Publication Year: 2018 Title: Gem Localities and Formation Abstract: Figure 1. Cobalt-blue gem spinel from Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada. Photo by Lee Groat.

Scientific Study of Colored Gem Deposits and Modern Fingerprinting Methods
Lee Groat
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Most colored gemstones form near the earth’s surface in a wide range of different environments; for example, they can crystallize from igneous magmas or hydrothermal solutions, or via the recrystallization of preexisting minerals during metamorphism. The specific environment determines the types of gem minerals that form, as well as their physical and chemical properties. Field studies of colored gem deposits provide the basis for the scientific understanding of natural gemstone formation and, in turn, the basis for criteria for gem identification.
Gem deposits are of scientific interest because they represent unusual geologic and geochemical conditions; for example, emeralds are rare because they require beryllium and chromium (and/or vanadium), which generally travel in very different geochemical circles. Scientists study gem deposits by collecting rock and mineral samples in the field, mapping geological formations and structures, documenting the environment in which the gems occur, and examining the collected samples back in the laboratory. Such examination yields information on the chemical, temperature, and pressure conditions of gem formation, the associated minerals (often found as distinctive inclusions in the gems themselves), and the age of the deposit. Determining the origin of a gem deposit usually requires a small amount of very specific data. The results are published in publicly available peer-reviewed publications. Such field studies provide clues that can be used to explore for similar types of gem deposits. Challenges include the remoteness of locations that have not been previously studied by geologists, the small size of deposits that precludes study by large mining companies, and the rarity of the gems themselves.
There is much left to do in gem deposit research. For example, despite its growing popularity as a gemstone, there are few studies of gem spinel deposits, especially cobalt-blue spinel (figure 1), for which only one deposit has been studied. To date we know little about what factors control spinel genesis and color.
Recently there has been another reason to study gem deposits: gem fingerprinting, in which modern methods are used to obtain characteristic information. This information is then compared to information obtained from stones from known localities to estimate where a stone with no locality information originated.
Modern fingerprinting methods analyze the chemistry of the stones (using electron probe microanalysis, isotopic analysis, laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry) and/or their solid and fluid inclusions. We know that the chemistry of the stones must reflect the chemistry of the host rock environment; for example, the chromophore in emerald from Lened in Canada is vanadium, and not the typical chromium, because there are no chromium-bearing rocks in the area. With respect to solid inclusions, rubies from Aappaluttoq in Greenland have phlogopite mica inclusions because they recrystallized in a rock at pressures and temperatures where phlogopite is the stable potassium-bearing phase. An example of diagnostic fluid inclusions is the three-phase variety seen in Colombian emeralds (and now also observed elsewhere). New is the use of ICP-MS on fluid inclusions to define part of the fluid assemblage from which the stones were formed; this tells us about the environment of formation, but also may assist in defining a fingerprint for the stone.
Where scientific studies require only very specific data, the more data available from stones of known origin, and the more representative those stones are of the full range of compositions and inclusions found in a specific deposit or country of origin, the more accurate the estimation should be. Unfortunately, these data are generally not made public, so every lab doing fingerprinting is essentially working independently, and there is no way to know how accurate their data and the resulting country- or deposit-of-origin estimates are. We also note that a serious problem in origin determination is that some of the best gemstones will be lacking diagnostic inclusions altogether, which then restricts the tools and observations can be used.
Gem Pegmatites of Ukraine, Russia, Afghanistan, and Pakistan: An Update on Recent World-Class Finds
Peter Lyckberg
National Museum of Natural History, Luxembourg
Soviet-era exploration and mining of some 1,900 chamber pegmatites on the western endo-contact of the 1.7 Ga Korosten Pluton in Ukraine for piezo quartz left an underground mine with 110 km tunnels reached by six shafts. Since 1995, increasingly intensified study of old pockets and documentation by Vsevolod Chournousenko, chief geologist of Volhyn Kvarts (Quartz) Samotsvety Company, has revealed new targets. Work on these targets has produced gem-quality beryl and topaz, the latter in record-size crystals up to 230 and 325 kg. Topaz occurred in around 10% of mined pockets.
For the first time in the history of the huge deposit, the “Peter’s Dream Pocket” was found and exploited from January 2013 through January 2014. It contained bicolor topaz still in situ growing on cleavelandite, associated with zinnwaldite and smoky quartz. The largest topaz, at 325 kg, was named dedushka (grandfather). The Skorkina pocket in the mine was also called “Vsevolod’s Pocket” after the extraordinary chief geologist who found the topaz mineralization, which yielded a record amount of gem topaz crystals. These came from a depth of 6 to 15 m under the floor, where previous Soviet quartz mining efforts had missed them. The largest of these, the cognac-colored “Sergei” (named after the mine owner), weighs 230 kg and is the largest of its kind. Gem-quality bicolor topaz in large sizes, found particularly in shaft 3 and in open pits in the south and north end of the pegmatite field, is unique to this mine. Extraordinary heliodor crystals were mined in Soviet times, and a smaller quantity mined later yielded faceted stones up to 2,500 ct. A recently mined deep cognac-colored cut topaz weighed 9,000 ct. Natural blue and bicolor topaz (figure 1) have been cut to unique stones, also of large sizes. The color spectrum of topaz and beryl from these pegmatites is amazing.
Lyckberg et al. (2009) noted that gem beryl occurs in only 2% of the approximately 1,900 chamber pegmatites that were mined. Pegmatite 521 at 90 m depth, accessed from shaft 2, produced over two tons of gem beryl. Over one ton was exploited in 1982 and in 1992, over the course of five days, five miners excavated 900 kg in a green clay zone. Ninety percent of these specimens were of gem quality. In the same pegmatite, a second pocket produced 100 tons of quartz in the 1980s. During the spring of 2018, exploration of this pocket yielded a giant quartz crystal measuring 1.5 m in diameter. The pocket was found to also contain topaz pseudomorphs.
In neighboring Russia, gem aquamarine was produced in 2017 at Sherlova Mountain and sold to China, while in the Ural Mountains only small quantities for collectors were found. Here the last Russian underground gem pegmatite mine, the Kazionnitsa, closed in 1993. In the Malkhansk Mountains, tourmaline-rich lithium pegmatites with quality rubellite crystals were recovered during 2012–2018 at the Sosedka pegmatite. They were a deep red to purplish red color in crystals up to 35 cm in matrix, while gem-quality specimens measured up to 10–15 cm. Many of these crystals are reminiscent of the rubellite from the Jonas mine in Brazil, although the cranberry red color is not quite as intense. Several other pegmatite veins started to produce again, primarily green tourmaline.
The Hindu Kush pegmatites of Afghanistan discovered at Kala and Paprok villages in 1959 and 1969 have again yielded large quantities of gem tourmaline in a rainbow of colors. The huge Mawi and Kanakana pegmatites both produced large quantities of gem kunzite, gem indicolite, and rare morganites. Gem-quality pollucite and other rare species such as manganotantalite were found at Paprok and in the Pech Valley. Kanakana and several other pegmatites produced large morganites with aquamarine cores in crystals up to 25 cm in diameter growing on lepidolite and cleavelandite. The pegmatite field of Waygal produced perhaps the finest single 7 kg kunzite crystal of any find, a flawless 55 cm twinned deep purple crystal with blue 10 cm termination in a pocket with 10 kg other gem-quality crystals.

Figure 1. This naturally bicolor topaz, measuring 15 cm across, has eye-visible white fluorite inclusions. It was mined from pegmatite 253 (open pit) in 2017. Photo by Albert Russ, courtesy of Volhyn Kvarts (Quartz) Samotsvety Company.
The Karakorum Mountains of Pakistan have continued to produce large quantities of aquamarine and champagne-colored topaz. Please note that beryl and topaz in these very young 4 to 12 Ma pegmatites have not yet been exposed to radiation from K40 in the feldspars or from U/Th-containing minerals during this short time span. Thus, deeply colored yellow heliodor, blue topaz, and deep orange topaz are not to be expected here, simply because they have not had a chance to attain those colors (Unpublished data by the author, 1997). Those colors are typical for pegmatites one or two magnitudes older.
Gem-quality rare species mined include large colorless to light lilac gem pollucite (10–40 cm), amblygonite, manganotantalite, various microlites, triplite, green hydroxylherderite, beryllonite in cogwheel crystals up to 35 cm, and väyrynenite in orange-red gem crystals up to 22 cm long. The area around Shengus and Bulochi, by the Indus River between Nanga Parbat and Haramosh Peak, is the main producer of the rarer species. Since 1985, known hydrothermal mica-lined fissures at Chumar Bakhoor (Unpublished data by the author, 1988; Lyckberg et al., 2013) have been a major source of matrix aquamarine specimens, large crystals for carvings, and much cabochon and bead material, as well as large pink and green gem-quality fluorite, some of which have been faceted.
REFERENCES
Lyckberg P., Chournousenko V.A., Wilson W.E. (2009) Famous mineral localities: Volodarsk-Volhynsk, Zhitomit Oblast, Ukraine. The Mineralogical Record, Vol. 13, No. 6, pp. 11–22.
Lyckberg P. Chournousenko V., Hmyz A. (2013) Chamber pegmatites of Volodarsk, Ukraine, the Karelia beryl mine, Finland and shallow depth vein pegmatites of the Hindukush-Karakorum mountain ranges. Some observations on formation, inner structures, rare and gem crystals in these oldest and youngest pocket carrying gem pegmatites on Earth. In Contributions to the 6th International Symposium on Granitic Pegmatites, pp. 81–83, http://pegmatology.uno.edu/news_files/PEG2013_Abstract_Volume.pdf
A Multidisciplinary Approach Toward Examining the Sources of Emeralds
Raquel Alonso-Perez1, Adriana Heimann-Rios2, James M.D. Day3, Daniel X. Gray2, Antonio Lanzirotti4, Darby D. Dyar5, and J.C. “Hanco” Zwaan6
1Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
2East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
3Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California
4The University of Chicago, Argonne, Illinois
5Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts
6Naturalis Biodiversity Center (National Museum of Natural History), Leiden, The Netherlands
Modern analytical capabilities now allow the combination of nondestructive geochemical and structural studies of emeralds, in addition to detailed studies of their inclusions, to enhance our knowledge of their genesis. Here we present a combination of (1) X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES), to determine local coordination environment and oxidation state of the main emerald chromophores Fe, V, and Cr; (2) Raman spectroscopy, with special emphasis on the correlation between H2O molecules and alkali site occupancy; and (3) inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (solution-ICP-MS) to examine the role of major, minor, and trace elements during emerald formation. Our aim is to develop a systematic approach to characterizing emeralds by identifying key geochemical and structural features that enable provenance and geological origin of emerald deposits to be determined.

