Publication Year: - Title: Richard T. Liddicoat’s Giving, Humble Spirit Abstract: Liddicoat was known for his giving spirit and is remembered for his unselfish desire to educate, inspire and help others. Photo by GIA

Editor’s note:  Richard T. Liddicoat, GIA’s second president, passed away in 2002. This article, based in large part on the reminisces of Mr. Liddicoat’s longtime friends, colleagues and family, was originally published in a fall 2002 special supplement to The Loupe, at the time GIA’s quarterly industry magazine. We celebrate his life and spirit on his March 2 birthday each year.

It never took long for Richard T. Liddicoat’s colleagues at GIA to hear he had arrived at the Institute’s Carlsbad campus. Slowly, but surely, news of his occasional visits trickled down through the offices and cubicles and even to those passing in the hallways.

If you were lucky, your path crossed with his and you were guaranteed a warm and sincere greeting from the man so many admired – professionally and personally – and rightfully so.

Liddicoat wasn’t tall in stature, but he was undisputedly a giant in the gem and jewelry industry. His greatest contributions included creating the internationally recognized diamond grading system and penning ground-breaking books such as the Handbook of Gem Identification in 1947 and the Jewelers’ Manual in 1964. He also willingly and unselfishly shared his vast knowledge of gemology one-on-one and through GIA’s education courses and seminars.

Known around the world as the Father of Modern Gemology, Liddicoat is credited with “making many a jeweler into a gemologist through his training,” says Herb Lewis, a close friend for more than 40 years.

It’s who Liddicoat was as a human being, however, that won the hearts of countless individuals he came across in his lifetime. The people who knew him best outside of the office say he was humble, gentle, friendly, fun, a leader, a sports nut, a people person and a true gentleman.

A Good Friend
One of his favorite pastimes was playing golf with his close friends on Saturday mornings. Lewis, past president of the Jewelers 24 Karat Club, shared many rounds of golf with Liddicoat throughout their long friendship. He said he was a good golfer, but that it was a good thing Liddicoat had gemology to fall back on.

“I can assure you that if Dick and I had to make a living playing golf we would have starved,” Lewis says. “He wasn’t a championship golfer, but he played for the fun of it and the companionship.”

Liddicoat typically mixed business with pleasure when he met with the Over the Hill Gang, a select group of friends he had lunch with every month.

Former GIA President Glenn Nord organized the group of Liddicoat’s buddies that included Al Woodill, Robert Westover, Gene Laroff and later George Findley Jr., and others. Laroff, who knew Liddicoat for 35 years, says he could always count on him to tell funny stories over a glass of Chardonnay or two when the Gang got together.

But he never talked about himself, Laroff says.

“In those meetings, it was very difficult to get him to talk about what he was doing. He always asked about other people and wanted to know what was going on in the industry,” he says. “He never even talked about his golf score, whether it was good or bad.”

Laroff, past president of the Jewelers 24 Karat Club of Southern California, recalled a story that epitomized Liddicoat’s selflessness and desire to be around his good friends during a speech at Liddicoat’s memorial service at GIA’s Carlsbad campus in August.

“One luncheon Dick showed up looking like he had been in major automobile accident,” he says. “His whole face was all swollen and he had bandages over his nose and his eyes were black and blue.

“Finally, after that first glass of Chardonnay, I said, ‘Dick, what happened?’ And he said, ‘Oh I had a minor surgery.’ See, if he had an ego he wouldn’t have left his home, right? No one would have left their house looking like he did. But he did because he didn’t want to miss being with his pals.”

A Talented Dancer
As much as Liddicoat admired his buddies, he also had his fair share of female admirers. He loved music from the big band era, was a talented dancer, and could often be found on the dance floor at industry parties.

“You could always count on him being the last person on the dance floor,” says Kathryn Kimmel, vice president of Marketing at GIA.

Longtime friend and dancing partner Barbara Westwood remembers how special Liddicoat made her and others feel.

“In terms of ‘girlfriends’ I’d say, ‘just get in line’ because women loved Dick Liddicoat,” she says. “He was childlike … innocent. I never felt intimidated around him. He always made you feel comfortable.

He made others feel more important than him, strangely enough,” Westwood says. “Whenever I’d see him I’d just run up to him and give him a big hug. He was just a wonderful man.”

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An Explorer at Heart
Out of all his female friends, Ethel Mae “Emae” Bradbury held a truly special place in Liddicoat’s heart. She was his close friend and companion for the last five years of his life – accompanying him to events and spending time together to talk about virtually everything, Bradbury says.

The two had known each other since the late 1950s when Liddicoat befriended Emae’s husband after meeting him on the golf course. They maintained a friendship after their mutual spouses passed away, but the relationship became more involved in recent years as they began to see more of one another.

“It was a gradual thing. There really wasn’t a ‘moment’ (when the relationship changed),’ Bradbury says. “We just kept seeing each other more and more. It was one of those things that sort of grew. It was delightful because he was such good company.”

She says Liddicoat was an explorer at heart, which he displayed when they would go to Santa Barbara to relax. Even on vacation, he didn’t like to stay in one place.

“It wasn’t a question of sitting on the beach,” Bradbury says. “He always wanted to get out and see things, like drive through the country or go to a museum. Exploring was his first love. If you could put him out on a pile of dirt someplace where he could pick around and find things, he was happy. He loved to go out and rock hound.”

At home, however, you could count on him being glued to the television watching football or basketball, Bradbury says.

“He was a sports nut,” she says. “Of course, with his mind, he knew everyone that had been traded and who was doing what. He loved college football, too, and he always rooted for (his alma mater) University of Michigan.”

A Sharp Wit
Liddicoat was also known for his wry sense of humor. Family member Hilary White, who spoke at his memorial service, remembers when he’d come over for dinners at her mother’s house.

“He will forever be noted for his dry sense of humor, so dry that the jokes and puns puzzled more than amused,” she says.

Nord says his normally good-good natured friend with a “pure spirit” sometimes revealed a side of himself most people didn’t know about, although it was always in good fun.

“He had a little streak of mischief that ran down his spine… just a little bit,” Nord explains. “He always liked a good joke.”

Liddicoat couldn’t help but put his boyish mischief to use when he landed a short-term job right out of college, Laroff said. He was hired to drive a truck carrying explosives from Louisiana to Texas. The vehicle was labeled with signs that read “explosives,” including one spelled backwards over the grill so people ahead of him could read it in their rear view mirror.

Liddicoat drove up closely behind cars in front of him to see what reaction he would get.

“He’d get a big kick out of that,” Laroff says. “He’d just pull up behind a car and he said they’d either pull over or just gun it. To him, that was fun. He had a great sense of humor.”

A Giving Spirit
Liddicoat will perhaps best be remembered by those close to him for his unselfish desire to educate, inspire and help others. He shared his knowledge of gemology freely whenever asked.

It wasn’t rare for Liddicoat to arrive late to meetings because he was detained helping a student with a question, Lewis says. He was a mentor for a countless number of people in the industry, including GIA President William E. Boyajian, G.G., who credits him for helping to shape his values and career through advice and inspiration.

“I don’t think anyone can truly walk in Mr. Liddicoat’s footsteps,” Boyajian says. “He was, in my mind, a giant in the industry and a true hero of gemology. I believe that if inspiration is any measure of a person’s influence as a leader, then Mr. Liddicoat was a leader of great repute.”

Nord highlighted a particular example of Liddicoat’s giving spirit during the memorial service.

“After about three years at the Institute, Dick was very concerned that (my wife) Hanna and I didn’t have our own home – we were living in an apartment with our two children,” he says. “He was determined that we should have a home, but we were not financially in a position to buy a home (at the time). But Dick, again, was determined. He said, ‘Glenn, go out and find a home. Find something you like.’

“We finally found one we really liked, but it was really out of our league. I went back to the Institute and told him … he said, ‘You get the home.’ And he reached for the telephone and called the local banker and he said, ‘Glenn Nord is going to be over there in a few moments and he’s going to want some money. You give him whatever he wants and I’ll come over and co-sign for it’

“That was Dick Liddicoat,” Nord says. “He was an incredible guy and the things he did for people were just impossible to imagine.”

It may be impossible to ever replicate the accomplishments and example set forth by Liddicoat.

A man with a “great mind, an incredible work ethic and one who never had a big ego,” as Laroff describes him, Liddicoat was a guiding light to many and a precious friend to many more.

His death on July 23 marked the end of an incredibly influential career of a true legend who was loved and admired by all members of the gem and jewelry industry. His contributions and the family and friends he touched throughout his life, however, will not be forgotten, says Michael Clary, GIA Gem Trade Laboratory supervisor.

“It is said that when all great men die, their greatness dies with them. But I believe his greatness will continue. It will continue in all of us he influenced.”

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Publication Year: - Title: Optical Effects of Phenomenal Cabochons Abstract: Spectrolite, the trade name for labradorite from Finland, exhibits the phenomenon labradorescence − a broad flash of color across the surface caused by the internal structure of the stone. Similar to flashes of color in the Northern Lights, the blue and green hues in this spectrolite are fantastic. Left: labradorite from Madagascar.  Center and right: spectrolite from Finland. Courtesy of Black Star Trading Company, Flagstaff, Arizona. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

The definition of a phenomenon as “an object or aspect known through the senses,” according to Webster’s dictionary, might explain why some gemstones are called phenomenal. Or it could be because these gems are “exceptional, unusual or abnormal.”

