Publication Year: 2018 Title: General Gemology and Jewelry Abstract: Figure 1. Victorian Whitby jet beads, with rough, cored, soft, brittle, and hard Whitby jet. Photo by Sarah Caldwell Steele.

Advances in Hydrocarbon Gemology: The Jet Group
Sarah Caldwell Steele
Whitby Museum, Whitby, United Kingdom
In mainland Europe, we first witness the utilization of gem-quality hydrocarbons for beads and amulets in the Upper Paleolithic. This was the period during which our hominid ancestors first developed complex language, culture, and art, laying the foundation for modern human civilizations. In the Americas, such artifacts are seen as early as 13,000 years ago. In the British Isles, Whitby jet (figure 1), arguably the highest-quality gem hydrocarbon in terms of stability, luster, workability and other attributes, first appears in the Early Neolithic. Almost certainly utilized for shamanic ritual, the jet group’s unique gemological properties make it quite literally a “magic” material. During the Medieval Era, these same attributes brought it to the attention of the alchemists as a potential candidate for the philosopher’s stone.
Despite this illustrious history, very little gemological research has been carried out on this culturally important material, and myth and folklore tend to prevail over hard geological facts. Adding to the problem, confusion in the nomenclature of gem hydrocarbons has given rise to a situation in which several structurally and chemically unrelated materials are often termed “jet.”
Exhibiting the phenomenon of reflectance impedance, jet has erroneously been described as a lignite—a low-grade coal deficient in hydrogen. In reality, jet forms a complex group of hydrocarbons, observed to be natural polymers with varying stability and durability, that are believed to reflect the level of crosslinking between polymeric chains. They are certainly far from the chemically homogenous and structurally amorphous materials previously described in the gemological literature.
Indigenous jet-working communities are still found in the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Yet a lack of gemological research has led to a situation where trading standards authorities cannot prevent the commercialization of foreign materials and simulants sold fraudulently as indigenous jet. Time is running out: The world’s gemologists must embrace the latest research to mitigate the threat to those communities maintaining one of civilization’s oldest gem trades.
REFERENCE
Steele S.C. (2016) Advanced jet testing. Gems & Jewellery, Vol. 25, No.5, pp. 22–25.
Color Origin of Gem Diaspore: Correlation to Corundum
Che Shen
Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Gem-quality diaspore, commercially known as “Zultanite,” occupies an important position in the gem market due to its unique optical phenomena, rarity, and color-change phenomenon. The material’s value depends on these factors. A clear understanding of color origin offers considerable benefits for gemological testing, cutting, and even valuation of diaspore. This study uses ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectra and laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to examine the color origin of color-change diaspore and to compare it with corundum. Diaspore and corundum have a similar chemical composition and crystal structure. The crystal structure of diaspore is connected by AlO4(OH)2 octahedra, whereas the corundum crystal structure is connected by AlO6 octahedra (Hill, 1979; Lewis et al., 1982). Both types of crystals are composed solely of octahedral units. Due to their closely related crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and spectroscopic (UV-Vis) properties, we may speculate that there is a close color correlation between diaspore and corundum. Consequently, this study adopts an analogy to address the color origin of diaspore by quantitatively analyzing diaspore from two geographic origins—Myanmar (formerly Burma) and Turkey—and comparing them with high-quality natural and synthetic corundum. The research aims to use the color correlation between diaspore and corundum to confirm the former’s color origin.
Table 1 shows the chemical composition (expressed in ppma) of two diaspore samples from Turkey (Dia-006, Dia-008) and two from Myanmar (Dia-Bur-001, Dia-Bur-002). We concluded that the Burmese samples contained more Cr, while the Fe content was higher in the Turkish diaspore. However, the V content of the Burmese samples was higher than that of the Turkish material, especially Dia-Bur-002 (358 ppma).

We compared the spectra of corundum collected from the o-ray with those of diaspore collected from the orientation of polarized light parallel with the a-axis (figure 1). In addition, all the UV-Vis spectra are calculated based on the Lambert-Beer law. The author used this method to acquire spectra in certain chromophore concentrations and path lengths. The results are convenient for comparison. In color-change diaspore, Cr3+, [Fe2+-Ti4+], and V3+ may all play a role in causing the color-change effect. The chromophore effectiveness of Cr3+, Fe3+, [Fe2+-Ti4+], and V3+ differs between diaspore and corundum. According to the calculation, the chromophore effectiveness of Cr3+, Fe3+, and [Fe2+-Ti4+] in corundum is about 5–10, 1.6, and 50 times higher, respectively, than in diaspore. However, the chromophore effectiveness of V3+ in diaspore is approximately 2–7 times higher than that in corundum.

Figure 1. The UV-Vis spectra of diaspore (Burmese and Turkish) and corundum exhibit closely matched absorption features. The color circles, calculated under standard illuminants D65 and A, demonstrate coloration for diaspore and corundum with uniform chromophore (Cr3+, [Fe2+-Ti4+], and V3+) concentrations for a 5 mm path length. The color swatches of Fe3+ are only calculated under D55 light. Since the diaspore’s color swatches below the spectra of chromophore [Fe2+-Ti4+] do not show a clear color change, we calculated the colors, which are shown in the spectra at a higher concentration of Fe-Ti pairs (250 ppma) for a 5 mm path length.
REFERENCES
Hill R.J. (1979) Crystal structure refinement and electron density distribution in diaspore. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 179–200, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00307552

Lewis J., Schwarzenbach D., Flack H.D. (1982) Electric field gradient and charge density in corundum, α-Al2O3. Acta Crystallographica, Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 733–739, http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0567739482001478
Education as a Tool for Development in East African Gem-Mining Regions
Marvin Wambua1, Norbert Massay2, Robert Weldon3, Pedro Padua3, and Dona M. Dirlam3
1Amor Gems Ltd., Nairobi
2Pact, Washington, DC
3GIA, Carlsbad, California
In 2014, GIA distinguished research fellow Dr. James Shigley conceived an idea to help artisanal miners in some of the poorest gem-producing regions of East Africa. Dr. Shigley and Dona Dirlam and Robert Weldon of GIA’s Richard T. Liddicoat Library and Information Center, with GIA executive support, developed a plan for a guidebook for artisanal miners. The goal was to provide miners with very modest but valuable gemological concepts, empowering them to negotiate better prices for the rough material they sell.
Over the course of a year, the authors photographed numerous collections of rough material, mineral specimens, and cut stones. The authors conferred with members of the gem trade who are familiar with distant gem localities. They  also received invaluable advice from Brad Brooks-Rubin, formerly of the U.S. State Department. The result of these efforts was a mainly pictorial booklet to accommodate all levels of literacy. Its few words were translated into Swahili. Selecting Gem Rough: A Guide for Artisanal Miners was printed on waterproof paper and made durable to withstand the rigors of mining activity. A resilient translucent plastic tray was designed to hold the booklet, and to evaluate and sort rough. Using the tray with transmitted light, miners could understand rough color zoning and determine gem integrity and clarity.
Because of the East African material represented, mining locations in Tanzania were the first to receive the booklet. GIA partnered with Pact, a U.S.-based nongovernmental organization (NGO), to identify Tanzanian regions where the book could be deployed as a pilot project. Pact’s plan incorporated government support of the project, and they identified the Tanzania Women Miners Association (TAWOMA), with mining projects east of Tanga, as an excellent group to participate in the pilot program.

Figure 1. A miner from the corundum-rich region of Tunduru, Tanzania, examines the guide created for artisanal miners. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
In 2017, a GIA team and GIA East Africa consultant and alumnus, Marvin Wambua, met with Pact’s Tanzania branch representative, Norbert Massay, to start the pilot project. Some 80 miners received the education and the booklets. Two subsequent trips to different regions were conducted. A Pact report concluded that a 12% social return on investment (SROI) had been achieved. During the course of the study, the miners acknowledged an educational benefit that would last them a lifetime, with key concepts of gemstone value that could be passed on to other miners. Additional mining areas in central and southern Tanzania received training in 2018.
Enameling Chinese Cultural Relics
Shangjia Wen and Ren Lu
Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Jing-Tai-Lan, popularized in China more than 500 years ago and synonymous with cloisonné enamel, is characterized by opaque enamel materials on bronze, one of several classic enamel techniques dating back to the thirteenth century BCE. Furthermore, Chinese Jing-Tai-Lan is readily recognizable by its iconic set of colors—cinnabar red, malachite blue-green, pararealgar orange-yellow, and white—as well as traditional cultural patterns and religious reflections (figure 1). This particular style is deeply rooted in Chinese culture and has remained virtually unchanged over time. Yet the traditional combination of colors and patterns unique to Jing-Tai-Lan are not the best fit for a new generation of consumers.

