting profession.
Most Filipino gem and jewelry businesses operate as small household enterprises, known locally as “Mom and Pop” or “Micro Enterprises,” typically managed by 1-2 individuals, often husband and wife. Consequently, these businesses are mostly outside the formal system and located in specific areas known for gem sales, such as Greenhills and Binondo. Filipino gem and jewelry producers often employ various sales strategies, combining direct sales, store sales, and agent systems, but most do not actively promote their products directly.
Regarding spending behavior on gems and jewelry, Filipino women are more likely to purchase than men, with different motives: men buy gems and jewelry as gifts, while women primarily buy for personal use. Additionally, high-income Filipino consumers tend to view gems as personal preferences and often buy from trusted or well-known sellers, whether independent shops or larger chains, with independent stores typically offering a broader variety and additional products. @chapter:33


Publication Year: 2020 Title: A Near-Field-Communication (NFC) Technology Device Embedded in Bead Cultured Pearls Abstract: Figure 1. An intact 7.83 ct Pinctada margaritifera bead cultured pearl (right), together with a sectioned sample (2.56 ct left and 4.46 ct center), embedded with a near-field-communication (NFC) chip. Photo by Diego Sanchez.
The Carlsbad laboratory received for examination two dark-colored bead cultured pearls embedded with an electronic device (figure 1) from Jeremy Shepherd, CEO of Pearl Paradise. The first sample had been cut in half by Mr. Shepherd in order to investigate the interior components; the smaller half weighed 2.56 ct and measured 10.63 × 9.73 × 3.88 mm (figure 1, left), and the larger half weighed 4.46 ct and measured 10.84 × 10.20 × 5.48 mm (figure 1, center). The second sample (figure 1, right) was intact and weighed 7.83 ct, measuring 10.84 × 10.20 × 5.48 mm. Both samples exhibited the typical external appearance of bead cultured pearls produced by the Pinctada margaritifera mollusk (referred to in the trade as “Tahitian” or “Black South Sea”). UV-Vis spectra of these samples showed the characteristic reflectance features typical of naturally colored pearls originating from this mollusk, with identifying features recorded at 405, 495, and 700 nm.
The cross-section surfaces of the two halves showed a straightforward bead cultured pearl structure. A round translucent white shell bead nucleus was clearly visible in the center. Its freshwater origin was subsequently verified with optical X-ray fluorescence imaging and EDXRF analysis. The alternating cream and brown concentric layers immediately overgrowing the bead were a combination of calcium carbonate and organic-rich materials (i.e., conchiolin) that are sometimes produced during the initial growth stage prior to nacre (aragonite) deposition. The subsequently deposited layers are dark-colored nacre commonly produced by the P. margaritifera mollusk. An electronic device was very obvious within a large partial drill hole that ran through the bead and into the other side of nacre.

Figure 2. The cross section (left) and microradiograph (right) images of the same sample revealed the varied components of the bead cultured pearl and NFC chip. Photos by Diego Sanchez (left) and Artitaya Homkrajae (right).
Real-time microradiography (RTX) revealed that the electronic devices embedded in the two halves and in the intact pearl samples were of the same kind. The device was composed of a high-density radio-opaque core (measuring approximately 5.10 × 3.26 mm) that appeared white in the RTX image and as an opaque black filler in the cross sections. An antenna could be seen wrapped around the core, and a circuit board was connected to the end of the antenna (figure 2). Chemical analysis of these components using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) revealed that the black core was composed of a high-iron (Fe) material, which was confirmed using a magnet. The bronze-colored antenna and circuit board were identified as copper. The device was held in place in the large drill hole with a transparent near-colorless resin-like material containing numerous gas bubbles. The drill hole areas were worked (cut) to a flattened surface and plugged with a white plastic-like material, which was subsequently re-drilled with a smaller drill hole. Although the large drill hole was placed in the center, it did not affect the origin determination of the pearl. The shell bead nucleus and the device contained within could be observed using RTX, even for the intact sample. The pearl’s shape was certainly impacted by the cut surface, and the classifications for color, overtone, luster, and surface would be based on the remaining nacreous surface.
The electronic device appeared to be a near-field-communication (NFC) chip, which is a short-range wireless connectivity technology based on traditional radio-frequency identification (RFID) (https://nfc-forum.org/what-is-nfc/about-the-technology). NFC technology allows data transfer between two NFC-enabled devices through electromagnetic radio fields within a very short distance, either by physically touching or being within a few centimeters of each other. NFC chips are passive and do not need to have a power source of their own, though the antenna can be coupled with an active device such as a smartphone via an electromagnetic field. The chip is used to store digital information such as images, video, text, and audio, which are accessed through an app due to limited memory. To the best of our knowledge, this technology was first incorporated within pearl jewelry by Galatea: Jewelry by Artist and marketed under the name “Momento” (https://www.momentogem.com). However, the NFC chip embedded in the intact pearl sample in this study was not compatible with the Galatea Momento smartphone application.
So far, GIA has observed three kinds of electronic devices in cultured pearls. The first device encountered was an RFID chip implanted inside a shell nucleus by Fukai Shell Nucleus prior to the culturing process (“ID nuclei add value to pearls,” Hong Kong Jewellery, September 2013, pp. 62–64). The RFID technology is used to track and identify the pearl directly from farm to consumer. The second was a “capsule-like” feature found within an atypical P. margaritifera bead cultured pearl set in a ring that was submitted for identification at GIA Hong Kong, yet the reason for the device remains unknown (Spring 2020 Lab Notes, pp. 134–136). This NFC chip is the third kind and is used for wireless data transmission with an NFC-enabled device such as a mobile phone. The NFC chips were inserted into bead cultured pearls after they had been cultured, unlike the RFID chip. Therefore, the pearl is still classified as a bead cultured pearl on GIA’s pearl identification report. The presence of the device is mentioned in the comments section.
Technology is pervasive in our daily lives and can even influence how pearl jewelry is produced. Since cultured pearls are opaque, the implementation of such micro-technologies within them is a viable option. These innovative wearable technologies retain the external appearance of pearls while performing a specific function. @chapter:14


Publication Year: - Title: Dealing in Natural Spinel, Garnet, Tourmaline, and More Abstract: Menahem SevdermishCEO and President of GemeWizard, Ramat Gan, Israel

	Interview with Menahem Sevdermish, CEO and President of GemeWizard, Ramat Gan, Israel
The range of Tanzanian gems’ lovely colors — both natural and slightly treated — is Mr. Sevdermish’s particular passion. The intense bright orange of natural spessartite, the pink and pastel shades of spinel, and the falling-leaves colors of “autumn” tourmalines cause him to wax enthusiastic.  The latter shades coincide with the current fashion for earth tones in cosmetics and are hot sellers in today’s market.  These natural stones, plus some of the rarest natural-color tanzanite “on the planet,” have caused him to adopt the slogan, “You look your best when you’re natural.”

Mr. Sevdermish is excited about the recent discovery of a small number of tanzanites with unusual pleochroism from the Merelani Hills. These combine colors not normally seen together in one piece of rough, such as green, violet, and blue, or green, violet, and yellow. Green and violet, he points out, are not even near each other in the spectrum, making this rough tanzanite gemologically rare. When he cuts and polishes such a piece, it results in a beautiful finished product such as a heart shape with blue curves and a green interior.

Tanzania is producing fabulous gem colors in important quantities, including zircons that “open up their colors” with a little heating. He believes these gems will catch on because jewelers are looking for novelty without high expense. He also credits the Internet with encouraging buyers, sellers, and designers to seek out new styles.

Mr. Sevdermish talks about a phenomenon in the gem trade where having a small amount of a relatively new gem—say, spessartite—available for sale actually works against the usual theory that rarity equals high value. This is because a somewhat rare but inexpensive specimen might be overlooked by jewelers and not used in their designs.  When that stone begins to appear on the market in larger quantities, jewelers take note and incorporate it into designs and catalogues; the resulting interest translates into demand and pushes prices higher. @chapter:3


Publication Year: - Title: Books: Jewellery in Israel: Multicultural Diversity 1948 to the Present Abstract: By Iris Fishof, 224 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by Arnoldsche Art Publishers, 2013, $70.00.

                      In Jewellery in Israel, art historian Iris Fishof writes, “Jewellery can reflect the history of the society of which it is a part.” She uses this idea as a lens to examine the influence of immigration on Israel’s jewelry design heritage.

Fishof sets the stage in the first chapter, which traces Israeli jewelry to the earliest “souvenirs” made by Muslim artists in the region, primarily for Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. Zionism, the movement to establish a Jewish state in Palestine, helped bring about the Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts in Jerusalem. Through many name and leadership changes, this school was to have a lasting influence on the jewelry of Israel.

Bezalel initially focused on developing a “Hebrew” style, with design motifs such as the Hebrew alphabet, Jewish symbols, biblical scenes, and the sites of the Holy Land. But with the rise of the Nazis during the 1930s and the first wave of European immigrants, including German metalsmiths steeped in the Bauhaus philosophy of unadorned simplicity, modernism began to take hold. It would shape the Israeli style for more than 30 years.