In reality, however, it is how the structure, inclusions and properties of these gemstones interact with light to return an unusual visual effect, or phenomenon, in the parlance of gemology, that make them phenomenal.

Regardless, we experience these gemstones as fascinating and recognize that they are, in fact, extraordinary.

There are several varieties of opal: black, white, crystal, jelly, boulder and boulder matrix, to name a few. Opals can be found in Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia. This black opal cabochon has excellent play-of-color, brightness and pattern. Courtesy of Lightning Ridge Opal, Glendora, California. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Phenomena Caused by Structure
Opal, labradorite and moonstone form in microscopic layers of material that are successively stacked upon each other, giving rise to phenomena based on these unique structures. When light interacts with the different structures of gem material it causes flashes of color.
Let’s see how their different structures interact with light properties.

Opal is made up of millions of tiny silica spheres stacked in layers and held together by a mixture of slightly different silica and water. When light interacts with the silica spheres, a diffraction of light causes flashes of spectral colors. These colors depend on the size of the silica spheres. Smaller spheres produce blue to green spectral colors and larger spheres produce red. This phenomenon is called play-of-color.

Labradorite is formed by alternating layers of two feldspars that have different chemical compositions. When light interacts with labradorite, the diffraction of light causes the phenomenon known as labradorescence. The perceived colors are dependent on the thickness of the alternating layers and their refractive indices.

Moonstone is composed of two different types of feldspars that vary in thickness and regularity. In moonstone, the light is scattered in many directions giving it the characteristic cloudy bluish-white light, known as adularescence.

Iridescence happens when light passes through a thin, transparent film that has a different refractive index from the surrounding material. The color patterns in soap bubbles or on a thin film of oil on water are examples of iridescence. Pearl nacre and mother-of-pearl can have just the right structure to display iridescent optical effects. Orient is a special term used to describe pearl iridescence.

This chrysoberyl ring features a very fine cat’s-eye, which visually divides the cabochon in half and reflects a light and dark color called “milk and honey.” These attributes make the cat’s-eye chrysoberyl a collector gemstone. Courtesy Richard Krementz Gemstones. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Phenomena Caused by Inclusions
A star or cat’s eye is the type of phenomena caused by inclusions of tiny bands of parallel needles or hollow tubes. When the bands of needles or hollow tubes are parallel, it’s called chatoyancy or cat’s eye. When they cross, a star is formed, called asterism. For best results in star and cat’s eye material, the base of the cabochon should be cut parallel to the inclusions to produce an even effect across the dome of the cabochon. Many gemstones possess the phenomena of chatoyancy and asterism: chrysoberyl, ruby, sapphire, spinel, garnet, tourmaline, diopside and quartz are examples.
Aventurescence is a type of phenomena caused by light reflecting from small, eye-visible, plate-like inclusions of copper or sometimes hematite inclusions in sunstone feldspar. (In sunstone feldspar the aventurescence is also known in the trade as schiller). In aventurine quartz, spangles of green mica produce the glittery effect and may also give the gem its perceived body color.

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Phenomena Caused by Light Properties
Color change is another type of phenomena that occurs most dramatically in alexandrite. Chromium causes alexandrite’s color, which accounts for a close balance between red and green, varying with the type of viewing light. The finest Russian alexandrites appear green in daylight and under fluorescent light. Under incandescent light, alexandrites appear red. This phenomenon coined the romantic phrase “emerald by day, ruby by night.” Although alexandrite, named after the Russian tsar Alexander II, is the most valued color change gem, certain sapphire, spinel and garnet varieties can also show color change.
Why Are Some Gems Fashioned as Cabochons?
The term cabochon comes from the French word “caboche,” meaning “head” and refers to a gemstone that has been shaped and polished as opposed to faceted. It is also common to carve softer stones as cabochons since minute scratches show much less on a cabochon than on a faceted stone.
Light properties and opacity — the ability of light to pass through the gem, are the main factors that come into play when deciding how to cut a gemstone. If a gemstone is opaque it is usually fashioned as a cabochon. Stones with asterism and chatoyancy are cut as domed cabochons to best portray the fine, needle-like inclusions that produce these two phenomena, which would otherwise not be visible in a faceted cut.

The final decision ultimately falls on the lapidary artist or the client’s preference, but they are often fashioned into cabochons to show them off to their best — phenomenal — advantage. @chapter:39


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Fossilized Drusy Shells – Tucson 2014 Abstract: Figure 1. A conglomerate of fossilized, drusy quartz-encrusted shells is shown in the host rock, along with several individual pieces that have been prepared for jewelry use. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Indus Valley Commerce.

              Tarun Adlakha (Indus Valley Commerce, New Delhi) exhibited fossilized shells replaced by chalcedony and encrusted with drusy quartz (figure 1). The shells are originally from a rare left-hand coil variety of gastropod that lived between 50 and 100 million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent was submerged under the ocean. Recovered from a hill in the Dhar region of Madhya Pradesh state in central India (figure 2), they were hammered, chiseled, and carefully removed by hand from rock.

	Figure 2. These fossilized drusy shells were found in rocks on a hill in central India. Photo courtesy of Tarun Adlakha.
According to Adlakha, these shells were called Dakshinavarti in ancient Sanskrit. The Hindu, Buddhist, and Tibetan cultures revere the left-hand coil gastropods for their metaphysical powers. Adlakha has trademarked this fossilized material as Spiralite Gemshells for use in jewelry. @chapter:40


Publication Year: - Title: Large, Rare Diamonds Reveal the Inner Workings of Earth’s Mantle Abstract: This is an extended abstract of the article ‘Large Gem Diamonds From Metallic Liquid in Earth’s Deep Mantle,’ published on December 16, 2016 in Science magazine. GIA Postdoctoral Research Fellow Evan Smith is the lead author of the article.

Large and exceptional gem diamonds like the famous Cullinan or Lesotho Promise tend to have a set of physical characteristics that distinguish them from other kinds of diamonds (fig 1). One of the most noted characteristics is a low nitrogen concentration, such that these diamonds are predominantly type II, although not all type II diamonds necessarily belong to this family. New research published in Science reveals that these Cullinan-like gems, dubbed "CLIPPIR" diamonds, tell us something remarkable about the deep earth1.

Figure 1: Rough CLIPPIR diamonds, from the Letseng mine, Lesotho, exemplifying large size (14 to 91 carats here), irregular shape and resorbed surfaces. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Gem Diamonds Ltd.
The new findings show that CLIPPIR diamonds may have grown from a metallic liquid in Earth’s deep mantle1. This iron-nickel metal is created and stabilized by the high pressure minerals in the deep mantle2,3. Although the amount of metal in these regions of the mantle is likely about 1% or less, it is expected to regulate and limit the availability of oxygen. The distribution and availability of oxygen is one of the key parameters governing the large-scale geologic evolution of the Earth4.

This discovery is based on inclusions. As explained in the article1, CLIPPIR diamonds tend to have few inclusions, especially in their cut and polished state, but sometimes they have small metallic inclusions trapped within them (fig 2). The metallic inclusions coexist with traces of fluid methane and hydrogen. In addition to the metallic inclusions, some CLIPPIR diamonds contain mineral inclusions that constrain the depth of origin. These inclusions show the diamonds formed at extreme depths, likely within 360–750 km in the convecting mantle. This is much deeper than most other gem diamonds, which form in the lower part of continental tectonic plates at depths of 150–200 km. This new explanation for CLIPPIR diamonds resolves one of the major enigmas in the study of diamond formation—how the world’s very best and biggest diamonds formed.

Figure 2: Polished CLIPPIR diamond (left) containing metallic inclusions. The metallic inclusions (right) are silvery in appearance and have black graphitic cracks extending from them.
The composition of the inclusions provides the story. The metallic inclusions are a solidified mixture of iron, nickel, carbon, and sulfur, also containing traces of fluid methane and hydrogen in the thin tiny space between the metallic phases and the encasing diamond1. Originally, this mix was a larger mass of molten metallic liquid in Earth’s deep mantle, from which the pure carbon crystallized to form diamonds. Small droplets of this metallic liquid were occasionally trapped within the diamonds as they grew. During cutting and polishing, parts of the diamond that contain inclusions are often trimmed off or polished away to craft exquisite gems with minimal flaws. These offcut waste diamond pieces are not normally made available for research, but a special effort was made to obtain offcuts study the inclusions in this investigation. Diamonds are one of the most valuable scientific tools for studying the deep Earth, which is otherwise completely inaccessible and hidden from our view beneath the tectonic plates.

Previous experiments and theory have predicted for many years that parts of the deep mantle below about 250 km depth contain small amounts of metallic iron and have limited available oxygen2. Now, the metallic inclusions and their surrounding methane and hydrogen jackets in CLIPPIR diamonds provide consistent, systematic physical evidence to support this prediction. Though the extent of metal distribution is uncertain, this is a key observation for our understanding of the Earth and has broad implications for the behavior of the deep Earth, including the recycling of surface rocks into the convecting mantle, and the deep storage and cycling of carbon and hydrogen in the mantle through geologic time.