Figure 1. Multi-incompatible trace element plot normalized to bulk continental crust (Rudnick and Gao, 2004) for emeralds from Colombia, Madagascar, Zambia, Brazil, Egypt, Nigeria, Australia, and Austria, as well as synthetic emeralds.
In this study, we analyzed 31 emeralds from the Mineralogical & Geological Museum, Harvard University. Preliminary XANES results indicate that chromium is present as Cr3+, although crystal orientation dependence and beryl crystal structural behaviors need to be assessed in detail. Raman spectroscopy results of the OH-stretching vibrations at higher frequencies (3500–3700 cm–1), corresponding to H2O type II and type I, respectively, display an orientation dependence. For a given orientation, there is an increase in intensity of the OH-stretching vibration, and therefore H2O concentration, from Colombian to Zambian emeralds. A strong correlation of peak shape and position of the OH-stretching vibration with three major geochemical indices is also observed. Vanadium concentrations correlate positively with Ge, Rb, Cs, and Lu, and they can be used to distinguish three emerald groups based on their geochemistry: (1) Colombia; (2) South Africa, Nigeria, and Egypt; and (3) Brazil, Madagascar, and Zambia. Whereas a smooth transition occurs from group 2 to group 3, group 1 Colombian emeralds are highly distinctive. The distinctiveness of Colombian emerald indicates the potential for using trace-element abundances to examine geological formation (see figure 1). For example, ratios such as Ga/Rb versus Hf/Ta are also characteristic of each different emerald formation. The combination of XANES, Raman spectroscopy, and ICP-MS studies offers significant utility for not only refining the crystal structure of emeralds but also defining markers for different sources.
REFERENCE
Rudnick R.L, Gao S. (2004) Composition of the continental crust. In H.D. Holland and K.K. Turekian, Eds., Treatise on Geochemistry. Vol. 3, The Crust, Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford, UK, pp. 1–64.
The Proof of Provenance
Klemens Link
Gübelin Gem Lab, Lucerne, Switzerland
Consumers now demand more transparency on the provenance of the goods and services they purchase, an expectation that also applies to luxury products such as gemstones. Yet the gemstone trade has a reputation of being opaque. The Gübelin Gem Lab has kicked off a long-term initiative dedicated to closing this gap. Under the label Provenance Proof, technologies are developed that allow gemstones to be traced back to specific mines in order to provide more transparency throughout the chain of custody. The Provenance Proof initiative is independent of the traditional lab work, and all technologies are made available to the entire industry.
The first technology developed under the Provenance Proof initiative is referred to as the Emerald Paternity Test. The Gübelin Gem Lab has developed a physical tracer using nanolabels to suit the needs of the gemstone industry. These nanolabels are based on DNA fragments encapsulated in silica; with a diameter of 100 nm, they are invisible even to the most powerful optical microscope. The identity of the mine and the miner, the exact location, the time period, and possibly further information are encoded into the DNA. The use of such labels allows the miner to tap the full potential of storytelling about specific provenance, including the possibility of independent proof of this source.
The nanotracers allow the tracing of a gemstone from the end consumer back to the original mine. Nevertheless, the other steps along the value chain remain nontransparent. To shed light on the entire value chain, we developed a digital logbook that allows the user to document all steps and transactions linked to a particular gemstone on its way from the mine to the end consumer. The backbone of this logbook is a hyperledger-based, community-controlled blockchain that is open to the entire industry and accessible with a smartphone. All data is securely encrypted and decentralized and only available to the holder or custodian of a specific gemstone. @chapter:2


Publication Year: 1987 Title: Winter 1987 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Brazilian Diamond Find
            Remarkable Morphology
            A Follow-Up on the 64.83-ct D Diamond Sold at Christie's
Colored Stones
            The 21st International Gemmological Conference
            More on Brazilian Alexandrites
            Colorado Amethyst Find
            The "Lowell" Effect in Amethyst
            Trapiche Emerald Crystal
            "The Stellenbosch Gem Index"
            Double Phenomenon in Sapphire
            Tausonite: A New Mineral
            Transparent Gem Thaumasite
            Topaz from New Hampshire
Synthetics
            Check Your Filter
Announcements
            Diamond Jubilee at L.A. Natural History Museum
            World Gems Expo
            Commission on Gem Materials Meets in Brazil

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:7


Publication Year: - Title: How Does Light Affect How My Diamond Looks? Abstract: GIA’s Diamond Cut Grading system for round brilliant diamonds includes seven components: brightness, fire, scintillation, weight ratio, durability, polish and symmetry. Fire is well illustrated in these loose diamonds that range in size from 2 to 3.03 carats. Photo by Harold & Erica Van Pelt/ GIA

                      If you’ve ever wondered why your diamond looks different in sunlight versus candlelight or daylight versus office lights, it’s because the cut of your diamond responds differently depending on the light and the environment you are in. How – and where – you look at your diamond can greatly change its appearance.

Al Gilbertson, a GIA researcher, says if you think of a diamond like “a series of mirrors reflecting its environment,” it can help you understand how light and location can change the way your diamond appears. When you look at your diamond, you are also seeing a reflection of the surrounding environment, including yourself.

“Often times, the dark parts of the pattern you see in a diamond are a reflection of your face, or the camera – if you’re looking at a photograph,” Gilbertson says. “You can test this yourself. Hold the diamond at arm’s length and look at how bright it is and how the pattern of dark and light appears. Now, gradually bring it closer to your eye. By the time it gets very close, the area of dark pattern in the diamond has grown and is much more prominent.”

“This all means that in every different location you look at your diamond, this ‘series of mirrors’ is reflecting not only the environment, but also you. How close you hold it, and the environment you are in, affects the pattern you see.”

When it comes to the 4Cs of GIA’s Diamond Grading System – color, clarity, cut and carat weight – cut is often the least understood because there are so many components considered in the cut grade. The first three – brightness, fire and scintillation – describe the diamond’s appearance. The remaining four components – weight ratio, durability, polish and symmetry – describe the design and craftsmanship.

Each cut grade – excellent, very good, good, fair and poor – represents a range of proportion sets and diamond appearances. There is no single set that defines a well-cut round brilliant diamond – many different proportions can produce attractive diamonds, which should be bright, fiery, sparkling and have a pleasing overall appearance, especially when the pattern of bright and dark areas is viewed face up, Gilbertson says.

GIA’s Diamond Cut Grading System for standard round brilliant diamonds in the D-to-Z color scale and the Flawless-to-I3 clarity range provides an objective assessment of a diamond's overall cut quality.

GIA studied diamond cut for decades and analyzed tens of thousands of proportion sets before the system was introduced in 2005. It had to be scientific, but also practical and applicable to the jewelry industry and public. There were more than 70,000 observations of 2,300 diamonds in studies conducted across all sectors of the jewelry industry – diamond manufacturers, dealers, retailers and potential customers.

	GIA analyzed tens of thousands of diamonds and proportion sets – and conducted studies with members of the jewelry industry – before the cut grade system was introduced. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA
Diamonds graded in GIA’s laboratories are examined in standardized and calibrated environments – scales for carat weight, optical measuring equipment for all of the diamond’s proportions, light for color grading and 10X loupes for clarity, polish and symmetry help ensure consistency and objective grading.

Most people won’t ever see the diamond in a laboratory, so what type of lighting is best when purchasing a diamond? Gilbertson encourages you to look at the diamond in the type of lighting you will most typically wear it.

GIA’s Cut Grade System offers a description based on research and what most people prefer. But Gilbertson likes to remind people that diamonds are more than that.

“Diamonds and jewelry are very personal,” he says. “People buy jewelry for themselves or receive it as a gift for a specific reason, often to celebrate a special occasion. Choose what you like and what looks best in your opinion. Then, enjoy the adventure of learning all the different appearances your diamond can have.”

	From left: These diamonds display high, moderate and low brightness under fluorescent light. Photos by Eric Welch/GIA @chapter:31


Publication Year: - Title: Baselworld 2016: Spotty Demand; Glitz Out, Rare In Abstract: Lighter traffic and less bling summed up Baselworld 2016. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

	Distinctiveness reigned over bling at the Baselworld show in Switzerland. Traffic was down and business spotty at the March 16-23 show, though a number of exhibitors said demand had improved from last year.

	The smart sellers adapted to a changed market, offering the rare, unusual and distinctively designed in place of (or in addition to) high carat weights for their own sake.

	Exhibitors noted that buyers were looking for jewelry, not investments which require buyers to pay for gemstones with devalued currency, making a profitable resale very difficult. In previous years at the show, sellers of large diamonds estimated that at least one-third of all diamonds larger than 5 carats were bought for investment, not jewelry.

	Indeed, for years, sellers of large, high-quality diamonds and colored gemstones at the Baselworld fair could count on brisk demand from a diverse group of private clients, largely from Russia, China and the Middle East.