After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Jewish immigrants came from all over the world, doubling the region’s population. A chapter titled “The Melting Pot: 1950s to 1970s” describes how Jewish immigrants, urged to give up their cultural identity in favor of an Israeli one, struggled to make a living from the harsh land. Immigrants from Yemen, with centuries of Islamic jewelry design tradition behind them, had a strong and lasting impact. Because the ethnicity of Yemeni jewelry was not marketable to Israeli women of the time, Fishof describes how it was “adjusted to the demands and tastes of modern women by other craftsmen.” Essentially, the pieces were taken apart and reassembled into something more contemporary. One of the first contemporary designers to echo traditional styles using nontraditional components was Finy Leitersdorf. The desert-worn glass fragments in her designs presaged the use of non-precious metals in later designer jewelry.

In the 1960s, immigrants and Israeli designers who had studied abroad brought with them new influences. Israeli designers began experimenting with different styles and materials such as Perspex (Lucite) and found objects, integrating them into a native design aesthetic that had been developing in isolation for two decades.

At this point, jewelry artists began to have a substantial impact and the Bauhaus influence began to fade. And here the emphasis in Fishof’s book moves away from the effect of multicultural diversity and immigration on Israeli jewelry. Chapter 4, “International Recognition,” focuses on four Israeli artist jewelers whose work achieved international recognition—Bianca Eshel Gershuni, Vered Kaminski, Esther Knobel, and Deganit Stern Schocken. All were either born in Israel or immigrated with their parents at a very young age. These women became instructors at Bezalel, where their work continues to guide emerging Israeli artists.

In the final chapter, “The Contemporary Scene,” Fishof brings us to the present, and demonstrates how far Israeli jewelry has come from the early “Hebrew style.” Yet many of these influences are still there, particularly the use of botanical and religious images, although these are often more abstract now. There are pieces based on motifs from both rural and urban areas of Israel. The work is often narrative, meant to tell or comment on personal or family stories, such as a necklace by Knobel that is “shaped like the actual pine needle necklaces habitually made by children in Israel.” As Israel is a country that has spent the last 70-plus years forging an identity in a climate of conflict, many pieces incorporate the topic of war.

Like many other artist jewelers from around the world, Israeli contemporary jewelry artists often use non-precious materials. In Israeli jewelry, these may include broken tiles, stones, protective steel mesh, or crushed beverage cans.

In her final chapter, Fishof asks, “Is there a concept such as Israeli jewelry?” She concludes that there is. On my first reading, I disagreed: Many art jewelry designers today use less-expensive or even throwaway materials, incorporate elements from their surroundings, and tell personal or even painful narratives. But on a second reading, I changed my mind. What better source for a national design concept than images, colors, and materials taken from the artist’s surroundings and drawn from their cultural or artistic heritage?

Any book that documents the jewelry history of a people must be well illustrated in order to demonstrate the points the author is making. A difficult task, yet Jewellery in Israel is richly illustrated with black-and-white as well as color images—many of them full-page.

The history is a bit choppy at times. Yemeni silversmiths are mentioned in the first chapter, leading the reader to believe they were part of the pre-state jewelry manufacturing in Israel. Only in the second chapter do we learn that most of them immigrated in the 1940s, after Israel became a state. Some of the difficulties with the narrative flow, however, may be due to the book’s migration through translation.

I would have been interested to learn of any Palestinian influence on Israeli jewelry design. Fishof mentions the conflict’s effect on the narrative in the jewelry but doesn’t say whether there is design influence as well. Fishof also acknowledges the recent influx of African immigrants, though it may be too early to know what influence they will have on Israeli jewelry.

All in all, this a recommended read for anyone interested in ethnic or contemporary art jewelry from Israel, a country whose impact on jewelry design is greater than its geographic size or age might suggest. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2022 Title: A “Cobalt Blue” Gahnospinel Abstract: Figure 1. This 1.01 ct gahnospinel had an intense “cobalt blue” color. Photo by Lhapsin Nillapat.
GIA’s Bangkok laboratory recently examined an intense blue 1.01 ct transparent oval mixed cut (figure 1). Standard gemological testing revealed a refractive index of 1.742 and a hydrostatic specific gravity of 3.96. The stone was inert to long-wave and short-wave UV light. Microscopic observation revealed dense intersecting needles, iridescent thin films, particulate clouds, and flaky whitish inclusions. Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was used to obtain oxide weight percentages (wt.% oxides) of aluminum, iron, magnesium, and zinc to calculate the chemical formula of the stone. It was determined to be (Mg0.64Fe2+0.02Zn0.34)Al2O4. All of these properties were consistent with gahnospinel, which is a zinc-rich variety of the spinel group. Its chemical properties result from zinc substituting for magnesium in a solid solution series with end members gahnite (ZnAl2O4) and spinel (MgAl2O4).

Figure 2. The UV-Vis spectrum of the gahnospinel showed a series of absorption bands at approximately 550, 593, and 622 due largely to Co2+ with additional minor contributions from Fe2+ and Fe3+ absorption bands at approximately 456, 550, and 593 nm.
Interestingly, gahnospinel is usually found with a more muted dark blue to dark greenish blue color, but this intense blue specimen contained cobalt as the primary coloring agent, similar to “cobalt blue” gem spinel. Ultraviolet/visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy showed significant amounts of absorption attributable to cobalt at approximately 550, 593, and 622 nm (figure 2), with additional contribution from iron at approximately 456, 550, and 593 nm (G.B. Andreozzi et al., “Color mechanism in spinel: A multi-analytical investigation of natural crystals with a wide range of coloration,” Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 46, 2019, pp. 343–360; V. D’Ippolito et al., “Color mechanism in spinel: Cobalt and iron interplay for the blue color,” Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 42, 2015, pp. 431–439). The significant amount of cobalt (198–224 ppmw) from LA-ICP-MS data and the reddish Chelsea filter reaction provided strong evidence that the intense blue color was induced by cobalt. While blue cobalt spinel and gahnite have been previously reported (see J.E. Shigley and C.M. Stockton, “‘Cobalt-blue’ gem spinels,” Spring 1984 G&G, pp. 34–41; T. Stephan et al., “On the colour mechanism of blue gahnite from Nigeria,” Journal of Gems & Gemmology, Vol. 38, No. 2, 2022, pp. 183–193), to our knowledge this is the first report of blue gahnospinel predominantly colored by cobalt. @chapter:10


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Dyed Chalcedony Imitation of Chrysocolla-in-Chalcedony Abstract: Figure 1. The Raman spectrum of the loose chalcedony compared to that of chrysocolla and blue chalcedony reveals a mineral composition of quartz (463 cm–1) and moganite (501 cm–1) but a lack of chrysocolla inclusions (3619 cm–1).
Chrysocolla-in-chalcedony, also known as gem silica or blue chalcedony in Taiwan, is the most valuable chalcedony variety on the Taiwanese market. The beautiful greenish blue color is derived from micro-inclusions of chrysocolla, which can be identified by observation of a peak at 3619 cm–1 in the Raman spectrum. This peak can be assigned to OH groups in chrysocolla. Therefore, the color origin for this material is fundamentally rooted in the presence of Cu2+ ions in the structure of the chrysocolla inclusions. In the past few years, a large number of dyed chalcedony imitations have appeared in Taiwan’s market. The blue color of chalcedony dyed by copper salts, and that of natural specimens containing chrysocolla, is caused by Cu2+ ions.
Recently, a parcel of loose chalcedonies was sent to the Taiwan Union Lab of Gem Research (TULAB) for identification. These stones were submitted as natural blue chalcedony, but Raman spectroscopy later confirmed them as chalcedony without the characteristic peaks of chrysocolla (figure 1).

Figure 2. A blue mantle zoning on the cross section of the loose chalcedony is due to the bath of copper dye. Photo by Shu-Hong Lin.
With the owner’s consent, we cut one cabochon and polished the cross section displaying a blue mantle zoning from surface to center parallel to its profile (figure 2). The sample was analyzed with EDXRF, and concentration mapping on the cross section confirmed that copper was concentrated on the surface and decreased toward the interior, which is strong evidence for dyeing with copper salts (figure 3).

Figure 3. The concentration mapping for copper on the cross section of dyed chalcedony, which shows higher copper concentration in the periphery and lower in the interior; the different colors on the right represent the degree of relative concentration for copper from high to low.
Twenty pieces of chalcedony dyed with copper salts were further analyzed with EDXRF and compared to results from twenty pieces of natural blue chalcedony. EDXRF results indicated that the Si/Cu ratio of chalcedony dyed with copper salts was much higher than that of natural blue chalcedony (400–600 and 4–50, respectively). The content of Cu was relatively low in dyed chalcedonies tested.
There are many types of dye used for the color enhancement of chalcedony. Although a series of tests like those used above provide a comprehensive comparison between natural blue chalcedony and the dyed chalcedony analyzed in this research, it requires further verification whether these methods can be applied to other dyed chalcedonies. @chapter:4


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Willemite in Topaz Abstract: Figure 1. This 21.36 × 14.94 × 9.44 mm custom-cut study block of topaz from Jos, Nigeria, is host to several interesting inclusions. Photo by Diego Sanchez.
The authors recently had the opportunity to examine a 28.61 ct transparent freeform custom-cut study block of colorless topaz (figure 1) from Jos in Plateau State, Nigeria, that hosted a very large forest green inclusion of chlorite with an intricate stepped surface structure.