Through an arrangement with Science magazine, visitors to GIA.edu can access the full text of the article ‘Large Gem Diamonds From Metallic Liquid in Earth’s Deep Mantle’ from this webpage.

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Publication Year: - Title: Basel GemFest: Synthetic Diamonds Getting Better, But so is Detection Abstract: Dr. Simon Lawson and Dr. Wuyi Wang discussed synthetic diamonds and detection during the GIA-sponsored GemFest at the Baselworld show. Photo by GIA

                      Experts from GIA and De Beers joined together at the March 2015 Baselworld exhibition to assure a concerned diamond and jewelry industry that the means exist to detect and identify all synthetic diamonds, even those as small as .01 carats (ct.). During the GIA-sponsored GemFest, they also detailed research efforts that will enable labs to continue identifying such stones in the future.

Dr. Simon Lawson, head of technologies UK for De Beers’ research, and Dr. Wuyi Wang, director of research and development for GIA, discussed the two major types of synthetic diamonds in the market and the technologies used to identify them. They also described devices such as GIA DiamondCheck and De Beers’ Automated Melee Screening (AMS) device, DiamondSure and DiamondView, which are used to identify potentially synthetic diamonds.

After Lawson detailed how natural diamonds formed more than 60 miles beneath the Earth’s surface 900 million to 3.5 billion years ago, he and Wang described how High Pressure and High Temperature (HPHT) and Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) synthetic diamonds are created in laboratories.

HPHT synthetics, which replicate the natural process of diamond formation, were the first synthetics, developed in the 1950s for industrial use. De Beers created its first gem quality synthetic in the 1980s for research.

HPHT synthetic diamonds are grown in a press with a chamber in the middle. A seed is placed at the bottom of the chamber, covered in a metal solvent catalyst. Graphite powder is placed above the metal solvent, and then the mixture is subjected to extreme pressure and temperatures of 1300 to 1500 degrees centigrade – somewhat higher than the heat that forms natural diamonds.

The different growth conditions between nature and the lab cause HPHT synthetics to form differently, mainly cubo-octahedral versus octahedral or dodecahedral in naturals. The process often leaves telltale metallic inclusions in the stone, some of which may cause it to be attracted to a magnet. These inclusions can be identified visually, though a microscope.

Other identifying characteristics include color zoning, particularly around the culet, which is related to the crystal’s growth characteristics, and distinctive greenish fluorescence.

Although observation may provide some indication that a diamond is synthetic, devices such as GIA’s DiamondCheck and De Beers’ DiamondSure and DiamondView use spectroanalysis, photoluminescence analysis and/or phosphorescence analysis to more definitively identify stones that are synthetic.

Lawson noted that the De Beers-developed DiamondView screening device can pinpoint the signatures of HPHT synthetic’s higher temperature growth and differing crystal structure. In addition, because these synthetics were subjected to high heat for several days instead of millions of years, De Beers’ other screening device, DiamondSure can detect differences in how nitrogen impurities are configured within the stone.

Wang added that several new producers are creating higher quality HPHT synthetics, including Fancy blues, colorless and fancy yellow diamonds. The largest fancy color HPHT synthetic GIA has examined to date was larger than 4 carats. A Russian producer, New Diamond Technology, has produced colorless and near-colorless HPHT synthetics as large as 5 carats, Wang noted, displaying a 5.19 ct.  K color I1 cut-cornered rectangular shape and a 4.30 ct. D color SI1 cushion shape.

The newer synthetic manufacturing process, CVD, has rapidly developed within the last decade. Gasses, usually methane and hydrogen, are heated by microwaves to form a plasma that deposits carbon atoms onto a substrate and crystallizes as diamond. After growth, the synthetic diamonds are sawn into cubes or cylinders.

Unlike HPHT synthetics, CVD stones have no distinctive inclusions, so, like HPHT synthetic diamonds, they can be screened out by use of infrared spectroscopy or the DiamondSure, which can detect their telltale absorption features. Definitive identification may then be made by the DiamondView, which reveals CVD diamonds’ distinctive fluorescence patterns. It was also noted that while annealing (high temperature heat treatment) of CVD can remove some characteristic spectroscopic emission lines, a silicon related impurity that is very common in currently available CVD stones  (and very rarely found in natural diamonds) is extremely difficult to remove.

Because CVD synthetics grow differently from natural diamonds, they show a distinctive striation pattern under magnification and have a distinct orange fluorescence. This color usually changes to green for diamonds that are annealed (heated at very high temperatures) after growth.

Wang pointed out that, while today’s market is still dominated by natural diamonds, the number of synthetics is increasing and their quality continues to improve, making disclosure necessary. Gem labs, he said, play a critical role in that disclosure.

As an example, he showed CVD synthetic diamonds, ranging from 0.10 to 0.30 carats, produced in 2003 that had a distinctive brown color. Within three years, producers learned to develop near colorless stones, and by 2011, they could obtain near-one-carat weight and near colorless products. Today, some near-colorless CVD’s are as large as 3 carats.

Wang also described how CVD producers can create fancy colored diamonds by controlling the levels of nitrogen in the growing process. He showed several examples of lab-grown brownish pink and pink diamonds. He also pointed out that CVD’s from different producers have distinct identification features of their own.

Lawson noted that De Beers continually refines its DiamondSure and DiamondView to improve detection capabilities, particularly as synthetic production methods change. The AMS, an automated version of DiamondSure, has been released to enable more economic testing of melee stones down to .01 ct.

Wang said the challenges to identify diamond synthetics can be significant, especially when they are mixed into parcels of melee. He displayed an image of a pendant with 104 very small fancy yellow diamonds, one of which was a synthetic weighing .004 carats.

He said GIA’s screening device, GIA DiamondCheck, can flag all potentially synthetic or treated diamond and non-diamond imitations from .01 to 10 carats. DiamondCheck employs spectroscopic analysis to provide rapid screening for colorless and yellow diamonds. The device can effectively screen pink diamonds as well, provided they are boiled in acid first to remove any possible coatings.  DiamondCheck also identifies HPHT treated natural diamonds, and non-diamond simulants.

DiamondCheck,  DiamondSure and AMS are rapid screening devices that flag potentially synthetic diamonds. The DiamondView presents more detailed spectral analyses that require review by a trained technician to determine if the diamonds are natural or synthetic.

Both researchers stressed the challenges posed by the continued improvement of synthetic diamonds in size, quality and ability to appear more natural. GIA scientists, more than 40 on staff, have been researching synthetic diamonds since the first gem quality specimens were created in 1971. They also stressed confidence that De Beers and GIA will be able to keep pace with these developments and be able to identify them accurately.

“Our research not only deepens the world’s understanding of gems, but protects those who buy or sell them,” Wang concluded.

	Dr. Simon Lawson, head of technologies for De Beers’ research, explained how natural diamonds form and how synthetic diamonds are created using the HPHT and CVD processes. Photo by GIA @chapter:31


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Yellow Synthetic Sapphire Colored by Trapped-Hole Mechanism Abstract: Figure 1. The UV-visible spectrum of this yellow sapphire shows broadband absorption features below ~500 nm, originating from trapped holes associated with Mg and Cr. The DiamondView image clearly displays curved bands (sub-parallel to the long direction of the stone under the table), indicating a synthetic origin. These curved bands are not seen with standard immersion, demonstrating the DiamondView’s effectiveness (the red color is due to the fluorescence of chromium). The stone’s CIE L*a*b* color coordinates are reproduced from the measured UV-visible spectrum.

              Natural sapphires with pale or lemon yellow color and no orange hue are traditionally associated with the chromophore Fe3+, which substitutes for aluminum in corundum. The New York laboratory recently received a 2.58 ct yellow emerald-cut stone (figure 1, inset), identified as sapphire by its RI and SG. But the desk-model spectroscope showed broadband absorption below ~500 nm without any of the Fe3+-related absorption features associated with yellow coloration (e.g., at 450 nm). Microscopic observation showed an exceptionally clean interior with only a small cluster of tiny particles that resembled gas bubbles from synthetic materials. The stone fluoresced medium orange to long-wave UV radiation and inert to short-wave UV.

The suspicious inclusion scene and the absence of diagnostic spectral features warranted additional testing. A standard immersion image failed to show any zoning or features. By contrast, a DiamondView image clearly revealed parallel curved bands characteristic of synthetic origin. Quantitative UV-visible spectra exhibited strong broadband absorptions in the blue and green regions and created a transmission window in the yellow spectral region (figure 1). Detailed chemical analysis via LA-ICP-MS was performed to identify chromophores and color origin. The elements Mg, Cr, and Ni were detected at trace levels (a few ppma). Naturally occurring elements such as Ga were not detected, further indicating synthetic origin. Trace Cr was confirmed both by red fluorescence and by laser photoluminescence spectra with 514 nm excitation, exhibiting a doublet at 692/694 nm and side bands.