	Demand for such stones has slowed considerably for the past two years at the show, however, because of a confluence of events: a concerted crackdown of large cash transactions; a rising U.S. dollar that raises the costs of these goods by 10% to 40% in other currencies; economic slowdown in China and other previously fast-rising economies; and depressed prices for oil and other commodities.

	Colorless diamonds larger than 5 carats were a difficult sell at the show. As one dealer of major stones put it: “Very few buyers from Russia and the Middle East were here − they used to account for a lot of the high-ticket demand.”

	The dealer did say that prices for top stones have not softened as they had for more commercial diamonds because most dealers have the financial capacity to hold on to them until demand improves. Additionally, unlike the commercial diamond market, buyers of large diamonds rarely try to save money by down trading quality.

	“They either want the best, or will not buy,” he said.

	Demand for commercial-sized diamonds did pick up at the show and the market in general. One reason is that prices have fallen to levels where, as one exhibitor put it, “manufacturers and their clients now want to do business.”

	He added that the “green shoots of recovery” are buoying the diamond market, but it remains fragile. “We have to worry whether the mining companies will raise prices again, whether China’s economy has truly hit the floor, whether the problems in major European banks will bring another downturn and whether terrorism and refugees will disrupt the world economy. It’s a lot to worry about, but we must stay optimistic.” The March 22 terror attacks in Brussels, about 350 miles north of Basel, prompted city police and fair management to conduct random searches of attendees’ briefcases and bags and limit access to the show to the front entrances.

	This necklace of 28 “apple green” Namibian demantoid garnets totaled 128 carats. It was offered by Paul Wild of Idar Oberstein, Germany. Please note: this photo was taken using a mobile phone under harsh lighting conditions. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

	Demand for colored stones was extremely selective. Buyers were looking for extremely fine Burmese rubies, no-oil Colombian emeralds and rarer stones like Kashmir sapphires.

	“The ultra-wealthy now want exceptional stones they can get nowhere else,” said one dealer. “But the demand for stones in the $20,000 to $50,000 range is vanishing. The trouble is, once you sell these unique stones, it’s almost impossible to replace them.”

	One dealer was showing a Namibian demantoid garnet necklace with 28 round cuts totaling 128 carats (cts.). The dealer said it took eight years to assemble, particularly because the color of each stone was apple green instead of the customary olive color and, because very few 2-ct. plus demantoids of that color are mined each year.

	Another dealer displayed a 50.09 ct. purple-to-violet color-change sapphire from an estate, which, he claimed, sparked a lot of interest and a pearl dealer offered a 20.48 mm x 23.21 mm drop shaped South Seas cultured pearl.

	This 50.09 ct. color-change, purple-to-violet sapphire offered by Pioneer Gems of New York, was one of the rare and unusual gemstones on offer at Baselworld. The sapphire, set in a ring accented with colorless diamond melee, came from an estate. Please note: this photo was taken using a mobile phone under harsh lighting conditions. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

	The high-end jewelry houses and luxury watch companies that debut their products at the fair put their focus more on design and less on the gem-covered look of a few years ago.

	“Fewer diamonds, strategically placed for maximum show,” is how Chopard put it for their new “Happy Diamonds” watch line. This line had four 5 millimeter (a bit less than 0.5 cts.) diamonds floating inside the watch dial. The focal point was on craftsmanship and design said the company.

	This 5.03 ct. synthetic Fancy Deep blue diamond was on display at Baselworld by New Diamond Technologies of St. Petersburg, Russia. The company claims it is the largest synthetic blue diamond created by the HPHT process. Photo by Russell Shor/GIA

	Even Laurence Graff, known for some of the costliest diamond jewelry in the world, took a step back from ultra-bling to create a more modest line of sapphire and diamond watches in its “Butterfly” collection.

	Swiss watch makers reported that exports of luxury watches made there declined nearly 8% during the first two months of the year, largely because of a 33% decline to Hong Kong (continuing a year-long slide), where the Chinese slowdown has hit hard, and 13.7% fall in sales to the U.S., where ostentatious luxury is falling out of favor.

	Also at the show, a Russian synthetics manufacturer displayed a 5.03 ct. Fancy Deep blue it claimed to be the largest blue diamond ever grown by the HPHT process. The company said it took much more than a week to grow and is in the process of creating additional synthetic blues. @chapter:30


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Tucson 2023 Overview Abstract: Figure 1. This ring from Graff features a 3.95 ct pink sapphire and 7.5 carats of diamond in a spiral design. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Jewelerette Co.
This year’s Tucson shows were well attended, and many vendors were relieved by the strong sales. In fact, the only “complaint” from vendors this year was that for many it was too busy to take even a short break away from their booths. Some vendors reported selling less than in 2022, but still more than in pre-COVID years.
Supply chain issues resulting from lack of output during the pandemic are still being felt. For many sellers demand often exceeded supply, especially for fine-quality colored stones, and prices are increasing to reflect that. With this increase expected to continue, the heavy booth traffic could be due to consumers buying as much as possible at these price points. This corresponds with comments from Nathan Renfro on the GIA show services laboratory, which received a near-record number of submissions this year. As for the trends in materials submitted to the lab, he indicated a typical mix of the major stones: mainly ruby, sapphire, emerald, Paraíba tourmaline, and alexandrite.

Figure 2. Left: “Edison” pearls were available in large sizes and attractive colors. Photo by Si Athena Chen; courtesy of A&B Jewelry. Right: A strand of “Edison” pearls of various colors, in sizes from 14 to 16 mm. Photo by Mimi Travis; courtesy of Yen’s Jewelry & Accessories.

Figure 3. This pin features a 63.92 ct Ethiopian opal with 23.85 carats of conch pearl, 5.88 carats of natural pearl, and 15.85 carats of diamond, set in platinum. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Pioneer Gems of New York.
At the AGTA GemFair and Gem & Jewelry Exchange (GJX) shows, sapphire, large freshwater pearls from China, and Ethiopian opal were among the eye-catching gems. Sapphire was once again a top seller, with blue and untreated colors doing especially well. Many fancy-color sapphires, including ones in saturated hues such as magenta, were available (Pantone’s Color of the Year for 2023 is Viva Magenta) (figure 1). There were multiple sellers of akoya, Tahitian, and “Edison” pearls in both venues. Most notably, “Edison” pearls were available in much larger sizes and with more saturated colors than in years past (figure 2). Non-nacreous pearls were also featured more prominently. Ethiopian opal, first introduced in Tucson in 2009, was very popular this year. It has climbed from a novelty to a gemstone found in top designer luxury jewels, such as the Zoltan David necklace shown on the cover of this issue and the pin featuring both Ethiopian opal and conch pearls in figure 3. Tourmaline from newly discovered pockets in San Diego County’s Pala District was also on display.

Figure 4. Earrings featuring diamond slices and rose-cut rubies. Photo by Mimi Travis.

Figure 5. “Salt and pepper” diamonds containing eye-visible inclusions. Photo by Jennifer Stone-Sundberg; courtesy of Misfit Diamonds.

Figure 6. An unusual 6.95 ct cushion-cut bicolor alexandrite from Madagascar displaying a color change from yellowish green and reddish brown in daylight (left) to yellowish orange and orangy brown in incandescent illumination (right). Photos by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Bryan Lichtenstein, 3090 Gems, LLC.
The demand for one-of-a-kind gems was apparent in all aspects—cut, color, and even inclusions. Nontraditional cuts such as slices, fantasy cuts, rose cuts, kites, and tablets were readily found in gems ranging from rutilated quartz to diamond (figure 4). Beyond nonstandard cuts, stones with obvious inclusions were very popular. The appeal of these stones centers on their uniqueness. “Salt and pepper” diamonds with multiple eye-visible white, gray, and black inclusions were available loose (figure 5) and in jewelry items throughout the shows. Similarly, nontraditional colors for particular varieties, including color-change stones, pastel colors (such as “mint” tourmaline), teal, and bicolor stones, were trending (figure 6). Strong demand for these nontraditional or one-of-a-kind stones comes from small-scale individual designers with the ability to promote to a wide audience via social media.
In 2020, we reported on the first Ethical Gem Fair in Tucson. This year, suppliers at the fair were pleasantly surprised by the number of large jewelry manufacturers who attended for the first time. The trend toward responsible sourcing, traceability, transparency in practices, and social awareness, which has long been a key differentiator for some jewelers, is clearly becoming more mainstream as customers increasingly demand to know more about the origin and impact of the stones they are purchasing. This year, jewelers at AGTA and GJX also emphasized the importance of providing an environmentally conscious product and the increasing demand from clients for full chain-of-custody information on stones. Similarly, many small-scale designers and buyers were seeking out gems mined in the United States, such as Montana sapphire, Oregon sunstone, and amethyst from the Four Peaks mine in Arizona. They noted high demand for these gems, which seem to satisfy consumer sustainability concerns. In many cases, the younger generation of jewelers has brought a focus on ethical and environmentally sound practices to multigenerational businesses.
We hope you enjoy our coverage of the 2023 Tucson gem shows, where you’ll find striking pieces we saw, the latest trends, mining updates, and more.
The following contributed to this report: Lisa Neely, Mimi Travis, Nathan Renfro, Albert Salvato, and Wim Vertriest.