Figure 2. Transparent colorless willemite crystals appear to be tumbling down the slope of a large chlorite inclusion in a Nigerian topaz. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 4.02 mm.
Magnification showed that the chlorite inclusion was partially rimmed by transparent near-colorless crystals (figure 2) identified by laser Raman microspectrometry as willemite (Zn2SiO4), a trigonal zinc silicate.
The willemite crystals in this topaz fluoresced bright yellow-green to short-wave ultraviolet radiation, giving the chlorite a partial fluorescent halo. This is the only known example of the mineral willemite as inclusions in topaz from any locality.
In addition to the willemite, bright bluish green patches of color on the chlorite might be the microcline feldspar amazonite, but Raman analysis could not identify them. There were also some tiny rounded opaque inclusions with metallic luster that resembled metal sulfides. Bright red epigenetic hematite was found in one surface-reaching cleavage crack, and a few tiny transparent brownish yellow high-relief crystals of sphalerite were also present with the willemite. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 2015 Title: High-End Colored Gems Abstract: Figure 1. Constantin Wild displays a unique 290 carat multicolored gem suite. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA.

At GJX, Constantin Wild (W. Constantin Wild & Co., Idar-Oberstein, Germany) showed us a remarkable multicolored suite composed of 12 gems from all over the world. The total weight was 290 carats, with each gem weighing approximately 25 ct and measuring 19–20 mm. The suite included aquamarine and an unheated purple copper-bearing tourmaline from Mozambique; rubellite, yellow beryl, green tourmaline, and Imperial topaz from Brazil; peridot and kunzite from Pakistan; mandarin (spessartine) garnet from Nigeria; tanzanite from Tanzania; green sphene from Sri Lanka; and “canary” tourmaline from Zambia (figure 1).

	W. Constantin Wild & Co.

In this video, Idar-Oberstein’s Constantin Wild showcases a unique 290 ct multicolored suite of specimen-quality gems from all over the world, rare “canary” tourmaline from Zambia, fine rubellite from Brazil and Nigeria, and an array of sets aimed at enterprising jewelry designers and manufacturers.
Wild specifically highlighted canary tourmaline (figure 2). He remarked that its intensity of color is reminiscent of Paraíba tourmaline. Found intermittently in the 1980s and marketed since the early 2000s, this typically yellow-green material is rich in manganese (up to 9.18 wt.% MnO). Wild had two significant oval-cut gems of 19.83 and 26.18 ct, both unheated. For more information on this unique gem, see www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2007-yellow-tourmaline-zambia-laurs.

Another standout at Wild’s booth was a superb suite of rubellite tourmaline totaling 339.42 carats (figure 3). Wild called it a suite “from two continents,” as it contained both South American and African gems. The suite featured a spectacular cushion-cut 77.16 ct Nigerian rubellite centerpiece from new production, measuring 28.30 × 24.87 mm, framed by nine perfectly matched Brazilian rubellites from previous inventory weighing 262.26 carats.

Figure 2. 26.18 ct and 19.83 ct “canary” tourmalines from Zambia. Photos by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy of Constantin Wild.
Besides his higher-end single gems and suites, Wild also displayed some mixed-color sets, which he described as more “fashion-oriented” combinations (figure 4). Intended as concepts for jewelry designers, they included color combinations such as opal with pink tourmaline and morganite beryl with red tourmaline, tanzanite, tsavorite, and treated blue topaz, along with more unusual arrangements: demantoid and “Mali” garnet with fire opal, or yellow beryl and mandarin garnet.

Figure 3. This superb 339.42 carat suite of 10 rubellite tourmalines contains Brazilian gems with a Nigerian center stone. The gems in the suite range from 39.61 to 77.16 carats (center stone). Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy of Constantin Wild.
Another trend was the use of facet-grade rough for cabochons. These were often of large size and superb color. Of particular note were a 104.83 ct tanzanite and a 140.95 ct kunzite spodumene (figure 5).

Figure 4. Constantin Wild’s selection of mixed-color sets for jewelry designers included some interesting combinations. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA; courtesy of Constantin Wild. @chapter:18


Publication Year: 1985 Title: Sapphire from the Mercaderes-Río Mayo Area, Cauca, Colombia Abstract: Commercially important quantities of gem-quality sapphire are being recovered from stream beds and terrace gravels near the Colombian village of Mercaderes, about 143 km southwest of Popayán. The area is currently subject to a high degree of political unrest; nevertheless, about 100 people are said to be sporadically mining the deposit. Sapphire crystals average about one centimeter in length and occur in a variety of colors. Color-change stones are also common. Three inclusions were found to be characteristic: apatite, rutile, and boehmite. The parent rock for the sapphires has not been established, but it is probably one or more of the alkalic basalt members of the Cretaceous-age Diabase Group which outcrops in the area. @chapter:0


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Diamonds Help Solve the Enigma of Earth’s Deep Water Abstract: Water is carried down into Earth at subduction zones by the process of plate tectonics. Much of the water escapes close behind the subduction zone, promoting melting of the mantle and giving rise to the volcanic chains in the Pacific Ocean basin known as the Ring of Fire, and many other volcanoes elsewhere. But can water be carried even further into the mantle? How would we even know? Why is it important, and what are the effects of such deep water storage? Diamonds can give us the answers to these questions. Recent discoveries of water-containing mineral inclusions and even free water held at high pressures in diamonds tell us that water is carried into Earth’s deep interior—perhaps as deep as 700 km.
Why Do Earth Scientists Want to Know the Water Content at Great Depths?
Water, Water Everywhere... Everyone can see how abundant water is at Earth’s surface from our oceans. But because water can fit into mineral structures at high pressure and the volume of Earth’s mantle is so large, there could be at least another ocean’s worth of water stored in the minerals of the mantle. To know precisely how much water and in what form it was stored would help scientists understand where the water for our oceans came from, how much water returns to the mantle through plate tectonics, and how the stored water affects the properties of the mantle.
Water in the deep earth is not always a free fluid phase, and many minerals instead have water incorporated in the crystal structure as hydrogen bonded to oxygen. Common mantle minerals such as majorite, bridgmanite, Mg-Al spinel, and olivine (and its high-pressure equivalents wadsleyite and ringwoodite), are “nominally anhydrous,” but experiments show that they have the capacity to carry and host water in such a form in their structures.
Once in the mantle, water has many important effects on the properties of the mantle. Water affects the temperature at which the mantle begins to melt, along with its physical properties such as viscosity and density. In turn, these properties influence the strength of the mantle rock (its resistance to being deformed). It therefore becomes important for our understanding of the mobility and melting of mantle rock in the deep Earth to know how much water is down there. Water-rich fluids—i.e., water solutions wherein a variety of elements, compounds, and gases may be dissolved—are also a very effective way to transport other elements between different parts of Earth. Specifically, subduction fluids can transfer elements from the surface to diamond-stable portions of Earth and may even be a critical ingredient for growing diamonds.
How Is Water Distributed, and How Does It Get into the Deep Earth? The mantle transition zone (410–660 km) is thought to be a major sink for water in the mantle (Smyth, 1987). The two key minerals that make up the transition zone, wadsleyite and ringwoodite, have been shown experimentally to host an abundance of water, up to about 3.3 wt.% and 2.2 wt.% H2O, respectively (Kohlstedt et al., 1996). Seismic images show that oceanic slabs—containing the water that was not released at shallower levels—are recycled into the mantle by subduction and can sit within the transition zone (van der Hilst et al., 1997). So both a delivery and storage mechanism for water exists for the mantle transition zone.
The water content in the lower mantle (below 660 km) is likely not as high as it is in the transition zone. Experiments show that the minerals in the lower mantle do not have a high water-carrying capacity (Inoue et al., 2010; Schmandt et al., 2014). When some oceanic slabs are subducted past the transition zone and into the lower mantle, it is expected that any water would be released upward into the overlying mantle. However, a lower mantle diamond from the Juína area of Brazil was found to contain brucite (Mg(OH)2) in association with ferropericlase ((Mg,Fe)O) (Palot et al., 2016). Water in the brucite structure likely originated as a H2O-bearing fluid film around the ferropericlase inclusion. This diamond preserved an inclusion that indicates that some water transport beyond the transition zone is possible.
EVIDENCE FOR MANTLE WATER FROM MINERALS FOUND IN SUPERDEEP DIAMONDS

Figure 1. Phase diagram showing the stability fields of H2O as liquid and ice at high pressures (modified from Lobban et al., 1998). Superdeep diamonds form at temperatures between 1300 and 1500°C (beyond scale of diagram) where H2O occurs as a liquid. As the diamond cools at the earth’s surface, H2O trapped within the diamond retains its original high pressure and recrystallizes as the high-pressure form of solid H2O known as Ice VII.
Water as a Solidified Fluid: Samples of High-Pressure Ice. Direct observations of water-rich fluids in superdeep diamonds (see box A) are rare and have only been reported in two studies. At atmospheric pressure, H2O occurs as a liquid, but at higher pressures (and relatively cool temperatures compared to mantle temperatures), H2O occurs as two different forms of ice, known as Ice VI and Ice VII (figure 1).