A combination of trace-element analysis and UV-visible spectroscopy clearly indicated that the yellow color originated from the much more effective chromophore known as “trapped holes,” associated with the trace amount of Mg and Cr in this stone (J.L. Emmett et al., “Beryllium diffusion of ruby and sapphire, Summer 2003 G&G, pp. 84–134). By comparison, a sapphire colored by Fe3+ would only display a pale yellow coloration with a concentration above 500 ppma. This synthetic sapphire, however, showed no iron above the detection limit ( 1 ppma). The contribution of trace amounts of Ni is not well known.

Natural and synthetic sapphires colored by a trapped-hole mechanism often possess an orange or reddish orangy hue. This synthetic sapphire exhibited a yellow coloration much like those of samples colored by Fe3+. This example demonstrates that a clear understanding of chromophore contribution and the application of relevant advanced testing can reliably identify the cause of color as well as natural or synthetic origin. In this instance, the prominent curved growth supported the identification, but even without this feature a thorough understanding of the cause of color in sapphire can provide helpful identification clues. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 2010 Title: Synthetic Gem Materials in the 2000s: a Decade in Review Abstract: The first decade of the 2000s brought a constant flow of previously known synthetics into the marketplace, but little in the way of new technology. The biggest development was the commercial introduction of faceted single-crystal gem-quality CVD synthetic diamonds. A few other interesting and noteworthy synthetics, such as Malossi hydrothermal synthetic emeralds and Mexifire synthetic opals, also entered the market. Identification of synthetic gem materials continued to be an important function of—and, in some cases, challenge for—gemologists worldwide. @chapter:32


Publication Year: 2019 Title: "The Ethics of Jewelry" at MetFridays Abstract: Left to right: “Ethics of Jewelry” panelists Monique Péan, Karen Smit, and Patricia Syvrud joined moderator Ben Smithee at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. Photo by Stephen G. Strickland.

“The Ethics of Jewelry” panel (see above) was held on January 25, in conjunction with the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art’s temporary exhibit, “Jewelry: The Body Transformed,” which ran from November 2018 to February 2019. The exhibit featured an array of headdresses and ear ornaments, brooches and belts, and necklaces and rings, along with sculptures, paintings, prints, and photographs that amplify the many stories of transformation that jewelry tells. The 230 objects were drawn almost exclusively from the Met’s own collection and displayed the museum’s jewelry artifacts from ancient to contemporary times. “The Ethics of Jewelry” panel was part of the museum’s MetFridays evening series of concerts, classes, and presentations open to the public. The purpose was to discuss timely issues facing the world of jewelry today, including urgent questions about mined, lab-produced, and sustainable materials.
Panelists were Monique Péan, a New York–based jewelry designer who prides herself on using sustainable materials in her one-of-a-kind pieces that are sourced globally through fair trade initiatives; Karen Smit, a GIA research scientist who holds a PhD in diamond geology; and Patricia Syvrud, program development manager for the Minerals, Materials and Society program at the University of Delaware, and immediate past executive director of the World Diamond Council. The panel was moderated by Ben Smithee, CEO and founder of The Smithee Group, a digital strategy, content, and advertising firm.
The panel opened with introductions, where each speaker described a bit of his or her background and relevance to the event. Péan shared her travels to the far reaches of the globe, where she gets the inspiration and many unusual materials for her pieces, such as pyritized dinosaur bone, Peruvian opaline, and Scandinavian meteorite. Smit gave a scientific overview of natural versus synthetic diamonds, and Syvrud shared the progress of the Minerals, Materials and Society education and training program and related research projects.
Smithee asked the panelists for clarification of some terms that are frequently used but little understood when speaking of “ethical jewelry,” such as “responsible sourcing,” “sustainability,” and “conflict-free” diamonds and gold. Although the terms “ethical jewelry” and “responsible sourcing” can mean different things to different people, the term “sustainability” has a globally recognized definition that basically means “meeting the needs of today without compromising the needs of future generations.” The current definition of the term “conflict diamonds” is also globally recognized, according to a United Nations resolution, to mean “Diamonds that originate from areas controlled by forces or factions opposed to legitimate and internationally recognized governments…” However, this definition does not address the human rights issues of artisanal and small-scale mining. The conversation then moved to a comparison of responsibly sourced gold vs. gemstones and how technology such as blockchain can be integrated into supply chains to enhance transparency and sustainability in the jewelry sector.
The session concluded with a focus on the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) that takes place in the diamond, colored gemstone, and gold mining sectors. Although challenges related to human rights and environmental and social impacts remain, the benefits from ASM to local stakeholders and communities should be more widely shared. @chapter:34


Publication Year: 2014 Title: A Fitting Conclusion to Our 80th Anniversary Abstract: Welcome to the final issue of G&G’s 80th anniversary! Topics we’ve covered thus far include the Chinese and Sri Lankan gem and jewelry industries, beneficiation through Botswana’s diamond industry, three-phase inclusions in emerald, HPHT synthetic diamonds, Myanmar’s remarkable “Jedi” spinel, and pleochroism in colored gems.

In this Winter 2014 issue, three of our four articles focus on aspects of diamond. I was privileged to see the subject of one these papers up close: the Blue Moon diamond, prior to its exhibition at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. This spectacular gem was recovered from the Cullinan mine—formerly a De Beers operation—in early 2014. As such, it’s a piece of the story told in our first two articles, which respectively survey recent changes in rough diamond distribution with the growth of the auction system and review the Argyle mine’s exclusive pink diamond tenders, held annually since 1985.

Our lead article, by GIA senior industry analyst Russell Shor, discusses the sweeping changes brought to rough diamond pricing and supply through the adoption of tenders and live auctions by leading producers. He explains that current opinion is divided: Some advocate auctions as a more accurate reflection of rough diamond market values, while others fear they encourage volatility of prices and speculation.

Our second paper, by the GIA laboratory’s John King, Dr. Jim Shigley, and Claudia Jannucci, is a very timely one. The fall of 2014 marked the 30th edition of Argyle’s pink diamond tenders, the invitation-only auctions of the mine’s most prized gems. This paper offers an insightful review of each auction to date. Over the years, GIA has been in the fortunate position to grade these premium pink to red diamonds, and this article also presents a concise survey of the color, carat weight, and cutting style of the gems offered.

Next, Dr. Eloïse Gaillou of the Paris School of Mines, Dr. Jeffrey Post of the Smithsonian Institution, and their coauthors present a rare gemological study of the 12.03 ct Blue Moon diamond. Prior to its fashioning, this Fancy Vivid blue, internally flawless diamond set a record price for a rough gem, bringing US$25.6 million in early 2014.

In our final article, Dr. Le Thi-Thu Huong from the Hanoi University of Science and her coauthors deliver a preliminary study—contrasting FTIR and Raman spectrometry—on the topic of separating natural and synthetic emeralds using vibrational spectroscopy.

In addition to these four feature articles, you’ll find our regular Lab Notes and Gem News International sections. We’ve gathered a variety of GNI contributions in the winter issue, including entries on the first non-nacreous beaded cultured pearl described so far, a new Ethiopian black opal deposit, a beryl and topaz doublet set in fine jewelry, and demantoid garnet from a new deposit in Pakistan’s Baluchistan province. This last entry is coauthored by one of GIA’s new postdoctoral research associates, Dr. Aaron Palke. We’re also delighted to publish a letter from distinguished gemologist Dr. Karl Schmetzer offering comment on the summer edition’s emerald inclusion article.

As another year begins, we hope you find this issue a fitting conclusion to our 80th anniversary! @chapter:38


Publication Year: - Title: Visit to Zbird in Shanghai: Unlocking the Chinese Retail Diamond Industry Secrets Abstract: The retail company Zbird is synonymous in China with online sales of diamond and wedding jewelry. Photo courtesy of Zbird.

                      The story of Zbird is really the story of an amazing brother and sister partnership that built one of the most successful retail jewelry businesses in China. It is also the story of the evolution of the Chinese retail jewelry industry, and how this sibling pair not only seized opportunities but was also instrumental in setting the course of the industry. They have been a leading force in the internet diamond and wedding jewelry business in China. A GIA team had the opportunity to interview them both in Shanghai and to visit two of their retail stores.

	Zbird is known in China as a trend setter among diamond wedding jewelry styles and business models. Photo courtesy of Zbird.

	Starting Out : The Online Diamond Business in China
Zbird was founded in 2002. The company name is a combination of the names of the brother, Xu Lei, and his sister, Xu Xiao. Xu Lei’s Chinese name contains three characters that mean “stone,” which connects it to diamonds and gemstones. Xu Xiao’s English name is “bird,” which also connotes a highly efficient ecommerce business. The company’s name set the course of the business.

	Zbird has become a leader in China for online sales of diamond jewelry. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
When the company was founded, there was no EBay or Taobao, and only one online trading company called YiQu. Three months after posting its first loose diamond on the internet, Zbird had its first sale, which launched the online diamond business.

Xu Lei said that, at first, their biggest challenge was to inspire confidence in their customers. They were selling diamonds online at about half the price charged by most department stores in China. Zbird had to reassure potential clients about the quality of the diamonds they were offering for sale online. Since Xu Lei was a gemology major and GIA Diamonds graduate, he had confidence in the GIA grading system and the value of its diamond-grading reports.