View Gallery

Photo Highlights from the 2023 Tucson Shows @chapter:33


Publication Year: 1981 Title: Ruby in Diamond Abstract: The first substantiated identification of corundum (var. ruby) occurring as an inclusion in natural diamond is presented. The ruby is assigned to the eclogitic suite of inclusions in diamond, and the implications of its occurrence are discussed in relation to the genesis of "eclogitic" diamonds. It is concluded that diamond crystallizes from a melt over a long period of time with possible fluctuations in ambient temperature and geochemical environment. @chapter:29


Publication Year: 1997 Title: Fall 1997 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Extreme Wear on Diamonds
            How Many Diamonds Are There in Arkansas?
Colored Stones and Organic Material
            Prospecting for Beryl in Saudi Arabia
            Lab Alert: Radioactive Cat's-Eye Chrysoberyls
            Demantoid Garnets from Russia
            Namibian Demantoid Garnets
            A Gem-Quality Ettringite Group Mineral, Probably Sturmanite
            Bicolored Grossular-Andradite Garnets from Mali
            More on Opal from Shewa, Ethiopia
            Gem Rhodonite from Australia
Treatments
            “Pink Geuda” Sapphires from Vietnam and Their Treatment
Synthetics and Simulants
            Change-of-Color Synthetic Sapphires Represented as yet Another “New Find”
            GGG from Russia
Miscellaneous
Gems & Gemology Author Wins European Cutting Competition
            Standards Issued for the Jewelry Industry in China
Announcements
            Dates Set for February 1998 Tucson Shows
            Visit Gems & Gemology in Tucson
            International Society of Appraisers

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:1


Publication Year: - Title: Aquamarine Care and Cleaning Guide Abstract: Aquamarine has been treasured through the ages, and with proper care will give its owner a lifetime of pleasure. - Courtesy Jeffrey Appling

Hardness and toughness
Gem and mineral hardness is measured on the Mohs scale. The numbers are based on the relative ease or difficulty with which one mineral can be scratched by another. But the Mohs scale is deceptive. The steps between the minerals are not evenly spaced. For example, diamond is only one number away, but it’s many times harder than gems in the corundum family.

Aquamarine is 7.5 to 8 on the Mohs scale, so it is a durable gemstone for jewelry as long as it is treated with care to protect it against scratching and hard knocks.

	Aquamarine rates a 7.5 to 8 on the Mohs hardness scale.
Stability
Heat exposure is not recommended for aquamarine, but the color is stable against light exposure. Aquamarine can be attacked by hydrofluoric acid.

Cleaning
Warm soapy water is always a safe cleaning method for aquamarine. Cleaning by ultrasonic and steam cleaners is usually safe unless the stone has liquid inclusions or fractures.
Rarely, aquamarine might be fracture filled. These stones should only be cleaned with warm soapy water. @chapter:23


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Sillimanite in Ruby Abstract: Figure 1. Bundles of fine sillimanite needles clash within their ruby host. Photomicrograph by Tyler Smith; field of view 1.76 mm.

Recently, the New York laboratory received for origin determination a ruby whose unusual lathe-like inclusions caught the authors’ eyes. The inclusions were long, prismatic, and transparent, often accumulating in small bundles throughout the stone (see above). Luckily, a few needles broke the surface, allowing laser Raman spectroscopy to identify the mystery inclusions as sillimanite, an aluminosilicate mineral that forms in high-grade metamorphic rocks, including the amphibolite facies. With a chemical formula of Al2SiO5, sillimanite, a polymorph of andalusite and kyanite, is frequently found with ruby.
Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) of the host ruby revealed a particularly high iron concentration of 7100–7410 ppmw. The combination of the elemental composition and inclusions indicates the stone is from an amphibolite host rock, a non-classic metamorphic formation (NCL). NCL ruby sources include East African countries such as Mozambique, Madagascar, and Tanzania, as opposed to classic metamorphic sources such as Myanmar (formerly Burma) and Vietnam.
Such a high density of these inclusions is rarely observed in stones submitted to GIA. Sillimanite itself is not a particularly uncommon mineral, especially in amphibolite host rocks, so why has it been missing from previously analyzed East African rubies at GIA? Due to its preferred habit of densely packed needles, sillimanite in ruby likely affects transparency, potentially resulting in non-gem-quality translucent to opaque rubies. Such stones are not frequently submitted to GIA. It is refreshing to see less common mineral inclusions in the lab, as they provide a greater understanding of East African rubies. @chapter:5


Publication Year: 2015 Title: GILC 2015 Abstract: Laboratory representatives at the GILC in Tucson spoke on a wide range of topics related to colored gems, including nomenclature, treatment, and clarity enhancement. Photo by Duncan Pay/GIA.

              The International Colored Gemstone Association (ICA) sponsored the invitation-only GILC (Gemstone Industry & Laboratory Conference) on February 2, during the Tucson gem shows. Participants represented primarily gemological laboratories, educational institutions, gemstone buyers and wholesalers, and retailers.

Shane McClure of GIA began with an update on the activities of the Laboratory Manual Harmonization Committee (LMHC). The LMHC establishes consistent nomenclature among international lab reports but does not address standardization of criteria and testing procedures. The committee consists of seven international gemological laboratories, whose representatives meet three times per year by teleconference or in person. Information sheets that are under development include hydrophane opal, along with “pigeon’s blood” and “royal blue” designations for corundum. Topics under discussion include light sources, tanzanite/zoisite nomenclature, and the problem of stones being treated soon after a laboratory report is issued.

McClure also presented additional color designations for ruby that will be featured on GIA reports. He noted that “pigeon’s blood” would designate vivid red color on rubies with high fluorescence and low iron content, as typified by high-quality Burmese rubies. “Scarlet” and “crimson” would be used for fine-colored iron-bearing rubies with low fluorescence, in the slightly orangy to slightly purplish ranges, respectively. “Deep red” will be used for rubies of darker tone. There appeared to be different opinions among the participants about the definition of pigeon’s blood, and no clear agreement about the proposed new terms. This provoked a lively discussion as to whether “romantic” terminology belonged on lab reports, and whether the use of advantageous vocabulary was a move by some labs to gain market share.

Chris Smith of AGL spoke on the detection of low-temperature heat treatment of corundum. Smith defined “low temperature” as less than 1300°C, a treatment range where rutile (including silk) would still remain intact. The treatment has a long history and is still used to improve the color of pink, red, yellow, and orangy corundum, typically by removing purplish or bluish components. Characterization of non-rutile mineral inclusions and IR spectroscopy are keys to detecting the treatment.

Gabriel Angarita, ICA ambassador to Colombia and president of the Emerald Exporters Association, gave a presentation on residues in emeralds caused by the cutting process. He presented visual evidence that “dust” from the emeralds, laps, or abrasive powders can enter fractures during cutting and polishing, and he was concerned that they might be interpreted as clarity enhancement residues. It emerged during the discussion that although the stones might not have been intentionally clarity enhanced, the lubricating oil used in the cutting process, or the wax or nail polish used on rough to seal the fractures from dust, could be the source of the clarity enhancement being detected by gemological laboratories.

In the open session forum, participants pointed out that confidence in lab reports was waning for two reasons: (1) the inconsistency in country-of-origin and treatment determinations, and (2) the increasing prevalence of stones being altered or treated after receiving a favorable report (for instance, the re-oiling of emeralds).

The issue of hydrophane opal was revisited, with a call for nomenclature and comments, and perhaps a standardized method of assessing and communicating the degree of absorption and its impact on durability and color stability.

While trade in elephant ivory is prohibited in the U.S., the trade in extinct mammoth ivory has been severely restricted in New York and New Jersey, and on eBay. Nomenclature to distinguish the two types needs to be developed, along with awareness of treatments to disguise modern ivory as mammoth or antique to circumvent restrictions.

Another issue raised was the treatment of spinel, once considered a gemstone that was not treated. Participants confirmed the routine heating of spinel from Myanmar and Tanzania, as well as the colored (red) oiling of both spinel and corundum in Mogok. While microscopic examination does little to detect heating, photoluminescence and Raman spectroscopy are useful. @chapter:29


Publication Year: - Title: Two Members Honored with Alumni Awards Abstract: Jennifer Cleveland, left, and Angela Alba, right, were honored at the February 2014 GIA Alumni Association party in Tucson.

                      Alums at the annual GIA Alumni Association party in Tucson stopped their auction browsing and dancing briefly to recognize two of their own for outstanding chapter contributions. Angela Alba, of Austin, Texas, received the 2014 International Leadership Award; and Jennifer Cleveland, of Saint Clair Shores, Michigan, received the 2014 International Achievement Award.

The GIA Global Alumni Awards recognize members who exhibit leadership, demonstrate service to the gem and jewelry industry, and actively support the association’s growth through continuing education and innovative programs. The recipients were selected from the  2014 Alumni Chapter Award winners.

International Leadership Award

Austin native Angela Alba graduated magna cum laude from Concordia University in 2001 with bachelors of art degrees in history and behavioral science. She pursued her passion for jewelry by earning the Graduate Diamonds, Graduate Pearls and Accredited Jewelry Professional diplomas from GIA and continues to work on her gem identification course to earn her GG. Alba established her own jewelry line in 2002 and launched an online business in 2010.

Alba, secretary of the Houston Chapter, plays an integral role in spreading word about the chapter and the benefits of attending meetings. She does this through the Houston Texas GIA Alumni Association Facebook page she set up and maintains, by writing newsletters to members and inviting other people in the jewelry industry to attend local meetings. Alba also books speakers for chapter meetings, coordinated the arrangements for a field trip that included a brunch and a museum tour and helped the chapter’s new social coordinator officer plan Houston's first social networking gathering.

Alba, who also drives fellow Austin alums to the Houston chapter meetings, said she enjoys organizing alumni events and helping GIA students achieve their educational goals, often answering questions about GIA, such as the e-learning program, lab classes and scholarships, and encouraging alums to continue their education.

International Achievement Award

Jennifer Cleveland loves the gem and jewelry industry so much, she admits to carrying rocks in her pockets as a child. Joining the family business, Skyline Diamond Setters, was an easy career choice. A GIA education helped prepare her for the many hats she has worn in her 30-plus years at work: office manager, pearl stringing, jewelry sales and most of the gemstone purchases for the store. Cleveland has her Graduate Diamonds and Graduate Pearls diplomas and is close to earning her GG through e-Learning.