BOX A: DIAMOND IN THE EARTH’S MANTLE

Natural Diamond Formation. Natural diamonds typically form 150–200 km below the surface of the earth. Diamond formation does not occur everywhere at these depths, but only below the oldest continents that have been stable for billions of years; these areas are known as cratons. This is because these old cratons all have thick continental roots with cool temperature profiles conducive to diamond formation. Diamonds that form within these continental roots are known as lithospheric diamonds and are carried up to the surface of the earth by rare volcanic eruptions known as kimberlites. Other diamonds form much deeper in the earth, below these continental roots. So-called superdeep diamonds form at depths greater than 200 km in areas of the mantle known as the transition zone (410 to 660 km below the earth’s surface) and lower mantle (> 660 km). After formation they are transported to shallower depths in the mantle, likely through mantle convection cells, and then also brought to the surface by kimberlite eruptions.
Inclusions in Superdeep Diamonds Are Direct Samples of the Deep Earth. Diamonds often trap tiny pieces of their surrounding rocks as they grow. These trapped inclusions are the only direct samples we have to study the composition of the deep earth. In the absence of mineral inclusions in diamond, the way to study the earth’s composition at depth is through experimental work: subjecting minerals to high pressures in the lab to see what their properties are. This experimental work has given us a good understanding of the mineral phase transitions in the deep earth, but inclusion-bearing diamond remains an unparalleled tool to uncover the earth’s properties at depth.

Ice VI was found in fibrous diamonds from the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a remnant pressure of 1.9 GPa (Kagi et al., 2000), where 1 GPa is 1 gigapascal or 10,000 times atmospheric pressure. Ice VII was found in diamonds from Orapa (Botswana), Shandong (China), and Namaqualand (South Africa) at pressures ranging from 7 GPa to 28 GPa, which is equivalent to 220 to 880 km (Tschauner et al., 2018). Amazingly, once these water-rich fluids are trapped as inclusions in diamond, they retain some high pressure even after eruption to the earth’s surface. As the diamond cools down to ambient conditions (25°C, 100 kPa), the trapped H2O recrystallizes as Ice VI or Ice VII (figure 1).
Hydrous fluids have previously been found trapped as thin films around shallower lithospheric diamonds (again, see box A; Nimis et al., 2016). But the presence of Ice VII in superdeep diamonds confirms the presence of a free fluid phase at pressures corresponding to the transition zone and lower mantle. As discussed with the finding of hydrous ringwoodite (below), these H2O-rich fluids could represent the fluid-rich diamond-forming environment, or they could be indicative of the ambient water content of the deep Earth. A likely scenario is that H2O-rich fluids are introduced into the deep Earth through subduction, consistent with the compositions of many superdeep diamonds that indicate an affinity with subducted oceanic slabs. This suggests that these fluid-rich regions of the transition zone occur locally around subducted slabs. Only further work on other superdeep inclusion-bearing diamonds from worldwide localities will show if this is the case, or how widespread such water contents are. But the highly diverse nature of the host diamonds that have been studied already suggests that these ices may be much more common than thought—we just need to look more carefully.
Water Isn’t Always a Free Fluid Phase: Examples of Mineral-Hosted Water. Ringwoodite is a high-pressure form of olivine (Mg2SiO4) that occurs in the lower half of the mantle transition zone, where it comprises around 60% of the total mineralogy. We know this from experimental work that simulates the high-pressure conditions deep within Earth. Until 2014, ringwoodite had only been found in highly shocked meteorites. This is because at surface pressures, ringwoodite—even when confined to its diamond host—is notoriously unstable and reverts to olivine at lower pressure.
Unchanged ringwoodite from deep in Earth was found for the first time as a 30 µm inclusion trapped within a diamond from Juína, Brazil (figure 2; see also Pearson et al., 2014). Even more remarkable was that this tiny ringwoodite grain was able to provide the first direct measurement of the water content of the most common mineral in the mantle transition zone. Water content was measured using nondestructive infrared spectroscopy (IR) while the inclusion was still trapped at high remnant pressure within the diamond. When the scientists attempted to remove the inclusion from the diamond for additional measurements, it self-destructed by exploding!

Figure 2. Ringwoodite is the high-pressure form of the mineral olivine (Mg2SiO4) that occurs between 520 and 660 km below the surface of the earth in the transition zone. The first terrestrial observation of this mineral was in a diamond from Juína, Brazil (top left). Water content in this 30 µm inclusion (bottom left) is around 1.4 wt.%, indicating that the global transition zone could contain at least 2.5 times the amount of water as Earth’s oceans. The majority of diamonds come from the cratonic lithosphere (indicated here as yellow diamonds). Superdeep diamonds (indicated here as white and blue diamonds) are rarer and originate from greater depths, often from the transition zone, which extends between 410 and 660 km.
By comparing the intensity of the water peaks in the IR spectrum with those from synthetic ringwoodite with known amounts of water, the natural ringwoodite inclusion was estimated to contain around 1.4 wt.% H2O. This value could represent either a locally water-enriched portion of the mantle transition zone, perhaps associated with the fluids that formed the diamonds, or the water content of the mantle transition zone as a whole. It is interesting to note that if this water content is applied to the whole mantle transition zone, the total water content would be approximately 2.5 times the volume of water in Earth’s oceans (Nestola and Smyth, 2015).
The Tip of the Iceberg: Much Further Work Is Needed. Wadsleyite, another potential water carrier, has not yet been observed as an inclusion in diamond. This is the high-pressure phase of olivine that is found between 410 and 520 km, just slightly shallower than ringwoodite (figure 2). Finding wadsleyite, along with more occurrences of ringwoodite, and analyzing their water contents will give a better understanding of the mantle transition zone’s average water-carrying capacity. Expectations are that wadsleyite will carry at least as much water as ringwoodite. Will water in these minerals turn out to be ubiquitous? Is the earth even wetter than we thought?
Further evidence for water in mineral inclusions in many more superdeep diamonds must be sought. An easy way to start is through nondestructive infrared spectroscopy of diamonds and their inclusions, specifically looking for water and ice peaks (see Kagi et al., 2000 for example spectra). Even some lithospheric diamonds are thought to form from water-rich fluids (Stachel and Luth, 2015; Smit et al., 2016), yet observation of water in these diamonds is incredibly rare (Nimis et al., 2016). Could it be that these high-pressure ices are much more common than we thought? Could the discovery of Ice VII in Earth’s diamonds revolutionize our thinking about ice storage at high pressure in other planets of our size range, such as Mars or Venus? In any case, these secrets will be revealed by more work on diamonds. @chapter:29


Publication Year: - Title: Carbon Isotope Studies Reveal Diamond Growth History Abstract: This beautiful 56.2 ct octahedral diamond crystal is from Russia’s Mir pipe. Research into the carbon isotopic composition of diamond promises to reveal much about diamond’s place in the earth’s carbon cycle. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Bill Larson, Palagems.com.

                      Dr. Jianhua Wang is a man seeking answers to some very basic questions. They range from the origin of the carbon in diamond, to whether the earth’s oceans are growing or shrinking, to the amount of water present on the moon. He’s a senior research scientist at the Carnegie Institution of Washington’s Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (DTM). There, he and colleagues Dr. Steven Shirey, Dr. Eric Hauri, and select visiting researchers collaborate on diamond-related projects.

Today, we are in the DTM’s ion microprobe lab. Dr. Wang introduces us to the complex machine humming behind him. Called a secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS), it occupies most of the large room we’re standing in.

	Dr. Jianhua Wang explains operation of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism’s sophisticated ion microprobe and its relevance to natural diamond research. He has a sample holder in his hand ready to place into the instrument’s vacuum chamber. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA, courtesy of Carnegie Institution of Washington.

	The Ion Microprobe Explained
Dr. Wang outlines the “business end” of the ion probe: a compact mass of complex cylinders and pipes that resembles a partially disassembled jet turbine. This area contains the ion gun that bombards the sample and the vacuum chamber that holds it. Beyond this is a long “flight tube” that curves around the walls of the room, through an immense magnet the size of a standard refrigerator, to a series of detectors at the end. It’s a very impressive-looking instrument.

	Ion Microprobe

	Join Dr. Jianhua Wang as he introduces us to the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism’s ion microprobe.

	The Ion Microprobe Explained
Dr. Wang gives us a quick outline of the ion microprobe. He tells us the instrument has a primary ion "gun," which generates an ion beam. An ion is an atom with a positive or negative electrical charge. In this case, it's a positive ion of the rare metal cesium (133Cs).

The primary ion beam passes through a set of electromagnetic lenses, he explains. They focus it to a diameter of 15 micrometers (0.0015 cm), and accelerate it toward the sample in the instrument’s high-vacuum chamber. The impact of the cesium ion beam causes the sample to emit a stream of its own ions in response.

Another set of electromagnetic lenses focus the ions emitted by the sample into a secondary ion beam. It’s this feature that gives the SIMS instrument the first part of its name.
Once the beam has been directed, it’s fed into a mass spectrometer to identify the ions produced by the sample. The mass spectrometer separates the secondary ions by their charge and mass into the different isotopes. For diamond, Dr. Wang typically measures carbon or nitrogen, the predominant trace element in diamond.

The mass spectrometer operates on the principle that two ions with the same mass and charge move in the same path in a vacuum when subjected to the same electromagnetic field. Ions with different mass-to-charge ratios are deflected to some degree. The mass spectrometer separates the ions into different masses and counts them in an array of detectors. A computer screen displays the results.