In 2002, he rarely saw loose diamonds being sold with diamond grading reports. Most diamonds sold with reports were over 1 carat, while most diamonds sold in China were 30 points to 1 carat. Xu Lei decided to import diamonds in that size range with GIA grading reports. He said most dealers laughed at him at the time due to the cost difference but he was sure that the grading reports would add value.

	In China, most of the diamonds sold for engagement rings weigh less than one carat. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
Through the years, Chinese consumers became more educated about diamonds, and the reports became crucial to sales. Xu Lei believes that GIA reports play a very important role in today’s Chinese diamond market. Almost all online diamond dealers now sell loose diamonds with GIA reports as well as reports from other professional grading laboratories.

	“Clicks and Mortar”
According to Xu Xiao, Zbird pioneered the sales model they call “Clicks and Mortar” in the China retail diamond market. Clicks and Mortar combines the ease and speed of online sales with a physical offline experience. The internet makes it possible to combine a wide range of diamond products with fast, high-quality service. This makes it very popular with the younger generation, which is a very important demographic for Zbird’s business.

Most of their younger customers were introduced to Zbird through the internet, which provides Zbird with a convenient way to quickly contact and interact with their customers. The “mortar” portion of Clicks and Mortar encompasses what Zbird calls their Experience Stores, which provide customers with a real-world environment where they can physically connect with the brand and products.

	Zbird calls their retail stores Experience Stores. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
While the products offered for sale are often the same, there are shopping differences between online and Experience Stores. Customers looking for engagement and wedding rings are more likely to actually buy the ring in the Experience Store. Online customers tend to buy more personalized diamond jewelry like pendants, earrings, and other pieces that are less likely to require opinions from family members.

	Zbird designs their stores to provide a quality experience for the customer. In their retail stores, Zbird combines website choices with an actual salesperson presence. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
This explains why the per-transaction value of their online products is lower than in the store. More rings, especially engagement and wedding rings, are sold offline, while more diamond accessory jewelry is sold online. In 2007, Zbird received its first international venture-capital investment, which allowed for Experience Store expansion. Further venture-capital investment came in 2008 and 2010, helping to fuel 200% growth in the last few years.  Zbird currently has 15 Experience Stores in 14 cities, with approximately 500 employees to service the offline business.

	Customer Demographics
Zbird has worked hard for more than 11 years to develop their online business, which is why most of their customers are younger—ages 25 to 35—and so-called “white collar.” They became familiar with Zbird through the internet. Zbird was ranked number one in China for both quantity of jewelry sales and customer satisfaction, and their status has grown steadily. According to Google, Zbird is the internet’s most popular brand for diamond wedding rings in China. Zbird also uses the internet to make after-sale follow-up contacts with their customers and build long-term relationships.

Most of Zbird’s individual in-store wedding ring sales amount to about $10,000 RMB, about equal to a young man’s three-month salary. The average is a bit lower for internet purchases. The customers are often couples. They come in together to look at engagement and wedding rings, but it is usually the woman who makes the final choice.

When it comes to other diamond jewelry decisions, the woman almost always decides and often shops alone or on the internet. A woman might put the jewelry item on her online wish list for her boyfriend or husband to check and buy for her. Ultimately, however, it is the woman who makes the buying decision and women are the majority of Zbird’s customers.

	Xu Lei’s Vision of the Chinese Diamond Market
Xu Lei describes his vision of the Chinese diamond market’s potential with great enthusiasm:

	“China still has lots of potential because we have an enormously huge population base. Our population is three times that of the US. China’s internet-using population is equal to the population of the US. In terms of the market’s future, I think that the wedding jewelry market will still be very important. The VIP market is a new possibility for exploration, but we will keep focusing on the wedding jewelry market. In China, about 15 million couples get married every year. Thirty- to 50-point diamonds are the mainstream products for young Chinese couples. We know that this range in the US is 80 points to 1 carat. If young couples in China start buying larger diamonds, the market will double and it will soon catch up to the US. Moreover, current Chinese consumers are mostly made up of the so-called “white collar” group, who work in big cities. Although the tradition of diamond as the main wedding jewelry stone comes from the western world, the concept has deeply influenced Chinese couples and they have accepted it completely. So, along with white-collar workers, more and more young couples from rural areas will start buying diamonds as well. Zbird is ready to take on this market.”

	Xu Lei is in charge of maintaining a constant supply of high-quality diamonds for Zbird’s jewelry lines. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
Zbird places a lot of focus on the wedding jewelry market. Xu Lei feels the market has changed. He explains: “Before, couples would primarily pick a simple solitaire mounting in 18K and platinum with a center stone.” Today he sees more interest in design. He feels the design of the company’s wedding jewelry is one of the leading features attracting young customers today.

	Zbird’s Jewelry Designs and Lines
Xu Xiao says that Zbird’s design style is primarily contemporary. They offer jewelry themes such as their “Promise of Love” wedding ring line, a joint effort between Zbird and international designers. This series of wedding jewelry features flowers surrounded by diamonds and symbolizing lovers’ hugs and kisses. These themes are created for eye-catching effect and to add deeper meaning to the jewelry. They also market a diamond brand called “Aurora Borealis” for their top-cut-grade diamonds.

	The “Promise of Love” campaign has been very well received by the Chinese bridal market. Photo courtesy of Zbird.

	Zbird offers their top-cut-grade diamonds under the “Aurora Borealis” brand. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
Zbird offers classic and traditional jewelry along with its more fashion-forward designs. An example of the latter is called “Angels and Demons.” During the day at a typical white-collar office in China, a woman can wear the Angel design as a stylish diamond accessory. At night, she can wear the more edgy Demon design to after-work parties.

	“Angels and Demons” is a versatile jewelry design concept for day and evening wear. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
Besides style, another design consideration is cost. Today’s customers in China want expensive and elegant jewelry for formal occasions and less expensive, more fashion-forward pieces for casual wear. Xu Xiao says that Chinese customers generally prefer simpler and smaller jewelry pieces than customers in the West, and far less extravagant styles than customers in India.

Recently, Zbird’s chief designer worked with Platinum Guild International to jointly launch a series called “Two People One World.” There is a Chinese saying, “Fly next to each other,” which refers to two people moving through life together toward a better life. The style resembles a bird's wings to symbolize two people pursuing happiness in their lives. It also symbolizes the Zbird brand’s brother and sister team.

	Zbird works with Platinum Guild International to promote platinum bridal jewelry in China. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
Zbird also sells a series of personalized jewelry called “In Fashion,” which can convert into different styles to coordinate with different outfits, allowing every woman to find her own jewelry style. The Zbird slogan is “Shine for You,” and Xu Xiao strives to deliver that feeling to her customers in the company’s products and service.

Over the past 20 years, Chinese customers have come to realize the importance of jewelry design. Twenty years ago, jewelry was valued for just the quality of the components, and customers based their buying decisions on that. For example, if they wanted to buy a gold ring, they would pick a simple band. But now, with the promotion of fashion concepts, they don’t just want the material to be real and valuable, they want its design to reflect their personality and taste. This is why Zbird has been creating different styles beyond the classics.

	Today’s Chinese consumers look for both intrinsic value and design quality in jewelry. Zbird provides fancy-colored diamonds for their most discriminating customers. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
Zbird thinks that there has been a lot of progress in all aspects of Chinese jewelry design over the past 20 years. Xu Xiao feels that jewelry design in China is getting better in terms of originality. There are more and more opportunities and levels of artistic freedom for young designers. And the market is also more and more open to original product designs.

	Design and fashion sense have become important considerations for Chinese consumers looking for their own jewelry styles. Photo courtesy of Zbird.

	Customized Designs and VIP customers
Even with all these design choices, some customers still want unique custom jewelry that expresses their personalities and attitudes. To meet this need, Zbird has set up a platform for them to work with skilled designers and other professionals. This provides Zbird with many design options to appeal to a wide range of customers’ tastes and help them show their individuality. Xu Xiao says, “Today, customers want to buy more personalized products, not the same ones everyone else has. So we’ve introduced the design-it-yourself service. They can select a diamond and then choose a setting for it.”

	Zbird is involved in uniquely designed jewelry as well as classic and contemporary styles. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
Zbird also creates special customized products for VIP customers. Along with custom jewelry design, the company provides a global diamond-search service for them, including a search for the finest-quality colored and fancy-shape diamonds. The designs are all one-of-a-kind, so VIP customers receive the most exclusive service and choice possible.

	Quality Service
In addition to providing customers with superior jewelry values, Zbird strives to provide good service. In Xu Xiao’s opinion, “Our promise that we will provide worry-free follow-up service is just as important as the diamonds they buy from us.” Zbird offers their customers a lifetime guarantee. When customers buy products from Zbird, they can enjoy services that include maintenance, upgrading, and more. Xu Xiao believes that a wise customer considers not only the price but also the whole package. “And only a good brand can provide the whole package, which is the thing that keeps our customers coming back and makes our business a success.“

	New Opportunity: Diamond Investment Business
Xu Lei describes how, a year and a half ago, the company decided to seize another business opportunity. With the rise of the wealthy class in China came the rise of investment options. Xu Lei said, “They all have their own individual ways to invest their money. Some of them buy property, stocks, or gold. China recently applied a lot of new policies to try to control land prices, so property is not as good an investment as it was before. The stock market is not very thrilling either. Gold prices are not that stable. We thought that maybe we could educate those wealthy people to purchase collections of diamonds as part of their investments.”