Figure 1. A classic Jing-Tai-Lan (cloisonné enamel) vase from the Ming Dynasty, sixteenth century. Courtesy of Sotheby’s.
Over centuries, various enamel techniques have been developed and used to create lasting artworks from many cultures of the world. In addition to cloisonné enamel, there are several other classic enamel techniques. Champlevé, which dates back to the twelfth century, features engraved or struck recessed areas subsequently filled with vitreous enamel. Some historic examples are religious plaques and emblems. Painted enamel (Limoges enamel) originated in the fifteenth century in southwestern France and is well known for its portraits and scenes on vessels. Piqué à jour enamel, which probably originated in the sixth century, has metal wires or cells filled with transparent vitreous enamel. This technique was used in some of the most iconic Art Nouveau pieces such as jewelry depicting delicate butterfly or dragonfly wings, Tiffany lamps, and luxurious vases. Today, these classic techniques and the overlap between them, along with choices of precious base metals and a full spectrum of opaque, semitransparent, and transparent enamel materials, have provided artists and jewelers worldwide with tools for unbounded creativity.
Contemporary Chinese consumers are increasingly searching for expressive styles and colors and diversified cultural reflections that suit their personal preferences and lifestyles. The 500-year-old historic Jing-Tai-Lan technique needs to evolve for the twenty-first century.
The authors are exploring the full potential of classic enameling techniques in revitalizing traditional Chinese cultural icons and historic relics. Our efforts are focused on fusing contemporary jewelry making with widely identifiable and readily acceptable Chinese elements drawn from cultural heritage and folk art, with the aim of enriching enamel jewelry for contemporary Chinese lifestyles.
The Evolving Supply Chain—How Greater Awareness of the Value of Mineral Resources Spawned a Movement to Restrict Their Outflow from Producing Nations
Stuart Robertson
Gemworld International, Inc., Glenview, Illinois
Traditionally, the colored stone industry has depended on a fragmented distribution channel of small-scale operators to transport gems through the multiple levels of the marketplace. In recent decades, producing nations, especially in Africa, have increasingly questioned the equity of a system in which the least economic benefit of the resource is retained by producers, while the vast majority of benefit is achieved by those closest to the retail consumer. Governmental regulations enacted to counter this perceived inequity have had a number of unintended consequences, such as forcing otherwise honest small-scale laborers to operate outside of the law just so that they can compete in the market.
This presentation examines changes in Tanzania’s gem market to illustrate the major challenges the gem industry faces in balancing the growing demand for supply chain transparency with a profitable finished product. As the traditional model for producing gem material faces increasing pressure, it is clear that the supply chain of the future will be significantly different. The emphasis on retaining value at the source is already influencing price and demand for certain popular gems. This move toward increased value capture by producing nations will inevitably reduce the size of the traditional wholesale market.
The Gem Collection at the Natural History Museum, London: A Collection of Collections
Robin Hansen
Natural History Museum, London
Gemstones, gem rough, and worked objects have been collected alongside mineral specimens in the Natural History Museum (NHM), London—previously known as the British Museum (Natural History)—for more than 270 years, creating one of the world’s outstanding mineralogical collections. Some 5,000 of the 185,000 specimens are gemstones or worked objects that constitute the Gem Collection. This collection grew by incorporating many smaller ones. The earliest gems are from Sir Hans Sloane, physician to the royal family in the late 18th century, whose vast collections formed the basis of what are known today as the British Library, the British Museum, and the NHM. Most notable were Lady and Sir A.H. Church’s gemstone rings (1915), Prof. Archibald Liversidge’s Australian gemstones (1927), Dr. A.C.D. Pain’s Burmese gemstones from Mogok (1973), and the collections of T.B. Clarke-Thornhill (1934) and C.R. Mathews (1993). Gemstones from Edward Hopkins (between 1906-1933) included a 598 ct morganite from Madagascar. The largest addition came from the merger of the British Geological Survey collection with that of the NHM in 1985, adding around 1,500 gems. Highlights included a pale blue 2,982 ct topaz from Brazil (the collection’s largest cut gemstone), a 57 ct padparadscha sapphire from Sri Lanka, a 424 ct kunzite from Brazil, a rare 20 ct Burmese sillimanite, a 146 ct peridot from St. John’s Island in the Red Sea, and the impressive diamond-studded gold snuff box of Sir Roderick Murchison, gifted to him by Czar Alexander II.
This historically important collection is a treasure trove of scientific, historical, and cultural knowledge. It serves as a reference for many of the developments and uses of different gem materials over time. Working alongside the mineral collection, the geological context is often preserved, adding significant scientific value. The collection is currently undergoing a re-curation program to enhance the data. Efforts to increase its accessibility and availability for focused research within the gemological and mineralogical communities will help to realize the Gem Collection’s full potential.
Gemology and Appraising: Similarities and Differences
Susan Eisen
Susan Eisen Fine Jewelry & Watches, El Paso, Texas
There are many similarities between the science of gemology and the science of appraising. When done accurately, both involve the study of information on a university level and a continued dedication to lifelong learning to stay aware of the constant changes happening. Both represent an amazing amount of enlightened knowledge occurring on a daily basis around the world. Both professions also require dedication to detail, the ability to do exhaustive research to come up with the correct answer, and a deep understanding and application of technology. Another similarity is the need to use subjective and objective reasoning to determine the results. Since both are sciences, using intellectual truths and adapting them to solve the problem helps in determining the correct results.
Identifying a gemstone is just half the battle in the appraisal of gems. Once the identity is determined, other parameters must be considered to estimate a gem’s value. In gemology, identification of the material and its internal characteristics is only part of the conclusion.
Gemstone Durability Chart
Kennon Young
Vermont Gem Lab, Burlington, Vermont
One of the most commonly misunderstood traits of a gemstone is durability. Many people believe that durability is based strictly on a gemstone’s hardness. Hardness is a gemstone’s resistance to scratching, but it does not account for a gemstone’s resistance to breaking and cleaving. Resistance to breaking and cleaving, as used in this presentation, will be described as “toughness.”

The chart above reflects common gemstones and their relative durability. Accounting for resistance to scratching, breaking, and cleaving can allow us to better understand how durable gemstones are.
The gemstones listed are mostly group names. Some species of these groups are noted at the bottom of the chart.
Good News and Bad News: Two Tales of Products of Endangered Species Used in Jewelry
Charles Carmona1 and Jo Ellen Cole2
1Guild Laboratories, Los Angeles
2Cole Appraisal Services, Los Angeles
Elephants as a species (figure 1, left) have been given a better chance to survive the twenty-first century and beyond thanks to the abolition of the legal ivory trade in China as of January 1, 2018. The world watched in horror as thriving populations of this majestic animal plummeted by 90% over the last 50 years, mostly due to poaching of their tusks for use in jewelry and decorative art. European export of ivory was banned in 2016, as were sales (with a few exceptions) in the U.S.
Ivory markets still exist in Asia and other parts of the world, but with lower demand from the largest consumers, prices will drop and the slaughter will lessen. Only when legislation and education reach this level in all markets will elephants and other sources of ivory be safe.
That’s the good news. Now the bad news.
The various species of precious coral (figure 1, right) are not so fortunate, as they are still not listed as threatened by the Committee on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Although some regions are restricting the harvesting of precious coral, in other areas there is no such concern. Divers are going deeper every year to take more coral for the demand created by the jewelry and decorative arts industries, which is far beyond its level of sustainability. Adding to that are the rising temperatures and acidification of the oceans due to climate change. At this rate, extinctions could occur in our lifetimes.

Figure 1. Left: With new ivory bans in place, elephants have a greater chance of survival. Photo by Muhammud Mahdi Karim. Right: Precious coral, a gift from the sea, is being harvested beyond sustainability. Photo courtesy of Lushome.com.
Only a concerted effort on all fronts can save these corals. Listing by CITES and research into coral farming are good starts, but ultimately it will require public education and research into alternatives to taking coral from the sea. Coral is already a gift. Let it be an inspiration to create jewelry and art from materials that are not endangered.
In response to the threats against coral, 2018 has been declared the third International Year of the Reef (www.iyor2018.org). Join The Ocean Agency, the Tiffany Foundation, Google, and many others to save this most precious resource for future generations.
The History and Current Status of Colored Gemstone Grading
Henry Ho and Barbara Wheat
Asian Institute of Gemological Sciences, Bangkok
Before color-grading systems were available on the market, people developed their own systems for judging color. The lead author has been involved in the gemstone business since he was a young child, helping his father sort and grade gemstones in his office. He has 55 years of experience in examining and judging color in gems and will share the history of colored gemstone grading in this poster.
The history will cover the GIA color system, Gemval, the CIE system, the Munsell color wheel, GemDialogue, Gemewizard, the Tanzanite Foundation grading system and the Miner’s System, and the ICSL System. References will be made to expert analysis in the field from notable industry leaders such as Joel Arem and Richard Drucker.
The current status of color grading will be addressed from the lead author’s perspective based on his extensive experience with colored gemstones, as a gemological laboratory owner and in the trade, as well as his discussions with color experts from around the world.
The Human (Humane) Trail: Finding Relevance in Jewelry Along the Pathway of Transparency
Brian Cook
Nature’s Geometry, Tucson, Arizona/Bahia, Brazil
Economic opportunity from the earth and sea comes into the hands of artisanal and small-scale miners (ASM) through hard labor and good luck. By 2017, approximately 40.5 million people were directly engaged in ASM mining, with five times that number dependent on ASM mining as a route out of poverty (Fritz et al., 2018). The chain of custody of gemstones mined by ASM, extracted from the earth and traveling as far as the red and green carpets at the Cannes Film Festival (the latter of which features celebrities wearing sustainable couture and jewelry) is a long, mostly opaque road. Mine-to-market transparency is the key to increasing consumer trust in the gem and jewelry industry while relating the rich stories associated with the lands, the cultures, and proud people that are the cornerstone of our trade.
As an industry, we have the opportunity to bring more benefit to ASM communities. Opportunities to invest in microfinance, mining and reclamation improvement, processing, and value-added enterprises—especially in parallel economic development with practices such as regenerative agriculture/agroecology—would align our industry with areas identified by the United Nations in 2015 as their Sustainable Development Goals (n.d.). In doing so, we would reshape the portrayal of gem mining as having a negative impact on people and the environment. Mining gemstones would be viewed as a way to bring economic benefit and environmental stewardship to potentially thousands of remote miners and their dependents.
In a remote exotic biome deep in Brazil, a model is forming around a unique gem resource known as Bahia golden rutilated quartz (figure 1). This material is sourced from the Rio dos Remedios group in the Espinhaco supergroup, a 1.7-billion-year-old narrow volcanic sequence with a range of unusual elements including yttrium, lanthanum, neodymium, titanium, iron, barium, and gold. The author and Kendra Cook have been associated with this mining community since 1983. In recent years, the author has helped to formalize operations and register miners into cooperatives. An initiative to implement sustainable economic, environmental, and cultural activities in this ASM community and connect it to our industry is underway, including the formation of a local NGO specifically to advance this initiative for the region. The aim is to create stories that add relevance to the jewelry industry, while initiating sustainable and measurable benefits for our first tier suppliers and their communities.