With this machine, Dr. Wang explains, it’s necessary to change the magnetic field to detect isotopes of different masses: “If you want to measure carbon isotopes and nitrogen isotopes using this machine, you have to do it in two different sessions, because nitrogen is a trace element in diamond and carbon is the major element.”

“So you have a lot of carbon signal,” he says. “You do carbon isotopes in the one session, and you measure nitrogen isotopes and nitrogen concentration in a different session.”

	Carbon Isotope Research Illuminates Diamond’s Geologic History
Of all Dr. Wang’s research, the topics of most particular interest to us are diamond’s place in the earth’s carbon cycle, and the origin of the carbon that makes up the fabric of a diamond crystal.

Dr. Wang’s work is complementary to Dr. Shirey’s. While Dr. Shirey focuses on age dating of tiny sulfide inclusions, Dr. Wang works on isotope studies of the carbon and nitrogen in the polished diamond plates that Dr. Shirey produces before cleaving them to recover the inclusions.

Over the last decade, scientists like Dr. Wang have made major advances in understanding the sources of carbon in diamonds. Carbon occurs as two stable isotopes, 12C and 13C. (An isotope of a chemical element is simply an atom with the same atomic number as that element, but with a slightly different mass, resulting from a different number of neutrons in its nucleus.) At the earth’s surface, 12C is almost a hundred times more abundant (98.9% compared to 1.1%).

There are really only two sources for the carbon in natural diamond. It can either come from carbon that has never left the earth’s mantle, which scientists call “primordial,” or it can be “recycled” carbon that has been released from the mantle and incorporated into organic matter—like bacteria or algae—or subsequently formed carbon-bearing minerals like graphite, or carbon-rich rocks like limestone or marble. These materials have then been carried back into the earth’s mantle by subduction, releasing the carbon for diamond formation.

Broadly speaking, scientists classify natural diamonds into two broad categories depending on their geologic origin. Those that source their carbon from the mantle are peridotitic (P-type), and those that contain subduction-recycled carbon are eclogitic (E-type).

Carbon that has been recycled at the earth’s surface tends to have a much higher proportion of 12C to 13C. That’s because the biochemical reactions that fuel living systems generally favor the lighter isotope of carbon. Depending on whether the diamond originated from mantle carbon or recycled carbon, the ratios might be very different, reflecting its geologic history. Dr. Wang’s ion probe can count the different carbon isotopes in diamond, allowing him to determine the ratio of 13C to 12C.

	Carbon isotope composition tells us a lot about a diamond’s geologic history. This illustration shows the difference between some of the main diamond types. δ13C is the 13C/12C ratio measured against a reference standard and deviating from this standard by 0.1%. Note the negative scale and how eclogitic diamonds extend to much lower δ13C values than peridotitic diamonds; n = the number of analyses. Diamonds sourced from mantle carbon (P-type, top graph) have a relatively restricted range of values. Those sourced from subducted recycled carbon (E-type, second graph from top) tend to have a much wider range, though both overlap. Adapted from Cartigny (2005); see the Winter 2013 Gems & Gemology, figure 21, p. 206
Peridotitic diamonds show a narrow range in carbon isotopic composition (given in the delta notation, δ13C, where 13C/12C is referenced to a standard and expressed in ‰) of –10 to –2 δ13C, with more than 95% falling in the main mantle range of –8 to –2.

Eclogitic diamonds show a much wider δ13C range (from –42 to +3), even though many also overlap the main mantle range.

	Carbon in Diamond

	In this video, Dr. Wang explains the significance of his carbon isotope work and how the results inform our understanding of natural diamond’s origin.
So what can studying the carbon isotopes in diamond tell us? “It’s the deepest aspect of how Earth’s subduction works,” Dr. Wang replies.

He shows us a printout of a cathodoluminescence (CL) image of a diamond plate cut from a crystal with a complex growth history. The printout contains an enlargement of a diamond plate just a few millimeters across.

He tells us that the different colors represent the different concentrations of nitrogen throughout the plate, which are normally invisible without CL. “You can see a multi-growth pattern of the diamond, with variations in the amount of nitrogen, and we can use the ion probe to measure carbon isotopes in different regions.”

Each point sampled by the ion probe appears as a tiny spot 15 micrometers (0.0015 cm) across. Figures next to each spot note the isotope concentrations. Dr. Wang points to the trail of sample points and says, “From this information, we see variation of the carbon isotopes.

“If it changes a lot, we can infer there have been different carbon sources in the fluid from which the diamonds grew. In this case, all the carbon is from the mantle—it’s very close to the primordial composition of mantle carbon isotopes.”

On the other hand, Dr. Wang informs us, “If you see very negative carbon isotope composition—say, -24 δ13C—in most cases, this is carbon of organic origin, so they might be coming from the surface of the earth. This could indicate the subduction of oceanic crust from the surface deep into the mantle.

“This technique can show you where the carbon in a diamond came from,” he continues. “Whether it’s from the top—the surface of the earth—or whether it’s of deep mantle origin.”

View Gallery

	This sequence of images introduces you to one of the key analytical instruments used for diamond-related research at the Carnegie Institution’s Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.

	Superdeep Diamonds from Under Brazil
Dr. Wang refers to his recent research paper from 2012, with the diamond research group from the University of Bristol (UK), where he and his colleagues analyzed some unusual diamonds from Brazil. “We found out some diamonds had a very strong signature of organic origin and that some of the inclusions in them were formed very deep in the mantle, like 800 kilometers deep.

“From these inclusions, we can infer that the (carbon) source is from the earth’s surface, but that the diamonds formed deep in the mantle. So that tells us that the subduction went all the way down to the deep mantle.

“The diamond tells us the history of the carbon coming from the surface, how it went down to the mantle and formed the diamond, and the kimberlite brought them to the surface and we got the diamonds and measured them in this lab.”

Like so much of research, it’s conducted with colleagues, especially in this case with Drs. Shirey and Hauri: “Steve has been measuring the sulfide composition in the diamond to find out when the inclusions in diamonds were formed, and Erik has been measuring water content to see how much water is in the deep mantle,” he says. “It’s a collaboration with other people to get this research done.”

	Capabilities of Carnegie’s Ion Microprobe
Dr. Wang explains that this type of instrument is mostly used by the semiconductor industry to measure the implant of different trace elements into silicon wafers.

	Unique Instrument

	Dr. Wang outlines some of the capabilities of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism’s ion microprobe and explains why it would be very costly to replace.
“In geological and cosmological science,” he tells us, “we’re using it to do trace element analysis in minerals and rocks, including measurement of water in Martian meteorites, and in moon rocks.”  Additional uses haved used DTM cosmochemists to look at particles actively collected from the tail of comets, interplanetary dust particles that constantly rain down on Earth from outer space, meteorite residues that contain refractory grains made in distant stars outside our solar system, and organic components in meteorites blasted from Mars.

To keep a complex and versatile instrument running at state-of-the-art precision requires considerable institutional resources and a team of users. Besides Dr. Wang and his Carnegie colleagues Drs. Alexander, Hauri, Nittler, and Shirey, there is a bevy of post-doctoral researchers and visiting scientists from around the world who routinely come through the ion microprobe facility. It is an exciting place, indeed.

We can’t resist asking the value of this unique instrument: “When we purchased this instrument, it was about $1.5 million,” Dr. Wang says, gesturing at the French-built core of the machine with its ion gun and sample chamber.

With a sweep of his arm he takes in the rest of the ion probe, with its long flight tube and immense magnet. “This is an in-house development—we spent probably a few hundred thousand dollars, but if you buy a commercial, same-size version of the instrument, it would be like $4 to $4.5 million!”

	Next-Generation Microprobe
In the next room, Dr. Wang gives us a glimpse of the next generation of microprobe, the nano-SIMS. It has the benefit of a much smaller beam size and a much larger magnet. The magnet allows it to have an array of seven detectors, so it’s possible to measure seven different masses (isotopes) simultaneously. The larger SIMS machine has only one detector, so if you want to measure different isotopes, you have to measure them in separate sessions by switching the magnet to accommodate the mass of each isotope.

	Dr. Wang explains the operation of the lab’s newer ion microprobe: the nano-SIMS, which is capable of analyzing even smaller samples, including tiny diamonds in meteorites and minute inclusions in gem diamonds. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA, courtesy of Carnegie Institution of Washington.
The newer instrument’s vacuum chamber is also superior, which is important for measuring light elements like hydrogen. Its two-stage sample chamber allows researchers to achieve higher vacuums and exclude almost all contaminants. The small beam size permits analysis of the tiniest grains in meteorites so researchers can sample the supernova remnants captured in these pre-solar system bodies.

Besides his interest in diamond isotope research, one of Dr. Wang’s other open questions, asked with his DTM colleague Dr. Erik Hauri, centers around water on the moon. Analysis of moon rocks and volcanic glasses in moon rock minerals has shown higher water content than anticipated. Current theories suggest that a Mars-sized planetary body collided with ancient Earth and formed the moon as a result, and that somehow the moon was able to retain water locked up in its rocks and minerals.