	Zbird works with major banking institutions in China to provide diamond investment
	services. Photo courtesy of Zbird.
Zbird took action by contacting several well-known Chinese banks. Two of them agreed to work with Zbird: China Merchants Bank and China Construction Bank. Currently, Zbird services and supports both banks’ personal diamond investment businesses.

Xu Lei elaborated, “We made a lot of progress during the past year and a half. In the first year, we launched a team of 10 staffers to work on this investment project. This team’s sales figures for a year were 100 million RMB—about 15 million US dollars. The largest stone they sold was over 23 carats. It sold for over 13 million RMB—about 2 million US dollars. Today, there are many wealthy people in China who can afford this type of diamond, but they need a convenient way to buy and also to know more about diamonds. The most important thing is to have someone trustworthy to serve them and help them manage their money. Our team is more like a private jewelry consultant team.”

	Promoting the Brand
Zbird constantly advertises their brand, including sponsoring national concert tours in 2010 and 2011 for a domestically well-known singing star, Wangfei. Every year Zbird takes part in charitable activities, including the launch of a fund for blind children and financial aid to poor children. They have also promised to donate a tree whenever they sell a diamond, and today the “Yellow River Love Forest of Zbird” covers 300 acres. According to Xu Xiao, “As a jewelry brand, we consider love to be our eternal theme, and we hope our team and customers can sense and share it.”

	Zbird is involved with charitable projects for children. Photo courtesy of Zbird. @chapter:27


Publication Year: - Title: Typhoon, Trade Wars and Currency Lows Dampen Hong Kong Shows Abstract: Visitors crowd the show floor as Typhoon Mangkhut bears down on Hong Kong. A variety of other factors also led to cautious buyers. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

Business at the September Hong Kong Gem and Jewellery Shows was spotty despite a strong world economy. Buying was cautious and buying of higher-end diamonds and colored gems tended to be against existing or anticipated orders. In addition, many key buyers left the show after two days because Typhoon Mangkhut, the most intense storm ever recorded in Hong Kong, forced the show to close on Sept. 15. The show reopened on time the following day, but with fewer buyers.

One of the reasons for caution was the escalating trade tensions between the U.S. and China. A new round of tariffs was announced during the show, leaving buyers and exhibitors wondering where the dispute will end.

"There is so much uncertainty over how much damage this trade war will cause, and even more that it could get worse," said one key exhibitor who explained that it will have a dampening effect on China’s and Hong Kong’s economies. "People do not want to commit to large orders in this atmosphere."

Another Hong Kong industry executive noted that the gem and jewelry trade did well through the first half of the year – until the trade war began escalating.

That caution brought a strong upturn in memo orders, which banks have been trying to curtail because they cut dealers' already slim profits and hinder industry liquidity.

Adding to the economic uncertainty was the volatility of the international currency market, with the U.S. dollar rising against many currencies. The Indian rupee hit an all-time low of 71 to the dollar during the show, while the Japanese yen and other Asian currencies also fell. This made diamonds, gemstones and gold – typically priced in U.S. dollars – more expensive in local currencies and that much more difficult to sell to local consumers.

Much of the traffic at the Asia World Expo diamond and gemstone show was international dealers, not retailers, who came to fill orders for special stones or to add their inventories before the fall season. Diamond dealers found a pick-up in demand for fancy yellows because prices for all but the extreme top vivid had softened, making them much more affordable.

In colorless commercial goods, larger dealers with established local clientele saw respectable orders, but smaller exhibitors and those without a strong local client base found business very slow. All of the exhibitors lost a lot of sales opportunities because the storm wiped out the final day of the show.

Mozambique ruby dominated in the colored stone section, accounting for as much as 70% of all ruby in the market by some estimates. Fine and good quality emerald also was plentiful at the show. In both cases, demand was less than supply, although dealers insisted on keeping prices firm. Blue and fancy color sapphire was scarce in all qualities, except diffused or heavily treated material. Paraíba tourmaline also was plentiful at the show, with some stones as large as 35 carats. Demand for these has subsided in the last year, but prices remain high.

At the Hong Kong Convention Center Show, manufacturers of finished jewelry also found cautious buying for the many of the same reasons, despite the fact that major Hong Kong retailers such as Chow Tai Fook and Chow Sang Sang turned in positive results. Local jewelry makers have adapted, offering more petite designs with smaller stones at lower price points.

The show opened to ominous storm warnings and reports of heavy damage in the Philippines, which touched off a rush of overseas buyers trying to leave Hong Kong. The storm hit the city with ferocious power, blowing out windows of major hotels and downing trees. It was, however, very fast moving and the Convention Center show reopened the following day with business as usual.

"Typhoons are part of the business here in Asia," one pearl producer said. "We have learned to live with it and get through it."
DIAMONDS
De Beers sold $505 million worth of diamonds at its September cycle (sight), about 4% below the previous sale and on a par with the same cycle held last year. The company, citing slow demand for small, low-quality diamonds and a sharp decline in the rupee, allowed clients to defer buying such goods until later in the year or early next year. @chapter:27


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Australian Luxury Brands Continue to Grow Abstract: Before the COVID-19 crisis, the Australian market for luxury jewelry and branded goods was driven by international tourists, particularly from China.
In 2023, the market for luxury jewelry and branded goods in Australia continued to grow, making long queues outside famous brand stores, such as Gucci, Louis Vuitton, and Chanel, a common sight. The growth of the luxury brands market in Australia is valued at USD 5.3 billion, with a growth rate of 5.4% per year from 2018 to 2023 (according to IBISWorld). The increasing demand for luxury jewelry and branded goods has led many renowned brands to plan expansion, such as Chanel, which plans to open a new 1,000-square-meter store in 2024. Louis Vuitton, with several stores including those on George Street, a boutique at The Rocks, a store in Westfield CBD, a stand at David Jones, and stores in Chatswood and Bondi Junction, is also planning to expand further in Parramatta, expected to be a high-growth economic area.
The growth in the luxury jewelry and branded goods market in Australia is partly driven by young consumers with purchasing power (Gen Z), who prefer shopping at standalone stores in economic districts, while tourists prefer buying luxury jewelry and branded goods from stores in shopping malls. This has prompted luxury brand retailers to expand their stores both in major economic streets and shopping malls to cater to these two customer groups, leading to a rise in retail rental prices in CBD areas across various states in Australia. For instance, in Adelaide, South Australia, rental prices increased by 7.4%, and in Brisbane, Queensland, by 7.2%. High-end branded stores place significant importance on their location, such as Martin Place, Westfield Sydney, and currently, areas on King Street and Parramatta are becoming significant economic growth hubs in Sydney, with plans to expand stores with varying sizes.
The changes in the luxury jewelry and branded goods business also include the opening of stores for other sub-branded products, increasing competition in the luxury jewelry and branded goods market in Australia. @chapter:27


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Online Diamond Sales 17% of U.S. Market Abstract: A recent De Beers study noted a 7% increase for diamond jewelry in the U.S. during 2013 and a 12% increase in China. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.

              A recent De Beers study reported that worldwide retail sales of diamond jewelry totaled $79 billion in 2013, up $5 billion on a 7% increase in U.S. demand and a 12% increase in China.

Online sales of diamond jewelry comprise about 17% of the market in the U.S., according to the study. These sales include both strictly online companies such as Blue Nile and traditional retailers who also sell over the Internet.

The De Beers report also noted that 25% of Chinese consumers now research prospective diamond purchases online before making an actual purchase and that the number of retail stores selling diamond jewelry increased 30% from 2010 to 2013. There are, however, strong signs that the heady growth is beginning to slow, according to De Beers. Retailers in Guangdong Province reported that sales declined 5.1% for the first eight months of 2014, while sales of gold pieces nationwide fell 9.1% during that period, according to a government report.

In the U.S., the Department of Commerce reported that jewelry and watch sales from all sales channels increased 4.9% in August, compared to the same month in 2013. This rise reflects even greater sales volume because prices for gold and diamonds declined several percentage points in 2014.

De Beers noted that diamond production increased 7% to 145 million carats, still well under the 2005 peak of 175 million carats. It also predicted that production would decline, despite new sources coming on stream, because older mine deposits are becoming more costly to work as operations go deeper and ore grade declines. @chapter:30


Publication Year: 2008 Title: Spring 2008 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Aquamarine with Kelp-Like Inclusions
Diamond with Repeating Growth/Dissolution Features
First CVD Synthetic Diamond Submitted for Dossier Grading
Interesting Filled Voids in Emerald and Ruby
Glass with Devitrified Inclusions
White Clam Pearl with Original Shell
Large Baroque Multicolored Conch Pearl
Green Synthetic Sapphire with Vibrant Blue Inclusions
High-Temperature Heat-Treated Zircon

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:32


Publication Year: 1992 Title: Identification of Bleached and Polymer-Impregnated Jadeite Abstract: The "bleaching" treatment of jadeite jade has become prevalent in higher- as well as lower-quality material. "Bleaching" is actually a two-step process whereby a brown or gray color component (probably iron compounds filling the fractures) is removed chemically, followed by impregnation of the resulting white to green material with some type of polymer. The treatment product is commonly referred to as "bleached jadeite" or "B jade" in the Orient. Although several gemological tests are useful in detecting this treatment, infrared spectroscopy is the only method found thus far that provides conclusive evidence of polymer impregnation in all cases. @chapter:37


Publication Year: 2014 Title: “Red” Chrysoberyl versus Alexandrite: The Impact of Elevated Chromium Levels on Color and Color-Change Properties Abstract: K. Schmetzer, J. Hyrsl, H.-J. Bernhardt, and T. Hainschwang, “Purple to Reddish Purple Chrysoberyl from Brazil,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 34, No. 1, 2014, pp. 32–40. Photos courtesy of Karl Schmetzer.