Cleveland, secretary of the Michigan Chapter, has worked tirelessly to aid the chapter in two of its core goals: more accommodating meeting places and active recruitment of new members. She is known as a tireless friend of GIA’s Michigan Alumni Chapter. @chapter:34


Publication Year: 1993 Title: Fall 1993 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Argyle Production Update
            Central African Republic Has Strong Reliance on Diamonds
            CSO Names First Chinese Sightholder
            Indian Polished Exports Increase
            Russian Production High But Declining
            United States Sells Diamonds from Stockpile
            Zaire Faces Severe Mining Problems
Synthetic Diamonds
            Chatham Proposes Production, Distribution of Russian Synthetic Diamonds
            GIA Says Standard Tests Can ID Russian Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds
            Sumitomo Electric Synthesizes High-Purity Diamonds
Colored Stones
            Significant Amethyst Find in Maine
            Chalcedony Colored by Large Mineral Inclusions
            Massive Green Grossular Garnet from South Africa
            "Rainbow" Hematite from Brazil
            "Denim" Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan
            Reddish Purple Mica from New Mexico
            Nepal Update
            Peridot from Vietnam
            Brazilian Paragonite Mistaken for Ruby
            Unusual Double Star Sapphire
            Black Spinel from Mexico
            Spinel from Vietnam
Enhancements
            World Diamond Congress Addresses Treatments
            Update on Ruby Enhancement
Synthetics and Simulants
            Glass Imitating Vietnamese Ruby
            Dyed Magnesite Misrepresented as "Howlite Lapis''
            Unusual Synthetic Blue Quartz
            Imitation Gems from Zaire

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:7


Publication Year: 2004 Title: The 3543 CM-1 Infrared Absorption Band in Natural and Synthetic Amethyst and its Value in Identification Abstract: The proper use and limitations of IR spectroscopy for identifying natural versus synthetic amethyst of various types have been investigated, focusing on the region 3800–3000 cm-1. The presence of absorption bands at approximately 3680, 3664, and 3630 cm-1 unambiguously proves artificial origin, but only for samples grown in near-neutral NH4F solutions. Conversely, there are no unambiguous diagnostic features in the IR spectra of the more commercially significant synthetic amethyst grown in alkaline K2CO3 solutions. Nevertheless, previous investigators have found potential diagnostic value in absorption bands at approximately 3595 and 3543 cm-1. Although the 3595 cm-1 band is not found in the spectra of synthetic amethyst, it also is frequently absent from those of natural amethyst. The 3543 cm-1 band is found in the vast majority of synthetic amethysts grown in alkaline solutions, but this band also is sometimes present in natural amethyst—so it provides only tentative evidence of synthetic origin. Moreover, the 3543 cm-1 band is absent from some varieties of synthetic amethyst. The unambiguous identification of natural versus synthetic amethyst therefore must be based on a combined examination of the IR spectra, internal growth structures (including twinning), and inclusions.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Table 1: Presence or Absence of the 3543 cm-1 Absorption Band in Synthetic Quartz According to Growth Conditions
	Submitted by Vladimir S. Balitsky
	Summer 2004 @chapter:19


Publication Year: 2015 Title: Synthetic Rock Crystal Quartz Bangle with Unusual Inclusions Abstract: Figure 1. A synthetic rock crystal quartz bangle measuring approximately 80 × 22 × 10 mm. Photo by Nuttapol Kitdee.

Synthetic quartz is grown by the hydrothermal technique, which can produce large single crystals of high quality (K. Byrappa and M. Yoshimura, Handbook of Hydrothermal Technology: A Technology for Crystal Growth and Material Processing, William Andrew Publishing, 2001). This process, widely used in the jewelry trade, has led to difficulty in separating synthetic quartz from its natural counterpart (R. Crowningshield et al., “A simple procedure to separate natural from synthetic amethyst on the basis of twinning,” Fall 1986 G&G, pp. 130–139). The presence of Brazil-law twinning and certain inclusions, such as tourmaline or golden rutile needles, can be used to distinguish natural from synthetic quartz. But high-quality quartz, whether of natural or synthetic origin, typically has no inclusions or twinning. In this case, standard gemological testing may not be able to identify the origin. Advanced instruments, including infrared absorption spectroscopy (S. Karampelas et al., “An update in the separation of natural from synthetic amethyst,” Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece, 2007, pp. 805–814) and LA-ICP-MS are considered useful tools for separating natural from synthetic material from material with synthetic origins (C.M. Breeding, “Using LA-ICP-MS analysis for the separation of natural and synthetic amethyst and citrine,” GIA News from Research, 2009).

The Bangkok lab recently examined a high-clarity, transparent, near-colorless bangle (figure 1). Standard gemological testing revealed a spot RI of 1.54 and an SG of 2.65, consistent with quartz. Magnification revealed irregular two-phase inclusions (figure 2). These inclusions are more likely to be present in natural quartz than in hydrothermal synthetic quartz, which typically shows nail-head spicule and breadcrumb inclusions. This bangle also gave an IR absorption spectrum unlike that of natural rock crystal quartz. The characteristic IR absorptions of natural rock crystal quartz occurred at 3379, 3483, and 3595 cm–1. These features are never seen in synthetic rock crystal quartz. The IR spectrum of the bangle showed absorption peaks at 3610, 3585, 3431, 3294, and 3194 cm–1 (figure 3), which matches the IR absorption features of synthetic rock crystal quartz (P. Zecchini and M. Smaali, “Identification de l’origine naturelle ou artificielle des quartz,” Revue de Gemmologie, No. 138/139, 1999, pp. 74–80). The IR spectrum confirmed that this material was grown by hydrothermal methods.

Figure 2. Irregular two-phase inclusions seen in the bangle using darkfield illumination (left and right) are similar to those found in natural specimens but are rarely found in hydrothermal synthetic quartz. Photo by Nattida Ng-Pooresatien; field of view 4.1 mm.

Figure 3. Infrared spectra of the synthetic rock crystal quartz bangle and a 17.50 ct natural
rock crystal quartz faceted bead show different absorption patterns. The characteristic
absorptions of natural rock crystal quartz at 3379, 3483, and 3595 cm–1 are never seen
in synthetic rock crystal quartz. The bangle showed absorption peaks at 3610, 3585,
3431, 3294, and 3194 cm–1, matching the IR absorption of synthetic rock crystal quartz.
Large transparent colorless quartz can be found in natural and synthetic forms, but synthetic quartz is usually seen as a flat crystal. This bangle is an interesting example of large, high-clarity synthetic quartz used in jewelry. The presence of the irregular two-phase inclusions in this example serves as an important reminder that natural and synthetic quartz can show a similar appearance and contain internal inclusion features that are identical. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 2022 Title: A Large Aquamarine with Unusual Etch Features from Xinjiang, China Abstract: Figure 1. This 778 g (approximately 11 × 4 cm) aquamarine crystal from Xinjiang displays a unique natural etch pattern (detail in bottom photo). Photos by Ting Zheng; courtesy of Shino Gold Jewelry (Shanghai) Co.
Etch features are commonly seen in beryl crystals (e.g., Spring 2002 GNI, pp. 102–103). Their formation is related to various factors during or after crystal growth, both internal and external, including chemical composition, lattice defect types and their distribution, pressure-temperature conditions of the forming environment, solvent composition, and dissolution time (R. Kurumathoor and G. Franz, “Etch pits on beryl as indicators of dissolution behaviour,” European Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 30, No. 1, 2018, pp. 107–124).

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the etch feature parallel to the c-axis of the aquamarine crystal.
Recently, Shino Gold Jewelry (Shanghai) Co. submitted a large piece of rough aquamarine crystal to the National Gemstone Testing Center (NGTC) lab in Beijing for identification service. The crystal, weighing 778 g (figure 1, top), was claimed to have been mined in the Altay region of Xinjiang, China. Standard gemological testing revealed a refractive index of 1.577–1.583 and a specific gravity of 2.69. These values were typical for aquamarine and were confirmed by the infrared and Raman spectra. The numerous hexagonal etch features on the (0001) crystal face (figure 1, bottom), combined with the contents in the fissures (mainly kaolinite and hematite) identified by Raman spectroscopy, indicate that the crystal is of natural origin. Notably, one of the etch features has not been previously reported to our knowledge—the crystal had two hexagonal dissolution cavities with openings about 3 mm in diameter, connected by a hexagonal etch channel 4 cm long and parallel to the c-axis (figures 2 and 3). Interestingly, the etch channel appeared to be empty and penetrated throughout the crystal.

Figure 3. The unique etch features of the crystal: two hexagonal dissolution cavities connected by a hexagonal etch channel. The channel (left) is about 4 cm long and empty throughout, and the openings display a hexagonal funnel shape (right). Photos by Chao Liu (left; field of view 23 mm) and Ting Zheng (right; field of view 6.25 mm).
The formation of this etch feature cannot be fully explained at present. One possible explanation is that it is related to the defects (dislocations) parallel to the c-axis, which control the locations of the preferred dissolution process (T. Lu et al., “Observation of etch channels in several natural diamonds,” Diamond & Related Materials, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 68–75). Also, the formation of these special etch features is affected by different dissolution rates in different directions of the crystal. The selected dissolution on the (0001) plane was very slow, while the dissolution rate along the c-axis was significantly faster, resulting in the special funnel-shaped etch pits connected by a very long etch channel. @chapter:10


Publication Year: 2018 Title: The Beauty of Natural Green Diamonds Abstract: Naturally colored green diamonds are among the most rare and enigmatic of gems, and those with saturated hues—like the stunning examples on our spring issue cover—are highly coveted. Their color origin remains extremely challenging for gemological laboratories to determine.

“Determining origin of color in green diamonds is a major challenge for gemological laboratories.”

In our lead paper, Drs. Christopher Breeding, Sally Eaton-Magaña, and James Shigley review these extraordinary gems, identifying four distinct causes of their green colors— radiation damage defects, luminescence from H3 defects, and absorptions by hydrogen and nickel-related defects— and discuss the difficulties of separating these gems from those colored by manmade irradiation treatments. Using data and observations based on thousands of samples from GIA’s research database, the authors offer an unrivaled gemological characterization of these remarkable gems. We’re delighted to present this article, which is the first in a series on colored diamonds by the same authors.