Once again, we’re reminded that analysis of nature’s smallest features—tiny inclusions in diamonds, or traces of dust from the early solar system—can lead to groundbreaking discoveries on the scale of our planet’s history, or even larger. We’ll aim to keep in touch with Dr. Wang’s research and update you in the near future. @chapter:35


Publication Year: 2021 Title: CVD Laboratory-Grown Diamond with Counterfeit GIA Inscription Abstract: Figure 1. This 3.07 ct CVD lab-grown diamond was submitted with a counterfeit GIA inscription that corresponded to a previously graded natural diamond. Photo by Ellen Barrie.

In recent months, GIA has seen a number of laboratory-grown diamonds submitted for update or verification services with counterfeit inscriptions referencing GIA natural diamond reports (“GIA laboratory prevents attempted fraud,” GIA press release, May 17, 2021, https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-press/gia-lab-prevents-attempted-fraud). One recent example is a 3.07 ct round brilliant submitted to the Antwerp lab for update service (figure 1). It bore an inscription matching a GIA report for a natural diamond that had been submitted in 2018. Microscopic examination quickly revealed, however, that the inscription was in fact fraudulent. Further analysis indicated a laboratory-grown origin.

Comparison showed an attempt to precisely match the laboratory-grown diamond to the information contained in the original report (table 1). Both were round brilliants with excellent cut properties and very close in carat weight and measurements. The natural diamond, however, did have a slightly better color and clarity (G-IF compared to H-VVS2). The clarity grade of the laboratory-grown diamond (VVS2) was set by two types of inclusions: pinpoints and needles.
Further analysis of the laboratory-grown diamond was performed using advanced spectroscopic techniques. Whereas the original diamond was type Ia and had a high concentration of nitrogen such that it saturated the detector in the one-phonon region (1335–1085 cm–1), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed that the newly submitted diamond was nominally type IIa. The spectrum showed the weak presence of isolated nitrogen at 1344 cm–1 and the absence of both the 3107 cm–1 and the CVD-specific NVH0 band at 3123 cm–1. Photoluminescence (PL) spectra taken with various laser excitation wavelengths and at liquid nitrogen temperature showed the strong presence of the SiV– doublet (736.6/736.9 nm), a defect commonly observed in CVD laboratory-grown diamonds. This strong SiV– center was also conspicuous in the UV-Visible absorption spectrum taken at liquid nitrogen temperature. Other defects detected with PL spectroscopy were strong NV0/– (575 and 637 nm) centers, a strong H3 (503.2 nm) center, and weak nickel-related defects (883/884 nm doublet).

Figure 2. DiamondView imaging confirmed CVD growth and subsequent HPHT treatment. Image by Ellen Barrie.
DiamondView imaging displayed a typical CVD growth structure with a green-blue layered pattern and banded layers, indicating a start-stop growth (figure 2). A weak greenish blue phosphorescence was observed after switching off the UV source.

Figure 3. In accordance with GIA procedures, the LABORATORY-GROWN inscription was added to the girdle (left) and the counterfeit report number inscription was rendered illegible (right). Photos by Ellen Barrie.
Based on all the observations, we concluded this was a CVD laboratory-grown diamond that had undergone HPHT treatment after growth. As with all laboratory-grown diamonds submitted to GIA, it was then inscribed with “LABORATORY-GROWN” (figure 3, left). The counterfeit inscription was overwritten (figure 3, right) and a new GIA report number was placed on the girdle.
This example demonstrates the importance of careful examination to verify a diamond’s origin. A close comparison of the CVD diamond with the earlier report on a natural diamond showed a very precise attempt at matching. @chapter:31


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Quartzite Bangle with Fuchsite Inclusions Abstract: Figure 1. This bangle, weighing 40.10 g, was identified as quartzite. Photo by Su Xu.
Jadeite jade bangles are always popular in the Chinese market. With high prices and rising demand for these products, a bangle with an appearance similar to jadeite was encountered recently.
The bangle was submitted to the National Gold-Silver Gem & Jewelry Quality Inspection Center (Sichuan) for identification. It was semitransparent with a white and green bodycolor resembling that of jadeite (figure 1). However, standard gemological testing showed a refractive index of 1.54 and a specific gravity of 2.67, values that were both significantly below those of jadeite and more in line with quartz. It showed no reaction under Chelsea filter. Using a polariscope, the material was found to be composed of polycrystalline aggregates. Microscopic examination revealed a granular aggregate structure and different microcrystalline mineral inclusions.

Figure 2. The bangle’s infrared reflectance spectrum exhibited characteristic peaks at 489, 537, 691, 778, 798, 1105, and 1178 cm–1 that are typical for quartzite.
The identity was further confirmed by analytical testing. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) reflectance spectroscopy showed peaks at 489, 537, 691, 778, 798, 1105, and 1178 cm–1 that were consistent with the characteristic spectrum of quartzite (sometimes referred to as “quartzose”) (figure 2) (X. Jin et al., “Gemmological and vibrational spectrum characteristics of micaceous quartzose jade ‘strawberry crystal’,” Journal of Gems & Gemmology, Vol. 23, No. 3, 2021, pp. 20–28). Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis revealed trace amounts of iron throughout and chromium exclusive to the green inclusions.

Figure 3. Photomicrographs and Raman spectra of inclusions in the bangle (black) and the reference spectrum in the RRUFF database (red): flaky fuchsite (A), brassy yellow pyrite (B), white dolomite (C), and brown rutile (D), shown in darkfield illumination (A) and reflected light (B–D). Photomicrographs by Su Xu; fields of view 0.2 mm (A), 1 mm (B), 0.8 mm (C), and 0.05 mm (D). See B. Lafuente et al. (2015), https://rruff.info/about/downloads/HMC1-30.pdf. Spectra are offset vertically for clarity.
These green flaky inclusions were slightly oriented. Raman combined with EDXRF analysis identified them as fuchsite (K(Al,Cr)2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2), a green chromium-colored variety of muscovite (figure 3A) (Fall 2013 GNI, pp. 183–184). Additionally, brassy yellow inclusions in a range of sizes were confirmed as pyrite (figure 3B) using Raman spectroscopy. Raman also identified some white blocky inclusions in a nearby area as dolomite (figure 3C), as well as some tiny brown rutile inclusions found as irregular, randomly scattered grains (figure 3D).

Figure 4. The UV-Vis spectrum of the green area showed two broad absorption bands centered at 423 and 600 nm in addition to a weak peak at 684 nm, indicating the presence of chromium.
Ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy corresponding to the green areas showed two broad absorption bands at about 423 and 620 nm, with a weak peak at 684 nm (figure 4). These features have been assigned to Cr3+ in fuchsite.
To our knowledge, fuchsite contained in quartzite is usually uniformly scattered in the form of tiny flakes. The uneven distribution of green fuchsite that resulted in patches of green in this bangle is noteworthy. The patchy green spots resemble the color concentrations often observed in jadeite. Despite the bangle’s resemblance to jadeite, gemological tests such as refractive index, microscopic observation, and infrared and Raman spectroscopy readily identify it. @chapter:37


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Interesting “Egg” in Rock Crystal Quartz with Rutile Abstract: Rutile needles extending outward from epigenetic growth in rock crystal quartz. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 8.81 mm. Courtesy of Mike Bowers.

The micro-world of gemology is fascinating and often mimics scenery, landscapes, or, in this case, food. Recently the authors examined a natural rock crystal quartz that showed needles piercing a yellow and white circular inclusion (see above). The inclusion mimicked a fried egg and was seen during microscopic examination using fiber-optic lighting. The “egg” was actually an example of epigenetic residue surrounding a rutile needle trapped in a crack within the host crystal. Here the rutile, a mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide (TiO2), is a syngenetic inclusion, having formed at the same time as the host quartz crystal, and the “egg” formed its circular shape after the rutile and quartz growth stopped. The epigenetic residue in this stone results from secondary fluids that enter surface-reaching fractures (see descriptions and images of inclusions in quartz in E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 2, 2005, Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, p. 541). Although quartz is relatively common as a host material, it is often an excellent source for unique mineral inclusions and, with this particular crystal, a fun novelty inclusion. Epigenetic residues in gems and crystals not only provide for interesting inclusion scenes, but they can also help determine growth phases and possible treatments. @chapter:13


Publication Year: - Title: Diamond Mining in Minas Gerais, Brazil Abstract: These diamonds were mined from the Abaeté River region in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Photo by Andy Lucas, © GIA

                      Brazilian diamonds were discovered around 1725 by gold miners along the banks of the Rio Jequitinhonha, in the state of Minas Gerais. For more than a hundred years, the country was the world’s most important diamond source, as the famous Golconda deposit in India was nearly exhausted and South African mines were yet to be discovered.

Diamond mining in Brazil continues today, though largely overshadowed by the output of other countries. But despite sporadic production, important stones continue to emerge from Brazil. The country has long fascinated me. Following many visits to colored gemstone deposits there, I took an August 2012 trip to Minas Gerais—Portuguese for “general mines.” What I saw led me to believe that the future of Brazilian diamond mining looks promising.