              Gem-quality purple to reddish purple chrysoberyl, also known as “red” chrysoberyl, has been documented in Brazil. Red chrysoberyl has intense coloration and appears very dark violet-purple to purple in daylight and reddish purple to red-purple in incandescent light. Explaining the lack of green-blue coloration in daylight, in contrast to alexandrite, is a main focus of this paper.

Two samples displaying twinning, both from Brazil (one from Malacacheta, one without a specific locality), were investigated. Optical, micro-Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectroscopy, and electron microprobe techniques were used to characterize coloration, growth structures, inclusions, and trace-element chromophore distribution and amounts. The twinning present in both samples presented some difficulties in viewing color and pleochroism of the X, Y, and Z planes (parallel to the three crystallographic axes).As with alexandrite, the largest coloration difference exists in the Y plane. For this material, the color changed from yellowish orange in daylight to reddish orange in incandescent light, as opposed to alexandrite’s typically yellow-green to yellow-orange color change.

In characterizing quantitative data related to Cr and Fe, comparisons were made to data from “normal” Hematia and Malacacheta alexandrites. The reddish purple chrysoberyl was found to have higher Cr2O3 contents than “normal” Brazilian alexandrite from both localities. Alexandrite generally has Cr2O3 levels less than 1.0 % by weight and typically range from 0.4 to 0.7 wt.%, whereas the faceted reddish purple sample averaged 1.54 wt.% Cr2O3, with a wide 1.36–2.23 wt.% range. Furthermore, the faceted reddish purple chrysoberyl had an average iron content of 0.60 wt.% Fe2O3, comparable to “normal” samples from Malacacheta, but lower than average material from Hematita.

This elevation in Cr2O3 produces noticeably higher-intensity Cr3+ absorptions in the visible range that clearly diminishes how much transmission can occur in the absorption minimum around 490 nm in the blue-green region. Therefore, these crystals have a much less blue-green appearance in daylight than their more chromium-poor alexandrite relatives.

Much higher Cr2O3 levels have been documented in mostly nontransparent samples from other regions. A recently identified Cr analogue to chrysoberyl—Be(Cr,Al)2O4—contained 58 wt.% Cr2O3. This new mineral was named mariinskite after the Mariinsky mine, the largest emerald-alexandrite deposit in Russia’s Ural Mountains. @chapter:10


Publication Year: - Title: Classmates Reunite to Celebrate One of Their Own Abstract: Class of 1980 reunion attendees included, from back left: Patricia Biehn, David Conger, Donald Warmblood, James Allen Holmes, Ken McGrath, Debbie Hiss, Lenore Goldman, Marisa Vinciguerra, and Wayne Babcock, center. The group surrounds a specimen that was moved from the Santa Monica campus. Those not able to attend the reunion were Danny Katz (who helped set up the class Facebook page) and Gino Buccellati, who was involved in a work project in Italy and Skyped with the group while they were in Carlsbad. Classmate Lori Sellinger will attend the New York screening of the documentary. Nicholas Vuillet followed the class of '80s escapades on Facebook. Photo by Eric Welch/GIA.

	They met more than 33 years ago, but for nine members of a 1980 Graduate Gemologist class, the connection they made as students has never broken.

	“It was amazing to see everyone,” said Wayne Babcock, owner of Angels Antiques in Carpinteria, California. “We had only spent six months studying together at GIA, but had bonded so quickly and well! After 33 years, it was like we had never been apart. All the love was right there.”

	The group traveled to Carlsbad for the West Coast premiere of the jewelry documentary Masters of Dreams, the brainchild of classmate Ken McGrath, of Toronto, Canada. The four-part series offers a behind-the-scenes view into the glamorous and artistic world of high-end jewelry.

	Ken McGrath was pleased his classmates reunited for the screening of his Masters of Dreams documentary. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA.

	“Making Masters of Dreams was the culmination of a lifelong passion and a tiny dream that grew big,” McGrath said. “To be able to include the sweetest, coolest group of rock star friends I had the pleasure of going to school with, was extremely moving. They were so supportive and positive. It truly was an awesome evening and a deeply meaningful experience for all of The Class of 1980!”

	It has not always been easy for this pre-Internet group of friends to keep in touch.

	“We had telephone numbers when we left class, but not all of them,” said David Conger, owner of Conger's Jewellers in Ottawa, Canada. “A few years ago, I gave up on the possibility that we would ever reunite. It was a goal of mine 20 years ago, but there was no mechanism to find the other classmates ‒ until we recently started to reconnect through Facebook.”

	That’s how McGrath found them and invited them to the GIA event, which included a lunch in their honor, class photo, tours of the campus, and an evening reception and screening of his film. It also included hours retelling shared stories and laughter at their hotel.

	“The best part of the reunion, for me, was simply sitting out on the hotel patio grilling dinner and just catching up with everyone and reminiscing,” said Debbie Hiss, owner of Debbie Hiss Consulting. “There was a lot of laughter!”

	Lenore Goldman, who is in the yachting business, said she loved hearing about different directions their lives have taken.

	“It was great to hear everyone’s story, she said. “In some ways, it was like time had not passed, yet we all needed reading glasses to see the old photos.”

	Conger said he felt an instant connection with his old friends.

	“It was wonderful to reconnect. It seemed as though no time had passed,” he said. “Hearing the familiar sounding laugh of one classmate brought it all back again as though nothing had changed. I loved the experience. This was a time of joy and happiness, not unlike the feeling I get at Christmas.”

	Patricia Biehn, who traveled from Kauai, Hawaii, was a little concerned that the special connection they had might be lost because of the number of years that had gone by and the divergent paths they all traveled.

	“Not the case! We picked up right where we left off. We were a wonderful, tight-knit family, and still are,” she said. “We will not let 33 years go by before we get together again, more of us next time!”
Impressions of the Carlsbad Campus

	The grads, who attended a much smaller GIA campus in Santa Monica, were impressed by the size and location of the Carlsbad campus.

	“GIA looks like a museum! The campus is beautiful,” Goldman said. “That view of the ocean makes me want to come back and never leave again.”

	Babcock described it as modern, beautiful, efficient and enjoyable. “I am so very much more proud to be a gemologist after having seen the ‘new school’,” he said.

	Several of the grads pointed out that for all of the physical changes, being on campus felt familiar.

	“The first impression I ever had of GIA was how wonderful the teachers and staff were – how they were so willing to help the students with any issue,” Congers said.” I felt that had not changed.”

	Marisa Vinciguerra, of Ballwin, Missouri, said she felt the same way walking through the halls of the Carlsbad campus as she did in Santa Monica. She described it as “that mystical feeling of being around all of that ‘gem-knowlegey'.”

	The group tour included visits to classrooms where they were intrigued by the eLearning program, CAD/CAM courses and scope of the Institute.

	Despite all that was new, however, they sensed that the GIA standards they knew as students remain the same.

	“The professionalism of GIA has always been a constant,” said James Allen Holmes, who owns a design and manufacturing business in Texas. “The culture of any corporate entity translates to the outside world and that still shines as bright as a diamond at GIA.”