Figure 1. Natural golden rutilated quartz from the Rio Remedios group in Novo Horizonte, Bahia, Brazil. Photo by Brian Cook.
REFERENCES
Fritz M., McQuilken J., Collins N., Weldegiorgis F. (2018) Global Trends in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): A Review of Key Numbers and Issues. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg, Canada, 91 pp. https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/igf-asm-global-trends.pdf

United Nations (n.d.) Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform: Sustainable Development Goals. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs
The Impact of Fluorescence on Current Marketability
Richard B. Drucker
Gemworld International, Inc., Glenview, Illinois
According to GIA research conducted over a ten-year period and reported in Gems & Gemology (Moses et al., 1997), about 25–35% of all diamonds submitted to the GIA laboratory exhibited fluorescence. The listed range of fluorescence on a GIA grading report is none, faint, medium, strong, and very strong. Blue was the most common fluorescence color, accounting for about 97% of all cases (Shigley, 2014). About 10% of the occurrences of blue fluorescence were rated as medium or stronger. Other possible colors include yellow, green, orange, white, and red, with yellow a distant second. However, the GIA laboratory only lists the color when the fluorescence is medium or stronger, so data on the frequency of other colors is minimal.
Past research has found that in almost every case, any degree of fluorescence is a deterrent to market value. Prior to the late 1970s and early 1980s, some diamonds with fluorescence traded for a premium, but it was perhaps the investment craze and the demand for no fluorescence that started the initial deductions for fluorescence (Drucker, 2014). Over the years, the negative perceptions persisted and discounts became greater. Current research shows that the pricing deduction on average could be anywhere from a few percentage points for faint fluorescence to 30% for very strong. This study analyzed more than 89,000 diamonds to determine the approximate distribution of fluorescence strengths and colors for diamonds in the most popular carat weights and grades. The analysis also determined approximate discounts to the wholesale selling prices associated with these fluorescence categories, analyzing more than 76,000 diamonds.
Results of the study showed that 33.5% of the diamonds in this sampling did exhibit fluorescence, similar to results of the previous GIA research. Where the GIA research had about 10% of those fluorescing medium or stronger, this study indicated 15% at medium or stronger (of those that fluoresced). In the GIA study, 97% of those that exhibited fluorescence fluoresced blue, whereas in this study 99% were blue.
The chart below shows the discounts, calculated from this study, that are currently associated with fluorescent diamonds on the market. These percentage discounts have continued to be greater than in years past when similar research was conducted by this author.

REFERENCES
Drucker R.B. (2014) Effects of fluorescence—New research on pricing. World of Gems Conference, Rosemont, Illinois, September 21–22.

Moses T.M., Reinitz I.M., Johnson M.L., King J.M., Shigley J.E. (1997) A contribution to understanding the effect of blue fluorescence on the appearance of diamonds. G&G, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 244–259, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.33.4.244

Shigley J.E. (2014) Fluorescence, what’s changed. World of Gems Conference, Rosemont, Illinois, September 21–22.
Impacts and Expectations for the Fourth Industrial Revolution in Gemstone Faceting
Lee W. Haynes
LWH, Berkeley, California
As the world enters the Fourth Industrial Revolution, powered by computer and robotic technologies, the nineteenth- and twentieth-century manufacturing practices within the gemstone industry are being transformed. From computer numerical control (CNC) machining to high-resolution scanning and faceting optimization tools, yield and brilliance have increased substantially, and automation is projected to grow as more material is processed. These issues do not come without challenges and risks, and the economic model of low-cost labor to high-skill processing is a slow progression. In reviewing current automation processes and future technologies, there is a shift to enhance human capabilities with complementary automation processes. This shift is driven by many factors, from ease of implementation to material-dependent variables. Although there is progress in automation, there are challenges that constrain full automation. As a result, we will continue to see a need for continuing manual and human-driven processing for the next generation as full automation is adopted slowly based on labor force skill sets and capital return on investment (ROI) for new technology.
The Importance of Precious Metal Marks: Past, Present, and Future
Danusia Niklewicz, William Whetstone, and Lindy Matula
Hallmark Research Institute, San Francisco
Today there is a lack of understanding of the various types of marks that can be found on precious metals. This presentation seeks to enlighten the observer about the changing variety of marks and to better understand their importance.
When looking at the marks on precious metal jewelry, it is important to make the distinction between hallmarks and maker’s marks. They each serve as a guarantee of quality. Maker’s marks are applied by the actual maker or sponsor, retailer, and/or importer, and are generally referred to as a responsibility mark. These are guarantees that, by law, require that the fineness marked on the item actually state the metal’s true fineness.
Hallmarks (figure 1) are applied by a nationally authorized assay office to an item that has been submitted by the manufacturer or sponsor for scientific testing to verify the precious metal’s actual purity or fineness. Depending on the country and their hallmarking methodology, assay office hallmarks identify not only a metal’s composition but also the country of origin, the city of assay, the year or time period when the item was struck, and the approximate weight or length of that item. Hallmarks can be compared to an independent laboratory grading report on a gemstone or diamond: Both provide trusted testing and unbiased reporting of the facts about the item. While a diamond may have the report number inscribed on the stone’s girdle, a hallmark reports the test results by being struck into the mounting itself.

Figure 1. This hallmark says in Arabic that the ring was marked in Damascus, Syria, and the metal is 18K gold. Photo by Danusia Niklewicz, Hallmark Research Institute.
Not all countries in the world hallmark, but most European, Middle Eastern, North African, and some Asian countries have legislated compulsory hallmarking as a strong measure for consumer protection against the under-karating of precious metals so often found in non-hallmarking countries.
In the United States, the 1906 Gold and Silver Stamping Act, along with its 1961, 1970 and 1976 amendments, has clearly stated that any item with a fineness stamp (e.g., 18K, 950Pt, Sterling, etc.) must also be stamped with a federally registered maker’s or responsibility mark, referred to as a trademark. While manufacturers and retailers are required to register their marks as trademarks before applying a fineness mark on any precious metal item, the laws unfortunately are seldom enforced. Thus, many small companies, artisans, and importers do not register their trademark names or marks. Consequently, there are limited resources available for identifying modern U.S. maker’s marks, especially from the second half of the twentieth century.
As global foreign trade streamlines, so does the need for easier trading between hallmarking countries. Previously, when importing items between hallmarking countries, the item’s hallmarks had to be re-verified by a second assaying and hallmarking before being allowed for sale. In 1972, the Hallmarking Convention members signed a treaty to uphold consistent standards between member assay offices. Today, their strength comes from the unity of the 21 contracting member nations, all using the same agreed-upon Common Control Marks (CCM) as proof of compliance. These common marks are recognized by each member nation and also accepted by many countries globally. For more information, see www.hallmarkingconvention.org.
Introduced in 1988, Fairtrade and its certification mark have become internationally recognized proof that a product has met the required standards for responsible sourcing. With respect to an item of gold and associated precious metals, a Fairtrade stamp indicates that the metal, from ground to market, has followed verifiably traced fair and economic practices. As Fairtrade International notes, “Gold certified to Fairtrade Standards provides small-scale miners and their communities in developing countries the opportunity for better living and working conditions. Fairtrade also certifies Ecological (ECO) gold, which is mined under stringent ecological restoration practices, without the use of chemicals.” It is expected that the FAIRTRADE mark will become more prevalent on items of precious metal in the future. For more information, see www.fairtrade.net/products/gold.html.
Offshore hallmarking originated from the concept that hallmarking at the source could streamline the hallmarking regulations of the importing country. By setting up assay offices in countries that produce and export precious metal jewelry items but do not have the required hallmarking facilities—Indonesia, Thailand, and China, for example—the required hallmarking laws of the destination country can be fulfilled. This expedites the marking needs of the manufacturer/exporter by offering hallmarking services nearby.
Including offshore hallmarking services in Asia, Europe, Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and the Far East, hallmarking now influences nearly 60% of the world’s population. Currently, with no nations in the Americas hallmarking, they are missing out on the best proven method of real consumer protection in the trade of jewelry and other precious metal items.
Jewelry Development Impact Index at the University of Delaware
Patricia Syvrud and Saleem H. Ali
Minerals, Materials and Society Program, University of Delaware, Newark
At present, the international jewelry industry lacks any measure or standard of how the sourcing and manufacture of jewelry and its components impacts developing countries. Because of its global complexity and fragmented nature, the jewelry industry supply chain calls for study and monitoring to enable countries and companies to exert a more positive influence, particularly in emerging economies.
After discussions at the Jewelry Industry Summit in Tucson, Arizona, in January 2017, multiple stakeholders within industry, government, and the academic community came together to propose the creation of a comprehensive, ongoing Jewelry Development Impact (JDI) index. The University of Delaware (UD) invited the JDI to become the signature project of a new interdisciplinary, graduate-level academic project, “Minerals, Materials and Society,” under the leadership of Dr. Saleem H. Ali. A grant was awarded by Tiffany & Co. Foundation to create The Gemstone and Sustainable Development Knowledge Hub (GemHub: http://sustainablegemstones.org), which will serve as a research arm within the Minerals, Materials and Society program at UD. GIA distinguished research fellow Dr. James Shigley sits on the GemHub Advisory Board, and senior research scientist Aaron Palke is an affiliated scholar and research partner.
The JDI is conceived as a relative country score that will measure the degree to which the jewelry and gemstone industries impact the economic and social well-being of each country in which they function. Created within the framework of the United Nations indicators of human security, the JDI will also capture examples of responsible sourcing and transparency initiatives that can be replicated, creating a “Roadmap to Responsibility” to assist with the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD’s) Due Diligence Guidelines and environmental, social, and supply chain audits. As an initial step to the conceptualization of the JDI, academic research in the format of comparative case studies was conducted by graduate students at American University’s School of International Service in the fall of 2017 and spring of 2018. Elizabeth Orlando, Foreign Service Officer with the U.S. Department of State Office of Threat Finance Countermeasures, serves as special advisor to this project.
The results of the initial academic research will serve as a basis for the creation of a robust methodology for the JDI. The countries and products presented in this poster are: gold in Peru and diamonds in Botswana (fall 2017) and rubies in Myanmar and lapis lazuli in Afghanistan (spring 2018).
The New Economics of Diamond Mining
Russell Shor
GIA, Carlsbad, California
The discovery of diamonds larger than 50 carats used to be a rare occurrence, but in the past decade many such specimens have been found. The majority of these come from low-yielding “boutique” mines, which have been developed only recently. In addition, many existing mines have changed their diamond recovery processes to preserve larger crystals.
Two factors have brought about these changes:

A vast increase in the number of high-net-worth individuals around the world, particularly in the Middle East, Russia, and China. These people and the dealers who work with them have become very active buyers of large diamonds, both privately and in the major auctions conducted by Sotheby’s, Christie’s, and others. As a result, the per-carat price differential between commercial-size diamonds and those over 10 carats increased nearly fourfold during the previous decade. Such price increases enabled these low-yielding boutique mines to become profitable.
The development of new technologies to help identify larger crystals before they enter the recovery process. Improved X-ray technology can identify large crystals, fancy colors and stones without fluorescence that once might have been missed. In addition, the speed of X-ray identification has improved to the point where such units can be deployed prior to the crushing process, which previously destroyed or damaged many large rough diamonds.