Our second paper, by Xiayang Lin, Peter Heaney, and Jeffrey Post, investigates the cause of iridescence in metamorphic “rainbow” hematite from Brazil. The authors use electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray diffraction to identify the repeating microstructures responsible for the material’s intense iridescence: oriented arrays of spindle-shaped hematite nanocrystals that form diffraction grating.

In our final feature article, pearl specialists Kazuko Saruwatari, Michio Suzuki, Chunhui Zhou, Promlikit Kessraprong, and Nicholas Sturman apply DNA identification techniques to determine mollusk species by sampling tiny amounts of pearl powder. Their study—using akoya pearls from Ehime Prefecture, Japan—was able to amplify genetic material from this powder and successfully match it with the same gene in mantle tissue from the local Pinctada fucata oyster.

Among the standout topics in our spring issue Lab Notes are entries on CVD synthetic diamonds above three carats, a new Kyocera plastic imitation opal, and a real curio: an extraordinary natural blister “pearl” that formed around a pearlfish. Please explore the inner world of gems with our Micro-World column—this issue we feature a type IIa natural diamond with extraordinary etch channels, an opal with agate-like bands, and a pink tourmaline with spodumene inclusions.

In addition to aquamarine from Pakistan’s Shigar Valley and natural freshwater pearls from Texas, our GNI section showcases the 2018 Tucson gem shows. It summarizes market trends from this year’s show and includes entries on leading jewelry designers, gem artists, and materials such as Russian and Namibian demantoid garnet, fine opal, Oregon sunstone, and turquoise from Arkansas.

Congratulations to the winners of our Dr. Edward J. Gübelin Most Valuable Article Award, announced in this issue. We offer a big “thank you” to all of the readers who voted. Don’t forget to take this year’s G&G Challenge, our annual multiple-choice quiz.

Lastly, please join us for the 2018 GIA Symposium, which takes place October 7–9 in Carlsbad, California. We encourage you to register to attend or submit an abstract for an oral or poster presentation at symposium.gia.edu. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Greenish Blue Spodumene Abstract: Figure 1. This 40.50 ct greenish blue specimen was identified as irradiated spodumene. Photo by Gagan Choudhary.

Green and yellow colors of spodumene, in addition to the widely known violet-pink variety kunzite, are now familiar to the trade and often submitted to gem labs. Recently, this contributor examined a greenish blue stone (figure 1) that unexpectedly turned out to be spodumene.
The 40.50 ct oval mixed-cut specimen measured 24.50 × 10.60 × 10.42 mm. It appeared quite dull, with areas of extinction caused by gray overtones and improper fashioning. The face-up color was heavily influenced by the two pleochroic colors, green and blue. The specimen’s overall appearance was similar to tourmaline, though gemological examination ruled out that possibility. The following gemological properties were recorded: optic figure—biaxial; RI—1.660–1.675; birefringence—0.015; hydrostatic SG—3.19; fluorescence—inert; and weak absorption bands in the blue, green, and yellow-orange regions at around 440, 545, and 600–650 nm in the desk-model spectroscope. The RI and SG values are consistent with those reported for spodumene in the gemological literature. Magnification revealed a few long, conical growth tubes below the table facet and cleavage planes along the girdle edge—inclusions typical for spodumene. The most striking feature of the specimen was its strong pleochroism (figure 2), which displayed three colors: green, blue, and violet. Infrared and Raman spectroscopy further confirmed the sample as spodumene. EDXRF analysis revealed the presence of Al, Si, Fe, and Mn, with a higher amount of Fe than Mn. Polarized UV-visible-NIR spectroscopy in the 200–800 nm region (figure 3) revealed a difference in absorption patterns. The violet and green directions displayed small peaks at ~430 and 437 nm, and absorption bands in the region 500–700 nm. The violet direction showed broad features at ~545 and 630 nm, the green direction at ~545, 605, and 655 nm. The feature at ~437 nm has been assigned to Fe3+ (R. Lu, “Color origin of lavender jadeite: An alternative approach,” Winter 2012 G&G, pp. 273–278). The feature at ~430 nm has been assigned to Mn2+ and those in the 500–700 nm region to various states of Mn (Mn3+/Mn4+) and its sites in the structure (see I. Petrov, “Role of natural radiation in tourmaline coloration: Discussion,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 75, 1990, pp. 237–239). The peak at ~630 nm indicates a defect usually produced by irradiation (E.W. Claffy, “Composition, tenebrescence and luminescence of spodumene minerals,” www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM38/AM38_919.pdf). These samples were irradiated via X-ray.

Figure 2. The artificially irradiated greenish blue spodumene displayed strong pleochroism, exhibiting three colors: blue (left), violet (center), and green (right). Photos by Gagan Choudhary.

Figure 3. Polarized UV-Vis-NIR spectra of the greenish blue spodumene display bands related to Fe3+, Mn2+, Mn3+, and Mn4+. The band at ~630 nm is related to an irradiation-produced defect.
It is widely known that green spodumene without chromium as the chromophore often results from irradiation, but this contributor had never observed a greenish blue color in spodumene. Irradiated green spodumene typically displays a strong blue pleochroic color along the c-axis. In this case, the c-axis was not determined, but one direction displayed a strong blue color, which was further supported by the peak at ~630 nm. @chapter:10


Publication Year: 2017 Title: Complex Yellow Fluid Inclusions in Red Burmese Spinel Abstract: This octahedral-shaped negative crystal in a Burmese red spinel is filled with colorless carbonate crystals, yellow sulfur-rich liquid, opaque sulfide crystals, and diaspore fibers. Photomicrograph by Victoria Raynaud; field of view 1.20 mm.

Spinel has found new popularity and is now recognized as a birthstone for August. Some of the most desirable stones come from Myanmar, as they exhibit a pure red color with a light tone, accompanied by extremely high fluorescence under long-wave UV. Red Burmese spinel can also be found with a dark tone and much weaker fluorescence. The main localities that produce the highly fluorescent spinel are Namya in northern Myanmar and Man Sin in the Mogok Valley (V. Pardieu, “Hunting for ‘Jedi’ spinels in Mogok,”Spring 2014 G&G, pp. 46–57). Clean stones are rare, as the majority have inclusions consisting of colorless carbonate crystals and complex multiphase negative crystals. These complex negative crystals contain a sulfur-rich yellow liquid, opaque metal sulfides, transparent carbonate daughter crystals, diaspore fibers, and a gas bubble. This unique yellow complex fluid inclusion (see above) is only known to occur in Burmese spinel and therefore serves as a good indicator of this origin. @chapter:5


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Heavily Irradiated CVD Synthetic Diamond Abstract: Figure 1. The visible-NIR spectrum of the 0.46 ct irradiated synthetic diamond showed a clear Si-doublet at 737 nm.

A Fancy Deep gray-blue diamond weighing 0.46 ct was submitted to the Carlsbad lab for an identification and origin report. Its UV-Vis-NIR spectrum showed a large GR1 center, indicating artificial irradiation. Furthermore, a small 737 nm silicon doublet was seen and later confirmed with photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy (figure 1). The silicon doublet is a feature in CVD synthetic diamonds, and only very rarely in natural diamonds.

To confirm the synthetic origin of the material, DiamondView images were collected. This required setting the DiamondView at the highest exposure time, because heavily irradiated diamonds tend to show very weak fluorescence, making the image difficult to resolve. The DiamondView image showed a pattern of growth dislocations, which is characteristic of CVD synthetics (figure 2). The infrared spectrum showed some unknown features in the nitrogen region at 1250 and 1116 cm−1. The infrared spectrum lacked the 3123 cm–1 hydrogen-related defect diagnostic of CVD growth (P.M. Martineau et al., “Identification of synthetic diamond grown using chemical vapor deposition [CVD],” Spring 2004 G&G, pp. 2–25), or the 3107 cm–1 peak sometimes created in synthetic diamonds containing hydrogen by HPHT treatment (I. Kiflawi et al., “The creation of the 3107 cm−1 hydrogen absorption peak in synthetic diamond single crystals,” Diamond and Related Materials, Vol. 5, 1996, pp. 1516–1518).

Figure 2. With DiamondView imaging, the growth dislocations in the irradiated CVD synthetic diamond can be clearly seen as the blue sections among the green fluorescence. Image by Wuyi Wang.
CVD synthetic diamonds are known to be treated post-growth to improve color, but this has been seen as HPHT treatment or a combination of irradiation and annealing. HPHT treatment of a CVD synthetic diamond can partially or completely remove a brownish color created during the growth process. If a CVD synthetic is grown with nitrogen impurities, irradiation and annealing will create nitrogen-vacancy centers, producing a pink to red color (J. Shigley et al., “Lab-grown colored diamonds from Chatham Created Gems,” Summer 2004 G&G, pp. 128–145).

This is the first CVD synthetic examined at GIA that has been irradiated to a blue color. The fact that the diamond is synthetic automatically means that the irradiation was done in a laboratory; however, the material displayed color zoning near the culet in a manner identical to natural diamonds that have been irradiated artificially. Electron paramagnetic resonance determined a 20 (+/- 5) ppb concentration of isolated nitrogen. If the specimen were to be annealed, the vacancies would combine with the nitrogen to form NV– centers, as mentioned above. It is possible that the diamond was submitted in an intermediate phase before the final treatment, or that the owner believed it to be a natural but treated stone. Indeed, in the absence of PL spectroscopy and DiamondView images, this specimen could easily be mistaken for an irradiated natural diamond.