	From left, Marisa Vinciguerra, David Conger, James Allen Holmes and Patricia Biehn gather at the evening reception. Photo by Kevin Schumacher/GIA. @chapter:34


Publication Year: 1987 Title: Winter 1987 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Faceted Amber
Imitation Amber
Calcium Carbonate Beads
Corundum Doublets
Synthetic Emerald
Imitation Jade
Cultured Black Pearl
Large Cultured Pearl
An Oyster "Pearl"
Heat-Treated Natural and Synthetic Ruby

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 1996 Title: Introduction to Analyzing Internal Growth Structures: Identification of the Negative d Plane in Natural Ruby Abstract: Growth-structure analysis has become increasingly important as a gemological tool for locality classification and distinguishing between natural and synthetic gemstones. This article presents the methods and instruments needed to analyze the internal growth structures of corundum. As an application of this testing procedure, the negative rhombohedral d (0112) plane is documented as part of the crystal habit in a small number of natural rubies—both as a subordinate form and, for the first time in natural rubies, as a dominant crystal form. Until recently, this crystal face was primarily associated with flux-grown synthetic rubies and sapphires. @chapter:9


Publication Year: 2023 Title: The history of gemstones in Chanthaburi_32 Abstract: Over 100 years of gemstone production in Chanthaburi Province has brought about persistent challenges and obstacles. One critical issue is the ongoing shortage of skilled labor, particularly experienced gem cutters. This problem has persisted for about a decade. Present-day concerns, as reported by traders, include the desire for increased customer traffic. However, from a production standpoint, there remains a significant shortage of skilled laborers, such as those capable of performing gem setting. Moreover, the income of gem cutters and
the perception of the profession have gradually declined, dissuading new generations from pursuing this career path. Even with incoming orders, the lack of production capacity persists due to issues surrounding compensation and production costs, which have spiraled compared to earlier times, such as when I started back in 2529 (1986). For instance, while a bowl of noodles cost 5 baht back then, setting a gem was 10 baht. Today, the price of noodles hasincreased significantly to 50 baht per bowl, yet the compensation for gem setting has only risen slightly to 15-16 baht, sometimes as low as 6 baht.This disparity has led to many skilled workers leaving the industry. While some gem types may necessitate the use of machinery, high-quality gems still require human craftsmanship. Establishing markets to enhance the value of gems is crucial. This involves organizing events to attract global markets to Chanthaburi and supporting improved working conditions to encourage higher wages in the gem cutting profession.Creating special economic zones for gem and jewelry entrepreneurs to operate freely in Chanthaburi Province could decentralize trade and potentially increase employment opportunities. These efforts aim to alleviate the severe labor shortages currently plaguing the industry. @chapter:26


Publication Year: - Title: Demand, Treatment, and Mining Abstract: Less than 1% of all gem production is exceptional, requiring no form of treatment before being sold on the market. How do treatments affect market demand? How does demand affect mining activity and lead to the truly exceptional finds?

	Demand, Treatment, and Mining @chapter:28


Publication Year: - Title: The Enigmatic Gemstone: Opal’s Playful Dance with Light Abstract: This stunning Australian white opal and diamond brooch converts to a pendant. Courtesy of Rodriguez and Sons. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

The romance of precious opal begins when you catch the first glimpse of its movement with dancing light. Opal’s play-of-color can be compared to a lyrical dance, sometimes expressing itself as a grand jeté of bold, broad flashes of color, other times as smaller, quicksteps of pinpoint flashes.
Often mysterious, opal’s shimmering color can present as a flowing, continuous movement.

Green and blue play-of-color flit playfully in this pair of black Australian opal earrings. Courtesy of Rodriguez and Sons. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Opal’s intriguing flashes of spectral colors
Scientists believe most opal deposits formed 15 to 30 million years ago in desert areas rich in silica. Strong seasonal rains drenched the earth and soaked deep into rock, carrying dissolved silica, a compound of silicon and oxygen, with it. When much of the water evaporated during dry periods, deposits of silica solidified and formed in cracks between the layers of underground sedimentary rock, producing opal.

Notice the small flecks of green, blue and orange play-of-color in a pinfire pattern in this opal from Andamooka, South Australia. Courtesy of the Dr. Edward Gübelin Collection. Photo by Orasa Weldon/GIA
The shifting spectral color of precious opal is a result of light that reflects off its closely packed silica spheres. The arrangement and size of the spheres result in the varying patterns and colors of the opal’s play-of-color, including:

Pinfire or pinpoint: small, closely set patches of color
Harlequin or mosaic: broad, angular, closely set patches of color resembling a checkerboard
Flame: sweeping reddish bands or streaks that shoot across the gemstone
Peacock: mainly blue and green flashes of color

This elegant black opal pendant necklace shimmers with intense blue and green play-of-color. Courtesy of Lightning Ridge Collection by John Ford. Photo by Emily Lane/GIA
In addition to the size, shape and arrangement of its silica spheres, opal’s underlying body color contributes to its overall appearance:

Black opal – a dark body color that generally exhibits bold colors of blue, green, red and orange.
White opal – a white to medium gray body color exhibits the blue, green, red and orange hues in a softer tone.
Fire, water and jelly or crystal opals – develop under different conditions and are transparent. They form in red, orange, yellow and brown hues. If they have play-of-color that increases their desirability.

The matrix in boulder opal often adds a beauty of its own. Courtesy of True Blue Opals & Gems. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Boulder opal has a thin layer of precious opal that is cut to include matrix, which serves to reinforce the gem. Often cut in one-of-a-kind shapes, it offers designers and consumers an affordable alternative to black opal.
Common opal, also called potch opal, is an opaque gem-quality variety showing no play-of-color and occurs in pink, blue and other colors with high to low saturation and varying patterns.

This 13.60 ct Australian opal from Lightning Ridge is a showstopper. Courtesy of Gerry Manning, Manning International. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
History of opal
The modern birthstone of October, along with tourmaline, opal was dubbed “queen of gems” in ancient times because of its flashes of reflected light. Humans have been intrigued by gemstones since antiquity and developed a passion for them as they acquired wealth. Mines in the region of Hungary supplied opal to ancient Romans and continued to produce for more than 2,000 years, until 1922.

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Australia’s outback began opal production in the 1890s. Lightning Ridge, Andamooka, Queensland, White Cliff and Coober Pedy are noteworthy Australian localities for black opals. Some opal sources in Australia are thought to have formed about 400 million years ago. For example, the Great Artesian Basin of Australia, once an inland sea, is a well-known region for today’s opal. Opalized fossils from the age of dinosaurs have been uncovered in opal fields. Most of these come from Cretaceous marine and freshwater aquatic reptiles 100 to 120 million years old. Any material, such as shell, bone, and wood that can become fossilized, can also become opalized.

A 6.15 ct black opal and diamond starburst pendant/necklace radiates blue, green, yellow, red and orange play-of-color. Courtesy of Lightning Ridge Collection by John Ford. Photo by Emily Lane/GIA
Queen Victoria began to wear black opals from Lightning Ridge, Australia soon after they were discovered there. Design houses Tiffany, Lalique and Cartier also began the romancing of black opal, featuring them in Art Nouveau jewelry.

If you look closely at this carved Mexican fire opal, you’ll see two interesting egg-like inclusions. Courtesy of Cody Opal. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Mexico is also a major source of fire, crystal and water or jelly opals, and Ethiopia is producing precious opal.
Care of Opal
Treat your opal with gentle care. It is a delicate and soft stone (5.5-6.5 rating on the Mohs hardness scale) and because it contains 5-20 percent water, it should not be allowed to dry out too rapidly or it may crack.
If you heed this advice, you will enjoy many happy years with your lively, colorful, precious opal.
Learn more about opal’s history and lore in the Gem Encyclopedia and its significance as one of October’s birthstones. @chapter:39


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Prasiolite with Inclusion Influenced by Brazil-Law Twinning Abstract: Figure 1. Between crossed polarizers, the prasiolite showed two sections of Brazil-law twinning in the optic-axis direction. Photo by Meenakshi Chauhan, magnified 15×.

              The Indian Gemological Institute Gem Testing Laboratory recently examined a 6.43 ct transparent grayish yellowish green oval mixed-cut specimen. Standard gemological examination gave an RI of 1.545–1.553 with a uniaxial positive optic sign and a birefringence of 0.008, and a hydrostatic SG of 2.65. These readings readily identified the stone as prasiolite, a green variety of quartz.

The prasiolite displayed prominent Brazil-law twinning, with very sharp twinning planes when the sample was observed parallel to the optic axis between crossed polarizing filters, though only two sections of twinning were clearly visible in the stone (figure 1). The presence of such sharp and prominent Brazil-law twinning confirmed the sample’s natural origin. When synthetics do exhibit such patterns, it has a flame-like or irregular shape (J.I. Koivula and E. Fritsch, “The growth of Brazil-twinned synthetic quartz and the potential for synthetic amethyst twinned on the Brazil law,” Fall 1989 G&G, pp. 159–164).

Magnification showed no inclusions, but illumination from the side using a fiber-optic light source revealed minute white particles that scattered the light (figure 2). These pinpoint inclusions followed the pattern of the Brazil-law twinning, which was apparent without the aid of polarized filters (E.J. Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones Volume 2, Opinio Verlag, Basel, Switzerland, 2005, p. 573).

	Figure 2. Fine dotted inclusions demonstrated a Brazil-law twinning pattern along the optic axis, exactly where this twinning was visible under polarized filters. Photo by Meenakshi Chauhan, magnified 10×.
Minor rhombohedron faces that did not feature Brazil-law twinning were filled with these minute light-scattering particles. These inclusions were visible on the faces with some tilting of the fiber-optic light source but did not show any pattern (figure 3). The minute particles were not visible in both zones simultaneously.

	Figure 3. Fine dotted inclusions were visible in this minor rhombohedral face where Brazil-law twinning was absent. Photo by Meenakshi Chauhan, magnified 10×.
In diffused transmitted light, the minor rhombohedron faces displayed a slightly darker shade of the grayish yellowish green color seen in prasiolite. These faces also showed a wavy internal growth structure between crossed polarizers. The major rhombohedron faces were even lighter in color. No color bands were observed in the stone.

Although the owner claimed the stone’s color was natural, the presence of Brazil-law twinning raised suspicion, since this twinning has only been associated with the amethyst variety of quartz. There is still no way to separate naturally heated from heat-treated prasiolite. @chapter:13