The result is that discoveries of diamonds over 100 carats, a rare occurrence 20 years ago, have become relatively commonplace. Some of the largest diamonds ever discovered, including an 1,109 ct giant (1,111 ct before cleaning) from Botswana’s Karowe mine and a 910 ct stone from the Letšeng mine in Lesotho, have been found in the last ten years.
The case study will be Letšeng, which reopened in 2006. Its ore grade is about 1.5% that of the benchmark of one carat of diamonds per ton of ore. But the per-carat average price of Letšeng’s production ranges between $1,800 and $2,100, compared to the industry average of $118 per carat. Rio Tinto and De Beers mined it unprofitably during the 1970s before closing the operation in 1982. Rising prices for large diamonds in the 2000s have allowed the new owners to open and operate it profitably.
A Rare Nearly Pure End-Member Grossular Garnet with Color-Change Effect
Supparat Promwongnan and Apitchaya Buathong
Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, Bangkok
Most color-change garnets (figure 1) in the gem market are intermediate in composition or solid-solution between pyrope and spessartine end members, with a trace of vanadium or vanadium-plus-chromium responsible for their color-change phenomenon. Some chromium-rich pyrope and grossular-andradite solid-solution with color-change effect have also been reported. In this study, two new color-change grossular garnets were examined at the Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand Gem Testing Laboratory (GIT-GTL). Their UV-Vis spectra (figure 2) and chemical compositions revealed a rare, almost pure end-member grossular with chromium plus iron as the significant color-causing elements.

Figure 1. The distinct color-change effect of two grossular garnets. The 13.18 ct stone (left sample) appears yellowish green with a daylight-equivalent source and brownish red using an incandescent light source. The 6.73 ct stone (right sample) is strong green with daylight-equivalent illumination and purplish brownish red using incandescent light. Photos by Supparat Promwongnan.

Figure 2. Visible absorption spectra of the color-change grossular garnets with typical absorption bands around 432 nm (due to Cr3+ plus Fe3+) and 600 nm (Cr3+). GIT’s tsavorite spectrum shows absorption bands at ~430 and 620 nm toward the red region (due to V3+), while GIT’s color-change pyrope-spessartine spectrum shows bands at ~573 and 415 nm (due to V3+ and/or Cr3+) with small bumps at 408 and 422 nm in the violet region (due to Mn2+). Spectra are offset for clarity.
Rolling Around in the Light—A Spherical Exploration of Gem Optics
Sylvia Gumpesberger
University of Toronto
Optical mineralogy theory has been thoroughly covered in many excellent gemology texts and journal articles, yet newcomers long to bridge the gap between theory and meaningful firsthand witness to the concepts that are so vital to the testing and characterization of faceted gems. The author investigated a variety of polished, transparent, single-crystal mineral spheres (including isotropic, uniaxial, and biaxial) using white light and polarizing filters to illuminate directional optics such as pleochroism, optic figures (interference figures), and their interrelationships through simple, accessible methods.
The spherically polished form of these transparent specimens (figure 1) eliminated the need for an external interference sphere/conoscope, avoiding much of the visual impediment of facet edges and their often confusing color reflections while allowing accurate approximation of angles for easily and successfully navigating and locating light effects.

Figure 1. Synthetic ruby sphere viewed without filters. Photo by Sylvia Gumpesberger.
Using transmitted light and a calcite or London-style dichroscope, it was evident that the greatest color separation of the ordinary (o-) and extraordinary (e-) rays in dichroic uniaxial minerals is at 90 degrees to the optic axis and that this axis, indicated by the optic figure seen through crossed polars and appearing at two opposite ends of the sphere, exhibited no pleochroism through the dichroscope. Further to this, it was clear from using the dichroscope that the e-ray departed in color from the o-ray in increments as the angle of the rays departed from the optic axis to the maximum color divergence or maximum differential absorption at 90 degrees to the optic axis.
Among other observations was the extinction effect. This was  seen clearly down the c-axis in transparent tourmaline spheres, evident to the unaided eye in certain orientations when spheres were rolled slowly over diffused, transmitted light. The extinction direction was then confirmed by observing uniaxial optic figures in the same extinguished locations at opposite ends of the sphere when viewed under crossed polars. Note: In uniaxial minerals like corundum, the unpolarized optic axis direction and c-axis are the same direction, though conceptually different.
Biaxial gem spheres exhibited four typical biaxial interference figures that were easily located, and the 2V angle could be approximated. A dichroscope confirmed that the optic axis directions of biaxial gems also exhibited minimal pleochroism. Strong directional color could be seen in trichroic biaxial minerals such as the spodumene variety of kunzite and synthetic chrysoberyl, even unaided. A dichroscope separated the differentially absorbed wavelengths at angles other than the optic axes.
Rolling double refractive spheres slightly off the optic axis direction when viewed under crossed polars provided an insightful view into the variety of shadow pattern variations of conoscopic interference patterns sometimes seen through a petrographic microscope, when viewing polished thin sections containing crystal grains positioned with the optic axis slightly off-perpendicular to the thin section plane.
An instructional set of polished transparent gem spheres in a gemology classroom or lab can be very effective in engaging students in playful exploration, facilitating helpful observations that students can photograph for their notes, and builds skills and confidence prior to tackling high academic theory or testing small faceted gems. Further exploration could include the observation of directional spectra.
Of note to lapidaries, the preferable direction of color in synthetic ruby, though somewhat subjective, was observed down the optic axis of the sphere. Any angle of double refraction in this specimen exhibited some degree of differential absorption, a necessary consideration when choosing the relative angle of the table facet. Pleochroic spheres reveal the importance of considering directionality in cut design.
Science Has a Place on the Selling Floor
Maureen Moses
Adventure Gemstones, San Diego, California
Gemology, geoscience, and mineralogy—the sciences that help us understand gemstones—are the primary ways to comprehend gemstone rarity relative to the composition of the planet. Additionally, history and anthropology provide context to the value of gemstones, offering perspective on humans’ relationships with one of the most ancient luxury goods. Complete dismissal of the sciences can disproportionally weight the value of gemstones on their durability and beauty. This may result in an inadequate scope of selling points necessary for closing sales, especially for clients new to the high-end gem and jewelry industry. While there are clients who may find this information to be superfluous, preparation of talking points through gemology coursework and continuing education can help build an arsenal of information useful to sales professionals. A problem still exists where recent scientific literature is not disseminated in a meaningful way to the lay public, and the relevance of these discoveries remains masked by the authors’ technical language that is necessary to gain credibility within their own academic circles.
To bring science to the selling floor, Adventure Gemstones provides an additional tool geared to address this professional shortcoming. By utilizing modern science communication practices, the essence of these discoveries can be lifted and digested in a way that can be absorbed at the lay level, while furthering society’s understanding of the geosciences. Talking points, which can now be disseminated through blog posts and social media, will give sales professionals a way to speak to the adventure of gem formation, discovery, and recovery. They can also provide positive anchors for potential buyers to continue to weigh during their buying decisions. Adventure Gemstones seeks to add training modules for sales staff, with in-person trainings at stores and professional events, to give further clarification of modern research, and to democratize the science as a viable resource for the selling floor.
Supplementary Techniques with Potential to Assist in Freshwater Pearl Identification
Artitaya Homkrajae1, Chunhui Zhou2, Ziyin Sun1, and Troy Blodgett3
1GIA, Carlsbad, California
2GIA, New York
3GIA, Flagstaff, Arizona
Real-time microradiography (RTX) and X-ray computed microtomography (μ-CT) are the main techniques used by gemological laboratories to analyze a pearl’s internal structure in determining whether it is natural or cultured (non-bead cultured or bead cultured). Most freshwater non-bead-cultured (NBC) pearls contain characteristic twisted voids or elongated linear features toward their centers that easily separate them from their natural counterparts. However, some pearls possess borderline or overlapping growth features and exhibit external appearances that do not readily assist in their identification.
This presentation covers two supplementary techniques that offer some assistance in the identification of challenging freshwater pearls, specifically between American natural and Chinese NBC. Owing to its rich resource of approximately 300 Unio mussel species, North America has been an important source of natural freshwater pearls for centuries. For  a number of reasons, however, mussel fishing is currently limited in the United States. Thus, most freshwater pearls in today’s market are NBC pearls produced in China.
The first technique is trace-element analysis using LA-ICP-MS. We analyzed 74 natural pearls reportedly from various wild Unio mussel species collected from North American lakes or rivers and 76 Chinese NBC pearls purchased from various sources. Since the pearls formed within different water environments, differences in chemical compositions and concentrations are to be expected. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was applied to the results obtained to provide additional helpful data. To enhance the study, we also included 75 American freshwater cultured pearls (both bead cultured and NBC) that were grown in very specific and well-defined conditions in Kentucky Lake, Tennessee. Therefore, their chemical compositions were likely to be more homogenous than those of the other sample base.