As CVD synthetics become more prevalent and subject to a wider variety of treatments, it will only reinforce the role of the gemological laboratory as the most reliable way to separate synthetic from natural diamonds. @chapter:15


Publication Year: - Title: Auctions Brighten Soft Year Abstract: The 25.59 ct. Sunrise Ruby, set in a ring by Cartier, drew a price of $30.3 million at Sotheby’s Geneva sale; the highest price ever paid for a ruby at auction and the highest per-carat price (nearly $1.2 million) ever paid for a ruby. Courtesy of Sotheby’s.

                      The spring auction season ended on another strong note with sales – again − setting records.

Christie’s closed the spring auction season with a $118 million sale in Hong Kong, the highest total achieved for an Asian sale. Nearly 90% of the lots offered were sold and prices, while not quite record breaking, were very strong.

The top lot was a 120 carat (ct.) Burmese ruby and diamond necklace by Etcetera that sold to a private Asian buyer for $13 million. A rectangular-shaped, 9.07-ct., GIA-graded internally flawless (IF), Fancy Intense pink, type IIa Harry Winston diamond ring sold for $12.6 million, or $1.4 million per carat.

In addition, a rectangular-cut, 15.15-ct., D, IF diamond ring by Graff brought $3.6 million, or $235,760 per carat, and a pear-shape, 3-ct., IF, Fancy Intense blue diamond ring by Moussaieff, sold for $2.6 million, or $851,904 per carat.

On May 13 in Geneva, Sotheby’s sold the first ruby to break the $1 million per carat record. The 25.59 ct. Sunrise ruby doubled its pre-sale estimate to achieve a final price of $30.3 million, or about $1.2 million per carat − in an auction that achieved the highest total ever for a jewelry auction: $160.91 million, nearly $20 million above the previous record. The auction catalog noted the ruby was Burmese, with no evidence of treatment.

The sale also featured an 8.72-ct. GIA-graded Fancy Vivid pink diamond that reportedly was linked to Princess Mathilde Bonaparte, the niece of Napoleon Bonaparte. The cushion-shaped diamond sold for $15.9 million, or $1.82 million per carat. The diamond had been stored in a bank vault since the end of World War II.

In Hong Kong, Tiancheng International reported its most successful jewelry auction ever on June 14. The sale totaled US$38 million, and included a 25.72 ct. D VS2 heart-shape diamond that sold for $3.18 million. The diamond was cut from a 67.45 ct. piece of rough.

A jade and diamond necklace drew a top bid of $3.78 million and a necklace containing a 52.22 ct. Mozambique ruby drew a top bid of $3.18 million.

This jade and diamond set of necklace and earrings drew a winning bid of $3.78 million at the Tiancheng International auction in Hong Kong. The eight jade cabochons measured 20.13 mm x 17.13 mm x 9.73 mm and were set with 73.55 carats of diamonds. Courtesy of Tiancheng International.
MARKET

The U.S. Department of Commerce reports that jewelry sales continue to soften in April. Business at retail jewelry stores is down 2.4% for the month, compared to last year, and down 1.5% for all sales outlets. Retail jewelry sales are down 4.5% for the first four months of the year. The Commerce report also notes that preliminary data for May indicate that retail jewelry sales continue to be soft and that retail sales of other consumer products were generally flat for the year.

Prices for rough diamonds at the De Beers’ June sight were reportedly unchanged from May and still unprofitable to manufacture. The sight was estimated at $550 million to $600 million – medium size- with few refusals, but also few calls for “ex-plan” (additional sales) goods. De Beers sightholders and other diamond manufacturers report that their monthly production dropped by 25 to 35% leaving a 7-10 month supply overhang – especially in 0.30 to 0.90 carat stones in better clarities.

Hong Kong dealers report that its wholesale market is down by 25 to 30% and 5 to 7% on the mainland, despite retail sales that are still rising by a small percentage. This is because retailers there have large stocks and an abundance of caution.

For an industry that previously looked to China to buoy it through slowing markets elsewhere, the adjustment is difficult because the most robust market, the U.S., remains cautious and extremely selective.

De Beers and retail analysts remain optimistic that demand in the U.S. will pick up in September and bring low- to mid-single digit growth by year’s end. @chapter:30


Publication Year: 1985 Title: The Biron Hydrothermal Synthetic Emerald Abstract: A new synthetic emerald grown in Western Australia is now commercially available as faceted stones. Infrared spectra revealed the presence of water, thereby confirming that these synthetic emeralds are synthesized by a hydrothermal process. Chemical analysis showed that they contain vanadium as well as lesser amounts of chromium. This new synthetic exhibits some characteristics that are distinctly different from other synthetic emeralds and therefore must now be considered when identifying emeralds. In addition to distinctive inclusions such as gold, the Biron synthetic is inert to ultraviolet radiation, has a specific gravity of 2.68 -2.71, and refractive indices of Σ = 1.569 and ω = 1.573. This article examines in detail the gemological properties of the Biron hydrothermal synthetic emerald and discusses means of identifying this new synthetic. @chapter:9


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Photo Montage Abstract: Scenes from the 2018 GIA International Gemological Symposium

View Gallery

Photos by Denise Conrad, Richard Deomampo, Joyce Wing Yan Ho, Emily Lane, Kevin Schumacher, and Eric Welch. @chapter:24


Publication Year: 1983 Title: Gem Andradite Garnets Abstract: Andradite, the rarest of the five well-known gem garnet species, is examined and characterized with respect to refractive index, specific gravity, absorption spectrum, color, and chemical composition. These properties are measured and specifically tabulated for 21 gem andradrites (20 green and one yellow). From the narrow ranges of refractive index (1.880-1.883), specific gravity (3.80-3.88), and chemical composition (less than 3% of components other than andradite in any of the specimens examined) that were observed, it is apparent that the gem-quality andradrites are chemically distinct from other types of gem garnets and that these stones are easy to distinguish by means of color coupled with refractive index. @chapter:6


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Thai Entrepreneurs Shine at Jewellery & Gem World Hong Kong 2024 Abstract: The Office of the Board of Trade of Hong Kong participated in the 40th edition of the Jewellery & Gem World Hong Kong, organized by Informa Markets under the theme "One Fair : Two Venues". This event, the largest of its kind in Hong Kong, attracted 3,417 exhibitors from 44 countries worldwide. Thailand's jewellery and gem businesses were well represented with 326 companies, receiving positive feedback.
The Jewellery & Gem World Hong Kong was held from September 18 to 22, 2566 at the Asia World Expo and from September 20 to 24, 2566 at the Hong Kong Convention & Exhibition Center. It gathered industry professionals from across the globe for networking, idea exchange, forecasts, and industry trends discussions.
Mr. Shervin Farjad, Managing Director of DE SHERVIN CO., LTD., a Thai entrepreneur, expressed confidence that the Bangkok Gems & Jewelry Fair organized by the Department of International Trade Promotion and the Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand will continuously elevate its importance compared to the Hong Kong event. Participants in the fair from September 6 to 10, 2566, including booth exhibitors, event attendees, and international buyers, were impressed by venue arrangements, logistics, management systems, security, and the number of international buyers attending, all contributing positively to business outcomes.
Mr. Suthep Pongschai, Director of the Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, attended the event to network with major entrepreneurs and invited them to join the Bangkok Gems & Jewelry Fair, scheduled twice in 2567 at the 69th Sirikit National Convention Center from February 21-25, 2567, and the 70th edition from September 9-13, 2567. There was significant interest from major entrepreneurs who responded positively to participate.
The Hong Kong Office of the Board of Trade commented that Thai jewellery and gem products have been widely accepted by businessmen, buyers, and consumers worldwide for their quality, design, and intricacy, making them Thailand's top export products to Hong Kong. In 2565, exports amounted to USD 1,615.53 million (a 22.05% expansion), and in 2566 (January to July), exports reached USD 1,502.89 million (a 57.46% expansion). @chapter:27


Publication Year: - Title: Romancing the Source: Afghanistan Abstract: Afghanistan

	In the Panjshir Valley of Afghanistan, rugged natural beauty provides background for the equally rugged people seeking emeralds and making life-long, trusting friendships.
This series of articles and videos follows a team of GIA Field Gemologists on their travels from the mountains of Afghanistan to the jungles of Sri Lanka in search of the sources of colored gemstones and the people who pursue them. This thrilling journey will take you to remote gemstone-mining areas, where you’ll witness the extreme effort required to wrestle nature’s treasures from the earth.

The romance of a colored gemstone arises from its beauty, the exotic qualities of its source’s location, the adventure leading to its discovery, and the stories of the people who seek it. These factors have united to create the allure of gemstones through the ages, and continue to do so even in modern times.

The Panjshir River winds through the mountain pass into the Panjshir Valley, where some of the world’s most beautiful emeralds can be found. Photo by Andrew Lucas.
Emeralds from Afghanistan can rival any in the world for beauty. The exact source of these incredible stones is the Panjshir Valley. The name means “five lions,” after five highly spiritual brothers who settled in the valley in the eleventh century AD. Recent history has subjected the valley to continual war and security issues, such as the Russian occupation from 1979 to 1989 and the civil war with the Taliban from 1996 to 2001. In a five-year span, the Northern Alliance, under national hero Ahmad Shah Massoud, defeated 10 attempted takeovers of the valley by the Soviets.

The mining of emeralds and the resources gained by selling them helped the courageous people of this valley hold off the Soviet invasion. Now these green stones are helping to rebuild the area’s economy.

Emerald mining involves tunneling into mountainsides and using former military munitions to blast into the hard rock to remove emerald. The miners work under difficult conditions, and mining can only be carried out during certain months of the year. While mild winters allow for continual mining, even in the snow, harsh winters like that of 2015 stop mining operations and even lead to avalanches and deaths.