Brazil has several alluvial diamond sources, where stones are mined from the sands and gravels of river banks. There are also some potentially important diamond pipes that may warrant larger-scale open-pit or underground mining. Diamonds are mined in several Brazilian states, including Mato Grosso do Sul, Bahia, and Rondônia. I visited an alluvial diamond mine in Minas Gerais, which is famous for its gold and colored gemstones, as well as other commercial minerals. Owned by GAR Minerals, the mine is located near the diamond-bearing Abaeté River and the town of Três Marias. GAR Minerals has six properties along the Abaeté River and six others near the town of Coromandel on the Santo Ignacio River, also in Minas Gerais. Each property is around 2 hectares—nearly five acres—and licensed for diamond exploration.

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Coromandel is known for large stones with high clarity that are brown or colorless to near-colorless. The brown stones can be turned colorless by a high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) enhancement process. The GAR mines along the Abaeté River mostly contain smaller diamonds, but they have produced some large top-quality pinks.

Important stones GAR has mined in Coromandel include a 263 ct rough diamond that yielded two 70 ct pear shapes, both H color. Coromandel also produced a 140 ct rough that yielded a 10 ct E-color and a 56 ct H-color diamond, both with high clarity. Although the Abaeté River is the better-known source for pink diamonds, Coromandel has also produced some specimens, including a 21 ct Fancy Intense pink rough crystal.

At the Abaeté River, GAR has recovered a 26 ct crystal that yielded a 12.60 ct Fancy Intense purplish pink cushion shape. The company also found a 7 ct rough diamond that produced a 4.24 ct Vivid pink. Colorless stones from these mines weigh 10 ct or less. It is believed that the Abaeté River has supplied some of the most important pink to red diamonds to come on the market in the last 50 years.

The entire length of the river, where GAR Minerals’ properties stretch approximately 40 km along the bank, has considerable diamond potential. GAR is a fourth-generation family-owned business. Company officials anticipate their Abaeté River properties will remain productive for at least another two generations.

I visited a GAR mine near the Abaeté on a working farm owned by the family. Getting there from the town of Três Marias required driving on a dirt road and then crossing a swaying suspension bridge on foot. Like other GAR properties, it is an alluvial deposit with diamond-bearing gravel. This entails small open-pit operations in which excavators remove the gravel all the way down to bedrock and load it into trucks for careful examination. Because diamonds are denser than most other materials in the gravel, depressions indicate where valuable concentrations might be found. Once an area is mined down to the bedrock, operations continue by following the alluvial gravel along the riverbed.

Trucks then haul the diamond-bearing gravel to a processing (or washing) plant, where diamonds are separated from the gravels and other minerals, often referred to as overburden. The processing plant uses a feeder to bring the gravel into an automated system. There it is washed with a water cannon before separation. A vibrating screen then removes coarse material, and sluices transport the remaining gravel to a worker who washes it by hand while a sorter sifts through the material looking for the occasional diamond.

In an effort to restore areas damaged by open-pit mining, GAR has implemented a formal plan to refill the pits, while following guidelines set forth by an environmental impact study. @chapter:1


Publication Year: 1984 Title: Magnetic Properties of Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds Abstract: Measurements of the magnetic properties of four gem-quality synthetic diamonds indicate that higher levels of permanent magnetism can be induced in the synthetics than could be induced in a number of gem-quality natural stones. As received, the colored and included synthetics showed much higher levels of magnetism than the natural stones, but one near-colorless synthetic had less magnetism than many of the natural stones. Most of the magnetism of the natural stones is due to surface contamination, which can only be removed by rigorous acid cleaning. After cleaning, the natural diamonds were not only less magnetic than all of the synthetic stones, but they were also more resistant to demagnetization. Significant levels of metallic impurities were detected in most of the synthetics. These results on a limited number of samples suggest that natural diamonds can be distinguished from synthetics on the basis of their magnetic properties, but that in the case of near-colorless, inclusion-free stones, such tests may require sophisticated instrumentation. @chapter:35


Publication Year: 1997 Title: Applications of Geophysics in Gemstone Exploration Abstract: Advances in geophysical technology and computer imaging now permit mapping of geologic features at various depths beneath the Earth’s surface in more detail than ever before. Geophysical methods, which for some years have been used to explore for diamonds (and many other minerals), also hold promise as important tools in both exploration for new colored stone deposits and assessment of known deposits. Particularly exciting are the use of seismic-reflection and radar-imaging techniques for high-resolution mapping of near-surface pegmatites, veins, metamorphic layering in crystalline rocks, and alluvial deposits in sedimentary rocks. These techniques can produce images of regions only a few centimeters to a few meters in size down to several meters to tens of meters below the surface. Thus, it is now possible to locate directly some buried structures containing gem deposits. @chapter:23


Publication Year: 2000 Title: Gem-Quality Haüyne from the Eifel District, Germany Abstract: Haüyne is a rare mineral and an extremely rare gemstone. Recently, the authors studied a large number of faceted haüynes from the Eifel district of Germany. The R.I. and S.G. data were consistent with those reported in the literature, and the samples’ identity was confirmed by Raman spectrometry, with the key maxima at 543 and 988 cm-1. EDXRF analyses revealed potassium and iron, as well as the major and minor elements expected in haüyne. Although mineral inclusions were uncommon, apatite and augite were identified, and negative crystals (often surrounded by healed fractures) were seen in approximately one-third of the stones. Short needles and fine, dust-like particles were present in about half the samples. Paraffin wax was identified in some open fissures. @chapter:1


Publication Year: - Title: CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamonds, Part 1: History Abstract: Dating back to the 19th century, there have been many claims for creating diamond in a lab. For many years, the conventional wisdom was that diamond would form only under conditions of high pressure and high temperature (HPHT). Indeed, the first commercially available “manmade” diamond was produced at high pressure and high temperature by General Electric in 1956. HPHT growth imitates natural diamond formation, but with carefully selected input materials to catalyze crystal growth. Today, billions of carats of diamonds are manufactured annually by the HPHT process, mostly for industrial applications.

In 1954, two years before the announcement of HPHT synthesis, a patent was issued for another type of diamond growth: the CVD (chemical vapor deposition) process. Early reports of gem-quality CVD synthetic diamond were greeted with skepticism and not verified until many years later. In the late 1980s, scientists with a highly advanced understanding of the technique discovered how to reproducibly grow diamond using the CVD process.

The CVD process is quite different from natural diamond formation. It produces diamond from a heated mixture of a hydrocarbon gas (typically methane) and hydrogen in a vacuum chamber at very low pressures. Under normal circumstances, heating this mixture at such low pressures would produce graphite or some other non-diamond form of carbon. But in a CVD growth chamber, some of the hydrogen is converted to atomic hydrogen, which promotes diamond formation since diamond is more stable in this environment. The conversion of molecular hydrogen to atomic hydrogen is accomplished through methods such as the application of microwave energy, an electric discharge, or hot filaments. When atomic hydrogen is present in the gas phase, two chemical processes occur:

(1) Graphite and other non-diamond carbon react with the atomic hydrogen and evaporate in a newly formed gas phase.
(2) Atomic hydrogen reacts with the original hydrocarbon gas (methane) to form a highly reactive carbon-hydrogen species. When this species decomposes, it gives up its hydrogen to form pure carbon: diamond.

To produce a gem-quality synthetic diamond, a diamond seed crystal (natural, HPHT, or CVD in origin) is introduced into the gas mixture, at an elevated temperature of 900 to 1200°C. The activated carbon-hydrogen species travels across the surface of the diamond seed until it finds an available carbon atom, and then attaches itself to this seed atom. The seeded growth is now one carbon atom thicker. This process repeats itself endlessly to replicate the crystal structure of the diamond seed crystal in three dimensions.

	Figure 1. This photo shows the growth of colorless diamond, approximately 1 mm thick, on a yellow HPHT-grown diamond seed.
Figure 1 shows the growth of colorless diamond on a yellow HPHT-grown diamond seed. This particular crystal is approximately 1 mm thick. Thicker crystals can be produced by extending the growth time, either by leaving the crystal in the growth chamber or by removing the seed, inspecting it, and returning it to the chamber for additional growth. To date, diamond crystals 3 to 5 mm thick have been grown and fabricated into gemstones. One of the subtleties of seeded CVD growth is that even though it can produce thick growth vertically, lateral growth is limited by quality considerations. Thus the seed diameter must be at least as large as the desired diameter of the final gemstone. Each new gem growth requires a seed crystal, so either the seed must be reclaimed and reused, or growth capacity must be set aside to continuously manufacture seeds.

The earliest CVD growth chambers enabled growth on only one seed at a time. Although reactor seed capacity is a closely guarded industrial secret, some CVD manufacturing systems are reportedly capable of growing on 50 or more seeds simultaneously. That number is expected to increase in the future.

	Figure 2. CVD-grown cut and polished synthetic diamonds.
CVD synthetics are cut and polished in the same manner as natural diamonds, at the same cost. The stones can be laser inscribed on the girdle to allow easy preliminary identification. Figure 2 shows typical CVD-grown cut and polished synthetic diamonds.