Figure 1. Five pearl-producing freshwater mollusk species collected directly from Kentucky Lake, Tennessee, for the DNA barcoding reference library. Photo by Janet Topan and Diego Sanchez.
The second technique is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) bar coding. The work was first performed on five common pearl-producing species of American mussel collected directly from Kentucky Lake: pink heelsplitter, ebony, washboard, southern mapleleaf, and threeridge mussels. Additional DNA bar coding experiments were conducted on various freshwater pearl samples, and the DNA sequences of eight samples from different origins (Hyriopsis species, Megalonaias nervosa, and Potamilus species) have been successfully identified. If it can be proved that the DNA of a specific pearl matches a native U.S. mussel species, this would in theory suggest it is natural, since no commercial culturing exists in the United States today. Even though the washboard mussel was once predominantly used to culture American pearls, most American NBC pearls contain unique internal structures that, combined with their characteristic external appearance, allow them to be separated from natural pearls.
LA-ICP-MS and DNA techniques have the potential to help in determining the identity of freshwater pearls. Further studies on samples from various geographic locations and an even larger data set are needed for trace-element analysis. The DNA barcoding technique is conclusive in identifying mussel species, provided enough DNA can be extracted. However, the analysis requires a suitable sample size, and this may preclude its use on historical and valuable items.
University of Arizona Gem and Mineral Museum and Endowed Chair in Gemology
Zakaria Jibrin, Eric W. Fritz (presenter), and Robert T. Downs
Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson
The University of Arizona Gem and Mineral Museum in Tucson supports and advances the study of gems and minerals through the quality and scope of its mineral collection and exhibits. The museum fosters an appreciation for the wonders of Earth and our solar system, while serving the needs of students, faculty, and the general public. To further this mission, the university is building a state-of-the-art gem and mineral museum in Pima County’s historic courthouse (figure 1) featuring a mineral evolution hall, the Arizona Mining & Minerals Gallery, and a gem hall that includes a vault for special exhibits. The space will encompass approximately 11,700 square feet.

Figure 1. The historic Pima County courthouse will be the new home of the University of Arizona’s Gem and Mineral Museum. Courtesy of Pima County, Arizona.
The university’s 40,000 specimens will be housed in the new facility. The museum is offering partnerships with organizations and entities related to gems and minerals. This Community Outreach Education Group will have space for offices, public meetings, classrooms, and skill-building workshops.
One of the more exciting aspects of the new museum will be its  laboratory with a unique public viewing area where visitors can observe scientists working on gem and mineral research. The lab will feature the latest technology for characterizing minerals and authenticating gemstones: Raman and infrared (IR) for vibrational spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) to characterize the crystallographic and structural properties, and mass spectrometry for chemical and isotope analysis of gemstones and minerals.
An undergraduate program and a graduate program for master’s and PhD students emphasizing gemological research and skills, along with an endowed professorship, are made possible through a collaboration with The RealReal luxury consignment company. The Gemology Professor will be required to sustain a world-class research program, obtain grants, and publish in peer-reviewed journals. He or she will interact with the existing mineralogy program and share lab facilities such as the X-ray diffractometer, the Raman and IR spectrometers, the electron microprobe, the LA-ICP-MS instrument, and other advanced equipment. The professor will be able to choose his or her own research interests, but it is expected that they will integrate with the university’s RRUFF project and provide expanded outreach to the gem trade by adding to the gem database (rruff.info) that is freely available online. @chapter:7


Publication Year: - Title: Summer Fashion Ideas: Colorful, Playful Jewelry Abstract: As summer heats up, stylish women will keep their cool with sophisticated, playful jewelry with an accent on color.

There is an emphasis on delicate pastels in summer jewelry – the kind you would find on a baby’s blanket: powder blue, soft turquoise, blush pink, mint green, and pale yellow. Translated into gemstones by gem and design experts at GIA, this means aquamarine, blue topaz, blue and pink sapphire, pink and green tourmaline, peridot, citrine, yellow sapphire and chalcedony – and don’t forget about the classic pearl. For the ultimate in flattery to all complexion types, look for soft, luminescent gems in misty colors such as pearl, moonstone, chalcedony, rose and smoky quartz.

With all casual, warm-weather fashions, the must-have jewelry items are playful and full of movement. Consider a sun, moon, or star pendant in silver, gold, or dotted with gemstones, worn swinging from a long rope or leather cord. The season’s dangling earrings can reach nearly to the shoulders, and are often capped off with sparkling beads or briolettes (teardrop-shaped gems that are faceted or smooth).

The shapes of the jewelry, like the cut of the clothes, are classic yet modern for the summer. Favored motifs include hearts, circles and ovals, and necklaces feature repeating patterns of geometric links. In pendants and earrings, look for designs within designs, such as a series of concentric circles or hearts within hearts. Rings have soft shapes too, with smooth, domed cabochons in oval and round shapes.

Another strong theme for summer relies on color to make its point. This look, more sophisticated than the baby pastels, is exotic, with Indian/African/Asian themes alive with vibrant patterns and colors. Necklaces and pendants are worn in multiples; earrings are bold and oversized; and a single cuff or multiple bangles cover the arms.

Animal patterns, such as leopard, tiger, and zebra motifs, remain strong in clothing and accessories. Decorative designs such as paisleys, calligraphy, petals, and leaves add punctuation to summer dressing. Choose a large floral pin to wear in your hair or on a shoulder by day; switch to drop earrings dotted with sparkling gemstones by night.

Whether your summer jewelry selections include sparkling diamonds, alluring colored stones, or lustrous pearls, always deal with a reputable jeweler, like a GIA Graduate Gemologist, Graduate Jeweler or Accredited Jewelry Professional. Their training is backed by the world’s foremost authority in gemology – GIA. A GIA Diamond Grading Report should accompany any significant diamond purchase. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Gota de Aceite–Like Effect in a Brazilian Emerald Abstract: Figure 1. This 2.99 ct Brazilian emerald displayed a roiled effect similar to the gota de aceite phenomenon. Photo by Shunsuke Nagai.
Internal optical effects can provide useful information to help identify gemstones and understand their nature and geographic origin. For example, gota de aceite, a roiled or “drop of oil” appearance seen in Colombian emeralds, is considered to be caused by irregularities in the crystal structure due to rapid growth triggered by alteration of the growth conditions (e.g., R. Ringsrud, “Gota de aceite: Nomenclature for the finest Colombian emeralds,” Fall 2008 G&G, pp. 242–245; Winter 2017 Lab Notes, pp. 460–461).

Figure 2. Internal features observed in the 2.99 ct Brazilian emerald. Left: Gota de aceite–like optical effect with columns resembling drops of oil. Note that this image was taken at an angle parallel to the c-axis. Right: Numerous raindrop-like needles and tubes. Photomicrographs by Makoto Miura; fields of view 3.10 mm and 2.46 mm.
Recently, GIA’s Tokyo laboratory examined a 2.99 ct step-cut emerald measuring 10.17 × 8.12 × 5.50 mm (figure 1) for geographic origin determination. This stone exhibited a unique roiled growth structure resembling the gota de aceite effect (figure 2, left) at an angle nearly perpendicular to the table facet. The gota de aceite structure was visible parallel to the c-axis of the emerald based on microscopic and polariscopic observations. From other directions such as girdle to girdle, the effect was not visible and columnar growth structure was observed. The emerald also contained numerous reflective raindrop-like needles and tubes (figure 2, right) and irregular two-phase inclusions. This stone had a refractive index range of 1.580–1.588 and showed no reaction under a Chelsea color filter. The ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared spectrum showed a significant Fe2+ broad band at around 810 nm. These internal and standard gemological features did not match Colombian origin, with the exception of the gota de aceite effect. Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectroscopy revealed a high iron concentration (4540–4800 ppmw) and medium potassium (230–254 ppmw) and lithium (62–68 ppmw) contents. A Brazilian origin was determined based on inclusions and trace element composition (S. Saeseaw et al., “Geographic origin determination of emerald,” Winter 2019 G&G, pp. 614–646).
The gota de aceite optical phenomenon has been used as a characteristic feature of classic Colombian emeralds, but a similar pattern was previously reported in a Zambian emerald (Winter 2017 Lab Notes, pp. 460–461). The similarity in the growth pattern suggests that the growth conditions causing the rapid emerald crystallization were similar, although the geological origins and chemical compositions of both emeralds are different. As several microscopic studies on emerald have concluded (e.g., S. Saeseaw et al., “Three-phase inclusions in emerald and their impact on origin determination,” Summer 2014 G&G, pp. 114–132; Winter 2017 Lab Notes, pp. 460–461), inclusions and internal features may not always be helpful in determining geographic origin, and the gota de aceite effect may not offer enough evidence for Colombian origin. Careful observation of other inclusions combined with advanced testing is required for origin determination of emerald. @chapter:10


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Stellate Zircon in a Paraíba Tourmaline Abstract: Zircon needles in a stellate formation observed in a 1.17 ct blue-green Paraíba tourmaline. Photomicrograph by Nicole Ahline; field of view 2.18 mm.
While examining a 1.17 ct blue-green Paraíba tourmaline with a fiber-optic light, the author observed a remarkable set of stellate inclusions (see above). The striking suite consisted of one larger cluster with scattered smaller needles trailing behind it. Reflective lighting revealed needles breaking the surface with a different luster from the host tourmaline. Raman spectroscopy identified the needles as zircon.
Tourmalines form in a pegmatite environment and contain inclusions that reflect this type of growth, most notably fluid inclusions, transparent crystals, and tubular inclusions. Zircon has been observed in tourmaline as prismatic or rounded crystals. The zircons in this 1.17 ct Paraíba tourmaline were atypical as they were needles and in a stellate formation. This type of zircon morphology has been previously documented in morganite (Winter 2013 Lab Notes, pp. 253–254), but stellate inclusions, specifically those composed of zircon, are a rather unique find. The stellates in this Paraíba tourmaline make the gemstone quite unusual. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 1992 Title: Fall 1992 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Alexandrite
Fracture Filling in Diamond
Damage to Fracture-Filled Diamonds: In Cutting and Cleaning
Unusual Features in Diamond
Repaired Jadeite
Cat's-Eye Opal from Brazil
Hollow Pearls
Hollow Pearl in an "Antique" Pendant
Update on Treated Black Mabe Pearls
Dyed Sapphire as a Ruby Imitation
Large Cat's-Eye Zircon

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Books: Ruby & Sapphire:A Collector’s Guide Abstract: By Richard W. Hughes, 384 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by the Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, 2014, $99.00.