In the next installment of this series, we will look at the properties of CVD synthetic diamonds. @chapter:15


Publication Year: - Title: Fall 1990 G&G Book Reviews Abstract: “Emeralds of Pakistan: Geology, Gemology and Genesis”
Edited by Ali H. Kazmi and Lawrence W. Snee, 269 pp., illus., publ. by the Geological Survey of
Pakistan and Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1989. US$39.95

“The Jewelry Design Source Book”
By P. Bayer, V. Becker, H. Craven, P. Hinks, R. Lightbrown, J. Ogden, and D. Scarisbrick, 192 pp., illus., publ.by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989. US$39.95

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:1


Publication Year: 2017 Title: “Flower in the Rain” Inclusion in Sri Lankan Sapphire Abstract: Reminiscent of a flower in a rainstorm, this inclusion scene has been dramatically enhanced using modified Rheinberg illumination to accentuate a growth blockage and thin-film rosette within a sapphire from Elahera, Sri Lanka. Photomicrograph by Jonathan Muyal; field of view 1.34 mm.

The island of Sri Lanka is famous for gems but is also notable for its enormous biodiversity. It therefore seemed fitting that when these authors encountered a fascinating inclusion reminiscent of a beautiful flower within a Sri Lankan sapphire, it would embody these themes.

This 3.64 ct blue sapphire specimen from Elahera exhibited an interesting growth blockage resulting in an elongate tube capped by a rosette-like thin-film fluid inclusion. To further enhance the inclusion scene, Rheinberg illumination (Fall 2015 Micro-World, pp. 328–329) using blue and yellow filters provided additional contrast. This lighting technique transformed the inclusion scene into an easily imagined, vibrantly colored flower caught in a rainstorm, something one might encounter while visiting the tropical island nation (see above).

Growth blockages occur when a foreign mineral grain or particle interrupts the growth of a crystal (Spring 2010 Lab Notes, pp. 55–56). As the crystal continues to grow, an elongate void is typically produced, which may extend to the surface or be capped off, as seen in this sapphire. Even though a growth blockage is not diagnostic of Sri Lankan origin in sapphire, this inclusion scene is an appropriate symbolic representation of the “resplendent isle.” @chapter:19


Publication Year: 2002 Title: Fall 2002 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Australia’s Ellendale Diamond Mine Opens
Colored Stones and Organic Materials
            Aquamarine and Spessartine from Tanzania
            Brown Beryl from Mozambique
            Yellowish Green and Green Chrysoberyl from Ilakaka, Madagascar
            “Tashmarine”: Diopside from Central Asia
            Carved Emeralds from the Malagana Archeological Site in Colombia
            Hemimorphite from Congo
            Jeremejevite from the Erongo Mountains, Namibia
            New Morganite Mine in Madagascar
            Update on Some Namibian Gem localities
            Some Interesting New Opals from Brazil
            Bicolored Spessartine from Brazil
            Pink/Yellow Spodumene from Afghanistan
Synthetics and Simulants
            Some Glass Imitations Encountered in Namibia
            Plastic and Steel Pearl Imitations
Miscellaneous
            Gem Cutting Factories in Namibia
Conference Reports
            Gemstone Deposits of Colorado and the Rocky Mountain Region
            Gemological Reports at Namibian Geological Conference
Announcements
            Yearly Updates to the G&G “Twenty Year” Index
            New Map of Russian Gem Resources
Conferences
            Australian Diamond Conference Scheduled for December in Perth
            ICA Congress Will Occur in Jaipur, India, in January 2003
Exhibits
            GIA Museum Exhibits in Carlsbad
            Events at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History
            Gems at the Bowers Museum Extended

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:1


Publication Year: - Title: GIA’s Museum Team Creates Magic for New York Campus Abstract: GIA Museum Curator Terri Ottaway with the rock crystal quartz specimens that serve as the foundation for the newest display at GIA’s campus in New York City. Photo by McKenzie Santimer

	How do you “wow” people who have seen it all?

	That was the question on McKenzie Santimer’s mind in 2014 as she began to think about how to transform a feature case at GIA’s New York campus into a display that would “engage, inspire and promote the gem and jewelry industry."

	Santimer, GIA’s manager of exhibits and in-kind gifts, and Terri Ottaway, GIA museum curator, knew stopping students in their tracks would be no small order. The Institute’s New York campus is perched in the heart of the city’s Diamond District on 47th Street, near the high-end displays of Fifth Avenue.

	Students walk by dazzling displays every day on their way to class.

	On top of that, the GIA museum team is based at the Institute’s Carlsbad, California, world headquarters. Nearly all of the planning for this exhibit would take place 3,000 miles from its installation site.

	A newly released time-lapse video by GIA shows how the pair meticulously constructed a display full of award-winning diamonds, huge rock crystal quartz, unusual carved gems and pieces of jewelry representing some of the most recognizable and influential eras of design.

	“It’s a slice of Carlsbad on the East Coast,” Santimer says. “We brought things to New York that you otherwise couldn’t see there.”

McKenzie Santimer, GIA’s manager of exhibits and in-kind gifts, says the ambient light in the student commons made it a challenge to “create drama” in the oversized, two-sided glass display case. Santimer is confident the exhibit will “wow Fifth Avenue walkers.” Photo by Terri Ottaway

	Design, Operational Challenges

	While the team made two years’ worth of planning look effortless, their behind-the-scenes work was anything but.

	“It’s not glamorous,” says Santimer, recounting the logistics and minutiae involved with any museum exhibit. There is the enormous task of object sourcing, as well as layouts and taping, label writing, and shipping and installation concerns. They also need to secure insurance policies that protect important pieces while they are en route and once they arrive at their destination.

	In Carlsbad, Santimer and Ottaway have some access to support staff, and a rotunda that lends itself to thematic displays that can be constructed during regular work hours. In New York, however, extra staff was limited and both ambient lighting and the double-sided glass feature case presented unusual design challenges. Nearly every aspect of the work would simply take more coordination.

	On the other hand, the space at GIA in New York presented some exciting opportunities.

	GIA occupies three floors of the two and a half-year old International Gem Tower. The eighth floor houses the education department and is accessible exclusively to the 150-plus New York students, staff and VIP visitors. There are several classrooms, a library, locker rooms and a student lounge, all with what Santimer describes as a “modern zen” aesthetic.

	“It’s a special experience for students to be there, and is almost a sanctuary and juxtaposition of the loud, vibrant city that’s just outside,” she says.

	Within that commons area is the feature display case: 20 feet long, 16 inches wide and 30 inches tall, the case is lined on one side by a hallway, and by chairs and a student lounge on the other.

McKenzie Santimer describes the student commons at GIA as having a “modern zen” aesthetic. It’s “almost a sanctuary” in the city, she says.  Photo by McKenzie Santimer

	“Students can pull up to the bar, plug in their laptops and have a cup of coffee right in front of it,” says Santimer. “It’s beautiful, but because of the two visible sides, it is a real challenge for a curator and designer to make it pretty from both viewpoints. And because of the ambient lighting, it’s very challenging to create drama.”

	The exhibit, the second in that space, would complement the already-installed 15 small, education-focused wall niche exhibits lining the hallways of the eighth floor.

	Museum Exhibit InstallationNew York Campus

	Gemological Treasures from the GIA Museum

	Though there was no formal theme, Santimer and Ottaway decided to play to GIA’s strengths and zero in on gemology.

	The pair began by replacing the petrified wood and bamboo from the previous exhibit and replacing it with a foundation of 783 carats of rock crystal and smoky quartz. They acquired the American-mined minerals – the largest of which weighs 75,000 grams and measures 12 x 9 x 7.5 inches – from the Ron Coleman Mining Company in Hot Springs, Arkansas in 2014 at the Tucson gem and mineral shows.

	“The quartz was our canvas, and buying it was a great opportunity,” Santimer says. “There aren’t many minerals large enough to fill a display this big, and there aren’t a lot of them that are pretty on both sides. Quartz crystals grow large, and it’s a mineral that we knew everyone would recognize. Terri and I see possibilities everywhere, so when we came across these crystals in Tucson, we immediately thought, ‘This would work!’”

	Next, Santimer and Ottaway decorated the quartz with a combination of 44 pieces, 29 of which are jewelry, objet d'art, and loose gemstones, from the GIA Collection.

	“We had to ask ourselves what was going to pop and stand out against the quartz,” Santimer says. “So we broke it up into smaller vignettes and motifs, based on different periods, colors and themes.

	We used 88 total carats of diamond jewelry and a smattering of art deco, contemporary and Victorian pieces, as well as unusual carved gems such as a star sapphire. There are DeBeers-award-winning pieces and organic pieces like a cow bone brooch.”

	There is also avant-garde jewelry from Brazilian designers, South Sea pearl necklaces and snake bracelets – one made of Victorian-style jet beads, the other of 15K gold.

	The quartz pieces, in addition to serving as a foundation for the entire exhibit, represent the entire cycle of a quartz – from the rock crystals to a 202.80-gram sword-shaped letter opener and “The Cyclops,” an 8,783.50-ct flawless, colorless natural quartz gemstone with a round brilliant-cut pavilion and a step-cut crown.

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	Since the commons area is in use during the week, Santimer and Ottaway had to work back-to-back weekends, and set up a staging area in an unused classroom. And since only one side of the feature case has doors, they had to creatively fit themselves into awkward spaces and narrow openings during the installation.

	As the time-lapse video shows, the scope of their task was large, but resulted in a one-of-a-kind exhibit.

	“We had very high expectations and are very proud of this display,” says Santimer, who is already thinking about how to “up the ante” when it comes down in two to three years. “We feel like this exhibit is perfectly at home in New York and are confident that we could ‘wow’ even Fifth Avenue walkers.” @chapter:34