Ruby & Sapphire: A Collector’s Guide has surpassed my grandest expectations. Richard Hughes’ eloquent prose, combined with magnificent photos, is a masterful tribute to the people from faraway lands who find and fashion these gems to brighten our world. This book is an indispensable treasure trove of information that will serve as a guide to help navigate the gem underworld. It also rivals any coffee table book, featuring beautiful photos that Hughes, his wife, and their daughter captured over many journeys together.

As Hughes notes in the foreword, his focus is on the relationship between people and gems, which he calls “humanistic gemology.” While many artisanal small-scale miners toil for years without success, he explains, some do strike it rich, instantly elevating them and their families into a new realm of existence. As Hughes points out, however, wealth does not always bring happiness and can often be fleeting. One of my favorite sidebars is the legend of Darky Garnet, who arrived in Rubyvale, Australia, with only a wheelbarrow full of worldly possessions. Garnet struck it rich, lived like a king, shared his wealth with friends and strangers, and left penniless with only his wheelbarrow and the shirt on his back. He is celebrated to this day with an annual tribute one must read to believe.

The first chapter features colorful illustrations and photos of ancient frescos, mines, and jewelry dating back hundreds and even thousands of years. Hughes suggests that Sri Lankan traders brought rubies and sapphires to Europe in early Greco-Roman times, making them the earliest stones of value tendered for international trade and commerce. Today, a gemstone’s value is defined by its beauty, rarity, durability, and transportability. This chapter continues with the varied and abundant history associated with the search for and fashioning of corundum. Ruby and sapphire were frequently mistaken for other gems such as spinel and lapis. It was not until the advancement of mineral science in the 17th and 18th centuries that these two members of the corundum family were fully understood. Another major obstacle in the understanding of gems relates to nomenclature, or “wordsmithing” as Hughes aptly puts it; these issues still exist in the trade today. Hughes states that until the early 19th century, the word “oriental” was used as a prefix to describe gems that could achieve a higher polish because of their superior hardness. Thus oriental topaz actually referred to yellow sapphire, while oriental amethyst referred to purple sapphire. In 1805 Rene Just Haüy formally combined these and other sapphires, along with ruby, into the group now known as corundum.

The chapter on source countries takes the reader on an incredible adventure to ruby- and sapphire-producing countries, providing a virtual tour of these fascinating locales. Hughes begins with a clear, concise explanation of the geologic forces that led to the conditions required for gemstone mineralization. Fascinating details are provided about the people, mining, and production in the major corundum sources: Southeast Asia, Central Asia, Australia, Africa, and North America.

Hughes then shares many secrets of the trade to help collectors make educated decisions. Details of what to look for in color, clarity, cut, and country of origin are clearly conveyed, but the reader is encouraged to always go with personal preference. In the case of ruby, the market tends to favor stones with a more intense color, but Hughes advises not to overlook those of slightly less saturation that might offer more brightness and versatility. A sidebar titled “Clarifying Clarity” provides delightful insight on how to judge a gem’s internal issues. He suggests that the budding collector “develop perspective” through research, visits to auctions and gem shows, and networking with jewelers and dealers. One of the most interesting excerpts features renowned mineral and gem dealer William Larson expounding on his vast connoisseurship of crystals. Larson shares how his passion for minerals, which began when he was just a boy, has grown into one of the finest private collections of specimens in the world. He offers his suggestions on building a meaningful collection.

One of my favorite sections examines left-brain objective pricing vs. right-brain subjective preference. A graph comparing recent auction results, coupled with gem photos, gives a colorful dimension to the author’s message. Understanding gem value is one of the most difficult things to master. Auction results, scattered throughout the book, provide the reader with tangible examples of some of the finest gems and jewelry sold over the past two decades, such as a 6.04 carat Burmese ruby which sold in 2013 for over US$3.3 million, and an 8.91 carat Kashmir sapphire which sold in 2012 for over US$1.3 million. He also includes wonderful sections on judging stars and cabochons, fancy-color sapphires, and suites.

Chapter four delves into the internal world of forensic gemology, balancing out the book’s earlier focus on people, places, emotion, and lore. Hughes explains the skills and instrumentation needed to identify synthetics, treatments, and country-of-origin characteristics. Well-deserved tribute is paid to the artistic skills and scientific knowledge required to properly capture, identify, and apply microscopic observations. The benefits and drawbacks of gem treatments are also clearly discussed.

Another valuable tool in the gemologist’s arsenal is a reference library. Chapter six gives direction on how to accumulate a useful and refined gemological library. As always, Hughes provides a generous and detailed bibliography, recommending numerous volumes and journals. In the final chapter, many of the amazing photos featured throughout the book are beautifully grouped to help communicate the subtle nuances that make up the diverse corundum family.

Throughout, Richard Hughes spices up the book with his colorful style, personal anecdotes, quotes, and fascinating sidebars. Every gemologist, dealer, connoisseur, collector, and gem enthusiast should own this indispensable work. @chapter:26


Publication Year: - Title: Season’s Sales: US Up 4% to 5%, But China Continues to Lag Abstract: U.S. diamond and jewelry sales increased for the 2018 holiday season, but sales in Hong Kong and China hit a decline because of fears of a trade war with the U.S. and the very volatile stock market. Photo Eric Welch/GIA

The U.S. holiday season saw strong sales all the way through to the New Year, despite stock market turmoil and the government shutdown. Increases were seen in both brick-and-mortar stores and e-commerce sites.

By all accounts, 2018 was a strong year. De Beers’ surveys showed an increase of 4.4% for the season in diamond jewelry sales over last year, and the National Retail Federation forecast overall retail sales growth of 4% to 5% over 2017.

In early November, Tiffany’s announced that same store sales were up 5% for the year in North America and 7% worldwide for the first three-quarters of the year. The company expected holiday sales to continue in line with this number. Signet Group, which operates Kay Jewelers, Zale Corp and Jared Stores, was predicting a flat holiday season as the company recovers from management turnover, difficulties with its credit operations and retooling from its shopping mall orientation.

Independents seemed to outperform large chains. The Centurion survey of luxury retail jewelers found that 34% of independent retailers experienced sales gains of 10% or more during the week before Christmas compared to 2017, while an additional 24% saw increases of between 6% and 10%. These increases were consistent with the full month between Black Friday and Christmas. Two-thirds of the jewelers surveyed reported that sales were up for the entire year compared to 2017, and slightly more than half of those had rung up increases over 10%.

While one-third of jewelers in the Centurion survey reported sales declines for the final week of the season, only 18% were down for the entire year.

One potentially worrisome trend: While the majority of sales were below $2,500, millennials accounted for only a fourth of their sales on average. Most jewelers surveyed, however, did only a small percentage of their sales online.

This dichotomy in retail sales – some retailers growing while others slow – will only widen, according to a report from McKinsey & Co. It cites the numerous store closings and the possible dissolution of the once too big to fail Sears. The obvious disruptor, of course, is online sales, but it is going deeper than that.

Beyond the obvious, that most retail sales growth will be online and that retailers must embrace “omnichannel” selling, there are a number of other, equally important trends going on. For example, millennials and Generation Z consumers are skeptical of large corporations and established brand names and are opting for newer, “fun” brands that appear to be transparent, approachable and socially responsible.

In addition, some e-commerce sites link consumers directly with manufacturers of luxury goods, while other apps can automate the online search and purchase process. In short, purchasing decisions will more and more be accomplished with help from artificial intelligence and automation.

Retail business in China has been hit by the trade war with the U.S. and the world stock market gyrations. Chow Tai Fook, which accounts for nearly 10% of jewelry sales in Hong Kong and China, reported its same store sales fell 7% on the mainland and 6% in Hong Kong and Macau during the final quarter of the calendar year. “Gem set” jewelry sales fell 5% and 8%, respectively.

November retail jewelry, watch and clock sales in all sales outlets fell 3.9% in Hong Kong, said the Hong Kong Trade Development Council.
DIAMONDS
De Beers will probably return to the market with a large Jan. 21-24 rough diamond allocation after a successful season.

Russia’s Alrosa announced it sold $4.41 billion worth of rough diamond in 2018, a 6% increase over 2017. Sales slowed, however, in final quarter of the year because of a glut of smaller diamonds in inventories and a continuing tightening of bank credit to diamond manufacturers. Alrosa has scheduled its January sales for Jan. 14-15.

The trade will be watching these sales because, while retail demand was good, there are still significant challenges within the middle of the diamond pipeline – continued oversupplies of small diamonds and an ongoing credit shortfall that has pushed a number of firms to the brink of bankruptcy.

Ronnie Vanderlinden, president of the International Diamond Manufacturers Association, said these problems will carry well into the new year.

“We just saw another bank close its Antwerp branch and other banks are continuing to raise collateral requirements,” he explained. “The problem is that banks raising collateral requirements or alternative financers who hold portions of inventory as collateral make it difficult for a company to do business. The goods are no longer theirs.”

One reason credit will not be getting any easier despite improved market conditions is that international banking regulations have not eased up. “There are a lot of regulations and the penalties for violating them are very high, so a lot of banking officials say ‘why bother?’” Vanderlinden said.
LAB-GROWN DIAMONDS
Production costs for a one carat lab-grown diamond have plunged from about $4,000 in 2008 to $300 to $500 today, according to a recent Financial Times report. This makes it possible for De Beers’ Lightbox one carat diamonds, priced at $800, to be made and sold at a significant profit.

The report also said that lab-grown diamonds comprise about 2% of the market (by volume), but this is expanding 15% to 20% yearly. It also noted that the average lab-grown/natural discount is about 43%, compared to 29% at the beginning of 2018.

De Beers’ CEO Bruce Cleaver noted in the report that margins for lab-grown diamonds have been unsustainably high. De Beers said it will spend about $100 million making and marketing Lightbox lab-grown diamonds over the next four years, compared to $10 billion of capital spending and marketing for natural diamonds.

Citing shortages in supply, the Diamond Foundry announced it was raising wholesale prices on its lab-grown diamonds by 15% in January. The company sells stones of less than one carat for $1,000 or less per carat, but larger lab-grown diamonds, which is calls certified-unique, are priced about half the cost of comparable natural stones.

Both De Beers and Diamond Foundry expect to have new production facilities open by year’s end to meet the growing demand. @chapter:27


Publication Year: - Title: Diamond Quality: A Short History of the 4Cs Abstract: The earliest GIA course materials in the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center that mention the 4Cs are from 1949.

	Diamond color, clarity, cut and carat weight are collectively termed the “4Cs” – the factors that, when combined, define a diamond’s quality and ultimately determine its value. Prior to 1940, however, there were no standard terms or factors that defined diamond quality.

	Going back as far as the 1500s, merchants used many different and inconsistent terms to talk about the four elements of a diamond’s value. “Without flaws” or “with imperfections” were used to describe clarity; “tincture” or “tint” to describe color; and terms such as “make well” or “made poorly” to describe cut. “Carat” to describe weight is the only term that was consistently used from the 1500s to today. Because of these different and inconsistent terms, there was no easy way for jewelers to communicate those elements of value to their customers or for their customers to remember them.

	In the early 20th century, Robert M. Shipley, a former retail jeweler, undertook the task of professionalizing the American jewelry industry. To that end, he established GIA in 1931 to provide formal gemological training to aspiring jewelers. Shipley also established the American Gem Society (AGS), a professional guild whose members were GIA graduates.

	Shipley standardized the diamond value terms to color, clarity, cut and carat weight and called them the 4Cs, a mnemonic device to help students and jewelers learn about, remember and explain the factors that determine a diamond’s value.

	Under Shipley’s direction, the term 4Cs became part of industry vernacular through GIA course materials and advertising GIA prepared for AGS-member retailers.

	Teaching Jewelers About the 4Cs

	While it’s not known exactly when Shipley first began to teach the 4Cs at GIA because there are a few gaps in the dates or missing pages from his early course materials, the term appears in newspaper articles in the very early 40s — during the war years — by jewelers who had taken GIA courses. The earliest GIA course material in the archives at the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center in Carlsbad that mentions the 4Cs are from 1949. The text reads:

	“These principal properties can be described as the writer [Shipley] first did in preparing advertising for AGS students as Color, Clarity, Cutting and Carat size − the 4Cs of Diamond Value.”

	A GIA student helped produce the first chart used in GIA’s course materials about the 4Cs, “explaining how diamonds can be compared in value by measuring them with these four rulers.” The term also appeared in the AGS booklet “Diamonds” in 1951, and continues to be part of GIA and AGS materials.

	Advertising Spreads the 4Cs Message

	Beginning in 1940, GIA collaborated with De Beers to create advertising designed to stimulate an interest in diamonds. Jewelers began to use the term 4Cs in news articles as early as 1941.

	Later, Shipley arranged to have Gladys Babson-Hannaford, a lecturer for N. W. Ayer & Son (the U.S. advertising firm that represented De Beers), travel around the country to teach jewelers how to talk about the 4Cs to their customers. One of her tours kicked off in 1947 when she advised jewelers to “explain the four factors determining the value of a diamond. We call them the four Cs.”

	N. W. Ayer & Son wrote “Secrets of the Diamond Expert” for The Jewelers’ Circular-Keystone (now JCK magazine) in 1954. It focused on the 4Cs and the material presented seems to have evolved from the talks given in 1947. It was meant as a “speech for jewelers to use to address consumer groups,” according to a secondary headline in the article.

	While De Beers helped with the advertising campaigns that involved the 4Cs, it was not until August of 1962, when the term had become popular, that De Beers adopted the term 4Cs in its national magazine advertising campaign. It stopped using the term purity and started using Shipley’s term clarity (a word starting with ‘c’).

	Today, the 4Cs of Diamond Quality is the universal phrase for referring to the four qualities that determine the value of any diamond, anywhere in the world. This simple mnemonic device, along with the grading standards and practices GIA also developed, means that diamond quality can be communicated in a universal language so diamond purchasers know exactly what they are buying. @chapter:29


Publication Year: 1982 Title: The Gemological Properties of Chatham Flux-Grown Synthetic Orange Sapphire and Synthetic Blue Sapphire Abstract: Recent rumors in the trade and inquiries to the various offices of GIA's Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc., concerning the commercial availability of faceted flux-grown synthetic blue sapphires prompted the writing of this article. Blue as well as orange flux-grown synthetic sapphires are now commercially available from Chatham Created Gems, Inc., in limited quantities as rough crystal groups and single crystals; they have not yet been marketed as faceted gems. In this article, the author examines the gemological properties of Chatham flux-grown synthetic orange sapphires and blue sapphires. @chapter:9


Publication Year: - Title: Hong Kong Show 2017: Demand Improved, But Still Spotty Abstract: The 2.11 ct cushion cut Argyle Everglow Fancy red diamond is the centerpiece of the 2017 Argyle Pink Diamond Tender. The highlights of the collection were displayed at the Hong Kong show. From left: the Argyle Kalina, a 1.50 ct oval shaped Fancy Deep pink; the Argyle Avaline, a 2.42 ct cushion cut Fancy purple pink; the Argyle Everglow; the Argyle Isla, a 1.14 ct radiant shaped Fancy red; and the Argyle Liberte, a .91 ct radiant shaped Fancy Deep gray violet. Photo courtesy of Rio Tinto.

Demand for loose diamonds was stronger than expected at the September 2017 Hong Kong Jewellery & Gem Fair. Most was centered in very specific sizes and qualities, with the market favoring larger companies that carried a full range of goods. Smaller firms that serve market niches found business very slow if they did not have goods to match specific requests.
Demand was strongest for larger (3-plus ct) sizes and medium qualities - I to K colors and SI clarities with Excellent cut grades. The Chinese market is starting to revive, but buyers remained price-conscious and avoided the top colors, exhibitors said.
The reason for such selectivity is that inventory levels of polished stones remain quite high, so retailers were buying only goods for which they had an immediate need.
“Demand has improved,” said an executive of one major diamond firm. “But it’s still not high enough to offtake current inventories in any meaningful way.”
Inventories continue to concern banks serving the diamond industry. Three years ago, most of those banks instituted a requirement that a third party auditing firm must confirm the values of inventories. De Beers and other producers have instituted the same requirement “to ensure their knowledge of diamond stocks is accurate,” said the executive.
Fancy color diamonds remained a staple of the Hong Kong shows, but still-lofty prices put a damper on buying. Prices for fancy pinks, blues and top yellows have remained stable in the past two years, which removes the urgency to “buy now or pay more later,” dealers said. In reality, dealers have little room to maneuver on prices because competition to buy these stones from producers remains intense, along with the prices.

Attendance was up at both Hong Kong September shows. Demand for loose diamonds was stronger than expected, but buying was cautious for gemstones and finished jewelry. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA
ARGYLE PINK DIAMONDS
Argyle previewed its 2017 pink diamond collection at the Peninsula Hotel in conjunction with the Hong Kong show. The centerpiece of the collection is a 2.11 ct GIA-graded Fancy red, VS2 diamond Argyle calls the Argyle Everglow, named after a song by the British group Coldplay. The cushion cut diamond attracted most of the attention at the gathering.
The four other diamonds from the 58-stone collection on display were: the Argyle Isla, a 1.14 ct radiant cut Fancy red; the Argyle Avaline, a 2.42 ct Fancy purple-pink; the Argyle Kalina, a 1.50 ct. oval Fancy Deep pink; and the Argyle Liberte’, a 0.91 ct. Fancy Deep gray-violet.
ALROSA DIAMONDS
Alrosa conducted its annual tender of polished and rough diamonds at the show. The centerpieces of the tender were the five D, VVS1 “Dynasty Collection” diamonds cut from the 179 ct The Romanovs rough diamond found two years ago. The largest stone is a 51.38 ct round brilliant, followed by a 16.67 ct pear shape, a 5.05 ct oval, a 1.73 ct pear and a 1.39 ct oval.
Alrosa’s deputy director of sales, Evgeniy Tsybukov, said the rough was approximately oval shaped but had a feather that would make the polished an SI clarity.
“We studied the diamond for six months, deciding whether or not to try for a 100 carat oval,” he said. “Then we decided to make multiple diamonds from the stone.
The Dynasty collection diamonds will be sold via online tender in October.
SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS
Synthetic diamond sellers took several spaces at the show, but prominent signs at the entrances to the diamond hall at the Asia World Expo announced that many of the 1,000 + diamond firms exhibiting had pledged to sell only natural diamonds. Accordingly, the companies selling synthetic diamond were housed across the hall in the colored stone area.

These carved Paraíba-type tourmalines weigh a total of 58.08 carats and were offered by Kleinman & Co., San Francisco.  Photo by Russell Shor/GIA
COLORED GEMS
Demand for colored stones, pearls and finished jewelry was slow for the second straight year according to exhibitors, as the Chinese market continues to struggle with a reduction in demand for luxury products.
Dealers reported that sales of higher quality, untreated ruby, sapphire and emerald were better than last year, though nowhere near the levels of three years ago. Demand for quality jade also rebounded from last year, despite continually lofty prices.
Requests for treated stones were very slow, they said, and even less so for heavily treated low-priced goods, such as glass-filled ruby and diffusion-treated sapphire.
There was much more Paraíba-type tourmaline offered at this show than previous years, mostly at high prices, except for the obvious greenish material. By contrast, tanzanite, which had been shown in abundance at previous shows, was scarce.
Traffic at the finished jewelry section of the show in the Hong Kong Convention Centre was much stronger than last year, but business was concentrated on the high end. Exhibitors selling more commercial lines said orders tended to be cautious and limited – filling in inventory of popular items. @chapter:30


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Colombian Emerald Mining:Will the Giant Awaken? Abstract: R. Ringsrud. “Peñas Blancas: An Historic Colombian Emerald Mine,” The Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 33, No. 7–8, 2013, pp. 187–199. Photo courtesy of Edward Boehm.

              Emerald is the green variety of the mineral beryl, colored by chromium and vanadium. These trace elements are normally concentrated in quite different parts of the Earth’s crust, and only complicated geological processes enabled these contrasting elements to find each other and to crystallize into one of the most beautiful gemstones.

Colombian emeralds are mined from two belts within a mountain range known as the Eastern Cordillera. The western zone hosts, from north to south, the Peñas Blancas, Cosquez, La Pita, Muzo, and Yacopi mining regions; the eastern zone hosts the Chivor (Somondoco) and Gachala mines. These mines are located in the state of Boyacá, and access is difficult.

Colombian emeralds formed through a hydrothermal-sedimentary process. The geochemical processes for both the western and eastern zones are basically the same. The emeralds occur in organic rich shales and limestones. The fractures in the shales allowed hydrothermal fluids to infiltrate and deposit emerald and other accompanying minerals. This deposition occurred in several episodes involving heat and sometimes violent pulses of pressure. Fluid inclusions of the solutions from which the emeralds were formed became trapped during the crystallization process. These fluid inclusions represent a geological “fingerprint.”

Peñas Blancas emeralds are slightly bluish green, with little color zoning and a velvety appearance. One unique characteristic of the rough material is called “cascocho,” which refers to the crystals’ tendency to have pits and cavities due to secondary chemical etching. The abundance of quartz as a vein mineral differentiates Peñas Blancas from other emerald mines in the area.

Trapiche emeralds are perhaps the rarest and most memorable of “pattern” gems. Trapiche is the Spanish word for a spoked wheel used to grind sugar cane, which bears a striking resemblance to the pattern in these emeralds. Two distinct growth regimes are responsible for the formation. First, the central tapered core grows under hydrothermal conditions. Then, growth conditions change and both emerald and albite are formed. The hexagonal prism faces of the core maintain their uniform growth, producing pure emerald, while areas growing from the edges between prism faces do not and are filled with albite. This results in six sectors of clear emerald, and six of predominantly albite and minor emerald. Trapiche emeralds are cut into cabochons to display the beautiful spoke-like star. In the 1960s and 1970s, many large trapiches from Peñas Blancas found their way into collections all over the world.

Colombian emeralds are among the world’s finest in terms of quality. The Andean nation is still one of the main emerald producing countries, alongside Brazil and Zambia. A lack of investment and mechanization at aging mines led to a decline after easily accessible gems became scarce. Heavy overgrowth has inhibited geologic exploration, and prospecting has been hindered by remoteness, steep topography, and a difficult social climate. A sound government policy along with investment and thorough prospecting could tap the full potential of the Colombian emerald deposits. @chapter:0


Publication Year: 2017 Title: Book Review: Italian Jewelry in the 20th Century Abstract: By Melissa Gabardi, hardcover, 335 pp., illus., publ. by Silvana Editoriale S.p.A., Cinisello Balsamo, Milan, 2016, US$75.00.

This richly illustrated book offers a chronological history of jewelry produced in Italy from 1900 to 1990. Author Melissa Gabardi, a decorative arts historian and curator, presents these jeweled treasures in layers of context. Throughout the book, she provides readers with historical perspectives on the political, social, and economic events that shaped Italian society, and the world, during the different eras. Among the gripping illustrations is one from the Sunday weekly La Domenica del Corriere from December 1935, during Italy’s Fascist period, depicting Mussolini’s invented “Wedding Ring Day.” It shows a woman’s hand as she drops her gold wedding ring into an upturned soldier’s helmet, filled with others’ wedding rings and festooned in the colors of the Italian flag. Below, the caption reads, “L’offerta d’amore e di fede delle donne d’Italia” (“The offer of love and faith by the women of Italy,” using fede, a word for “faith” that also means “wedding ring”).

Gabardi provides additional context with a 26-page section containing the biographies of the more than 70 Italian jewelry artists, families, and houses presented or referenced in this book. She includes the long-established Torrini family, whose Florence goldsmith workshop opened in 1369, and the line of Musys, jewelers to generations of royalty, who began in Turin in 1707. The biographical sketches help readers less familiar with Italian jewelry history navigate the sometimes tortuous text as Gabardi describes the influences of other jewelers or methods and motifs that emerged across the eras.

Finally, the more than 300 images are bookended by four chapters written by three contributors who provide additional insights into the master goldsmith nucleus of the innovative Padua School, the transformation of Arezzo from a town known for industrial workshops to “Made in Italy” cache, the handcrafting and goldsmithing rise of Valenza, and the expansion of the gold industry in Vicenza.

The mostly full-color images are drawn from a wide range of sources and help frame the actual photographs of these captivating pieces, 150 of which were part of a four-month exhibit at Milan’s Poldi Pezzoli Museum until March 2017. The book features archival images from magazines, posters, and sales catalogues, as well as lithoprints and sketches. The jewelry includes museum pieces and dozens of rarely seen pieces from private collections and the archives of the individual jewelry houses, such as the Fasano and Floriana Cusi Archives. Among the many standout pieces are the rings and brooches of Enrico Serafini (1913–1968) of Florence. Gabardi does not neglect the killer B’s of Buccellatti and Bulgari or later-century jewelers known for luxury fashion and celebrity clientele, such as Pomellato and Damiani.

The author’s diligent research also preserves the legacy of lesser-known Italian jewelers, including those who broke with earlier French influences. Gabardi provides a comprehensive, sensitive, and scholarly appreciation for many Italian jewelers who might otherwise be lost to the ages, whether through lack of successors, failed partnerships, tragedy, or engulfment by global tastemakers. These pioneers ushered in waves of jewelry artistry rooted in an Italian spirit that survived the setbacks of war and hardship to emerge as an international paragon of craftsmanship and style.

Although the writing style sometimes takes readers on a bumpy ride, the book offers those who hold on a panoramic journey that captures the origins of modern Italian design. Jewelry designers, historians, and lovers of all things Italian will appreciate this uniquely curated effort. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 1999 Title: Summer 1999 G&G Book Reviews Abstract: “The Complete Handbook for Gemstone Weight Estimation”
By Charles I. Carmona, 427 pp., illus., publ. by Gemania Publishing, Los Angeles, CA, 1998. US$59.95

“Gemmologist’s Compendium, 7th Edition”
By Robert Webster, revised by E. Alan Jobbins, 240 pp., illus., publ. by N.A.G. Press, London, US$35.00

“Christmas Jewelry”
By Mary Morrison, 158 pp., illus., publ. by Schiffer Books for Collectors, Atglen, PA, 1998. US$18.95

“Glossary of Mineral Synonyms”
By Jeffrey de Fourestier, 442 pp., illus., Special Publication 2 of The Canadian Mineralogist, publ. by the Mineralogical Association of Canada, Ottawa, Canada, 1999. US$50.00

“The Photo-Atlas of Minerals”
Developed by Anthony R. Kampf and George Gerhold, produced by The Gem & Mineral Council, Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Los Angeles, 1998. US$49.95.

“Mani-Mala, or A Treatise on Gems”
by Sourindro Mohun Tagore, reprinted by Nandishkor R. Barot, 1,046 pp., illus., publ. by Mehul Barot, Philadelphia, PA, 1996, US$200

“Edelsteine: Symbole der Schönheit und der Macht (Gemstones: Symbols of Beauty and Power)”
by Edward J. Gübelin and Franz-Xaver Erni, 240 pp., illus., publ. by Verlag Hans Schöner GmbH, Königsbach-Stein, 1999 [in German], US$43.00

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:18


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Quarterly Crystal: Heavily Etched Blue Beryl Crystals Reportedly from Pakistan Abstract: Figure 1. Three blue beryl crystals showing the heavily etched and corroded appearance typical of this material. The largest crystal is 236.8 g, while the other two weigh 16.1 g (left) and 13.8 g (right). Photo by Diego Sanchez.
In previous Micro-World columns, the Quarterly Crystal entry has showcased exceptional crystalline specimens masterfully crafted by geological forces. In some cases, however, it is the darker destructive forces of nature that produce a fine mineral specimen. In 2018, Raza Shah (Gems Parlor, Fremont, California) began unearthing heavily etched dark blue beryl crystals from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in northern Pakistan. Bryan Lichtenstein (3090 Gems, San Francisco, California) submitted three of these crystals to GIA’s Carlsbad lab for identification services (figure 1; see also B.M. Laurs and G.R. Rossman, “Dark blue beryl from Pakistan,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 36, No. 7, 2019, pp. 583–584).

Figure 2. The use of differential interference contrast imaging illustrates the complex growth and subsequent etching processes that lent the beryl crystals their unique appearance. These views are essentially parallel to the c-axis (left) and perpendicular to the c-axis (right). The left image shows terraced, stepped patterns created during crystal growth that are crosscut by oriented, elongate etch pits. Photomicrographs by Aaron Palke; field of view 2.88 mm.
The hexagonal barrel shape that must have characterized the crystals in their initial state is still apparent despite the heavy etching. The geological conditions responsible for beryl growth apparently persisted long enough for many of these crystals to grow to extreme sizes; the largest recovered so far weighs 236.8 g. At some point, these crystals appear to have fallen out of equilibrium with their natural environment and the beryl started dissolving back into the earth. Microscopic observation of the corroded surfaces shows how the dissolution process is controlled by the beryl crystal structure, with dissolution pits and the skeletal remnants of the beryl constrained by the underlying crystal lattice. Differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy can be used to highlight both growth and dissolution features in the same image (figure 2). While Pakistan is an important source of aquamarine crystals and gems, this heavily etched dark blue aquamarine is truly a unique find. @chapter:10


Publication Year: 1994 Title: Spring 1994 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Cubic Zirconia Misrepresented as Diamond
Colored Stones
            Jade-Cutting Factory on the Myanmar-Thai Border
Enhancements
            Instability of Diamond Filling
            Coated Sapphires Misrepresented as Diffusion Treated
TUCSON ‘94
Colored Stones and Organic Material
            Arizona Gem Materials
            Emeralds from Brazil
            "Jurassic Park" Gems and Carvings
            Gems from Madagascar
            Myanmar Gems
            More on Obsidian
            Cat's-Eye Opal from Brazil
            Opal from Ethiopia
            Miscellaneous Notes on Peridot
            Russian Uvarovite Garnet
            Other Russian Materials
            Rubies and Other Gems from Orissa
            Miscellaneous Notes on Tourmaline
Enhancements
            Update on Diffusion Treatment
Synthetics and Simulants
            Beryl Triplets
            Chatham Flux-Grown Pink Synthetic Sapphires
            Douros Synthetic Rubies
            More on Russian Synthetics and Simulants

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:2