Miners who have done well over the years are now mine owners and dealers. They are very knowledgeable about the international market and sell their emeralds through markets in Dubai. Other miners digging into the hard rock where the emeralds are found hope to find the stones that will elevate themselves and their families into a better financial position. @chapter:25


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Flux-Grown Synthetic Beryl Overgrowth Abstract: Figure 1. Doubly terminated flux synthetic beryl crystal, measuring 32.45 × 30.36 × 25.29 mm. Photo by Annie L. Haynes.
Most of the synthetic beryl currently on the market has been created by a hydrothermal process. Hydrothermally grown crystals have obviously different crystal forms compared to their natural counterparts. Hydrothermal synthetics are often easily identified by their typical zigzag- or chevron-patterned graining and color zoning. Flux-grown synthetics, though less common, are able to form more natural-looking crystals. However, despite having natural forms, flux synthetics contain many unusual inclusions that clearly distinguish them from their natural counterparts. Copper platelets that form within the crystal either from contamination or intentionally introducing metal in the growth material are obvious indications of synthetic origin. Flux fingerprints are another easily observed type of inclusion unique to flux synthetic crystals.

Figure 2. A suite of columbite rods, copper crystals, and a large air bubble seen within a film of blue flux liquid. Photomicrograph by Jamie Price; field of view 7.19 mm.
Weighing 211.78 ct, the hexagonal doubly terminated crystal in figure 1 looks like a natural beryl crystal at first glance. Eye-visible well-formed copper platelets and wispy flux fingerprints indicate that the stone did not form naturally. A closer look revealed reddish clouds of well-formed minute copper platelets and copper crystals. Euhedral red rod-like crystals of columbite were scattered throughout, similar to those in a natural sample. Partially healed tension cracks with white secondary flux particles were also present. A few areas throughout the crystal had unique thin angular and jagged films containing blue flux liquid and gas bubbles (figure 2). Areas with higher clarity reveal the boundary between the natural aquamarine seed crystal and the flux overgrowth. This stone is a product of synthetic flux beryl overgrowth on a natural aquamarine seed crystal produced in a Russian synthetic gem facility. @chapter:9


Publication Year: 2016 Title: Trapiche-Type Sapphire from Tasmania Abstract: Figure 1. Production from one day of mining in Tasmania. The trapiche-type sapphire in the center weighs 2.73 ct. Photo by Vincent Pardieu/GIA.

	Trapiche and trapiche-type minerals are treasured for their beauty and unique patterns. The six-rayed spoke patterns occur in different minerals but are best known in emeralds. During a GIA field expedition to the Australian island of Tasmania, author VP was able to mine several sapphires (figure 1), including a black star, some small blue samples, and a 2.73 ct blue sapphire that showed a fixed six-ray pattern. Trapiche-type stones are found in almost all basalt-related sapphire fields, but they are considered exceptionally rare in Tasmania (B. Sweeney, “Interesting gems from north-east Tasmania,” Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 19, No. 6, 1996, pp. 264–267).

	The trapiche-patterned stone had a dark blue bodycolor and was translucent to opaque. Many inclusions were visible, as were iron-stained fractures and clouds of particles. Hexagonal growth and color zones could also be seen. The core of the sample appeared colorless. The trapiche pattern was expressed as a hexagonal core with six radiating arms (figure 2). These white reflective features stood out against the blue bodycolor. The stone weighed 2.54 ct after we opened a polished window, and it measured approximately 6.93 × 8.20 × 3.00 mm after fabrication.

	Figure 2. The polished section of the trapiche-type sample, as seen with fiber-optic illumination. The central white core and the six whitish particle-rich arms separated by blue areas are clearly visible. Photo by Victoria Raynaud.

	The relationship of the trapiche arms to the color zoning is important for correctly identifying a sample as “trapiche” or “trapiche-type.” In this case, it was obvious that the rays were perpendicular to the hexagonal color and growth zoning, and that the intersections were not located at the corners of the hexagonal pattern.

	According to the recent literature, this pattern would not qualify as true trapiche, as seen in Muzo emeralds or some Mong Hsu rubies (G. Giuliani and I. Pignatelli, “‘Trapiche’ vs ‘Trapiche-like’ textures in minerals,” InColor, Vol. 31, 2016, pp. 45–46). True trapiche minerals have equivalent, crystallographic sectors divided by heavily included zones, a pattern expressed as arms intersecting the growth patterns at the junctions (figure 3, left). In the Tasmanian sapphire, the included zones were perpendicular to the growth zones and did not divide the gem into crystallographic sectors (see figure 3, right). Thus, it was a “trapiche-like” mineral.

	Figure 3. Trapiche (left) and trapiche-type (right) patterns in corundum.

	The sample’s chemical composition was analyzed with laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) on five different areas. The trace-element composition was analyzed in the white core, two arms at mid-length, one arm close to the core, and a blue area between the arms (again, see figure 2).

	For most elements (Mg, V, Fe, Zr, Nb, and Ta), an increase in concentration is observed from the less included blue areas to the most included area, which was the core. Ti showed a different pattern, with higher concentrations in the arms and lower concentrations in the blue areas; concentrations were even lower in the core. Ga remained constant throughout the stone but was slightly elevated in the core. Be showed a similar pattern but was more variable outside the core.

	The higher concentration of certain elements (V, Zr, Nb, and Ta) was most likely due to the presence of microinclusions. Ti was extremely low in the core, where there was no blue color; higher Ti concentrations in the other areas explained the blue color. The variation within the arms and the blue area may be explained by growth + color zoning, although the influence of Ti-rich particles should not be excluded. The Fe concentrations were probably caused by a combination of increased particle density and internal growth variations. It is notable, but not unexpected, that this natural trapiche-type sapphire contained some Be, albeit in very low quantities (V. Pardieu, “Blue sapphires and beryllium: An unfinished world quest,” InColor, Vol. 23, 2013, pp. 36–43). The Be concentration was highest in the core, where the particle density was highest and the blue color was absent.

	While trapiche-type sapphires are not particularly rare, it is unusual to find them in Tasmania. This sample has additional scientific value because it was mined by a field gemologist during a field expedition, giving it an extremely reliable origin. @chapter:2


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Fossil Ivory Update with Lee Downey Abstract: Figure 1. Fossil walrus ivory carvings by Artifactual. The base of the octopus carving is chalcosiderite. Photos by Kevin Schumacher.
Lee Downey, owner of Artifactual (Tucson, Arizona), spoke with us in early 2020 about his 35 years in the fossil ivory carving trade and the impact of ivory bans on his business. Until recently Downey carved fossil ivory from mammoth and walrus tusks thousands of years old; he has never used elephant ivory. But legislative measures banning all ivory in response to the poaching of African elephants have diminished ivory demand.
Downey got his start in silver and turquoise and established Artifactual in the late seventies. Since then, he has lived and worked in an ivory carving village in Bali with artisans he calls “the most talented carvers in the world.” When he first arrived in Bali, they were carving bone and coconut shell. His task was to carve animals and animal skulls out of fossil ivory. “We created a trade,” he said. He showed us two of Artifactual’s current offerings (figure 1). “But now the material has become flat-out illegal in eight states.”
Since 2014, California, Hawaii, Illinois, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, and the District of Columbia have enacted prohibitions against trade in ivory. (Two other states, Oregon and Washington, have banned only ivory from living elephants.) Downey said that Hawaii’s ban in particular “tanked” the trade. Customers even in states where ivory remains legal are reluctant to purchase fossil ivory, he said.
“I understand why they’re doing it,” Downey told us. “I’d rather save all wildlife if there was a way.” But he said the effect of the bans on his business has forced him to prepare to exit the fossil ivory trade. He is selling his current ivory inventory at lower prices and not buying additional material.

Figure 2. A mammoth tusk carved with sea life by Lee Downey. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.

Figure 3. A selection from Artifactual’s inventory of fossil ivory. Clockwise from top left: belt buckle with mammoth ivory, knife with mammoth tooth handle, belt buckle with mammoth ivory, and frog carving of fossil walrus ivory. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.
Downey showed us a mammoth tusk carved with sea life (figure 2) as well as two belt buckles featuring mammoth ivory (figure 3). All of them use material sourced from Alaska. “This washes up on beaches and comes out of gold mines,” he said. “It’s highly sought after by the knife makers. It’s got colors that elephant ivories will never have. It just keeps weathering out of the dirt.” Downey added that this ivory is at least 10,000 years old.
Mammoth ivory can be differentiated from elephant ivory by a simple field test to observe its natural grain lines. But there is no test to determine whether a specimen of walrus ivory comes from a fossil or a modern animal. According to Downey, this is a problem in the trade.
Artifactual uses fossil walrus ivory from St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. This ivory is 500 to 15,000 years old and dug by the native Yupik people. “It’s part of their income, and they own the island,” he said. “For us it’s a legitimate and ethical trade.”
Downey added that the legislation on ivory also prohibits mammoth tooth because it comes from an ivory-bearing animal. He showed us a knife with a carved mammoth tooth handle (figure 3). Knife makers are some of the biggest buyers of mammoth tooth, he said, and the bans have dramatically impacted their business.

Figure 4. Left: “Alpha,” a stainless steel foundry-cast skull by Artifactual, one of six in a series. Right: “Gaia,” the second skull Downey carved from a piece of the Gibeon meteorite, has a tridymite crystal inclusion in the forehead. The geometric pattern on its surface was caused by the slow process of cooling as the meteor moved through space. Photos by Kevin Schumacher.
As a result of the decreased demand for ivory, Artifactual is moving its business to other materials, including jet, natural American turquoise and variscite, steel (figure 4, left), and meteorite. “Gaia” (figure 4, right) is carved from a piece of the Gibeon iron-nickel meteorite, which landed in prehistoric times in Namibia and is believed to be around four billion years old. The company also does a lot of business in silver.

Figure 5. A moose antler carving of a horned toad by Lee Downey. Photo by Duncan Pay.
Downey has also sought out materials similar to ivory but without the ethical and legal challenges. He has begun carving moose antlers naturally shed by the animals (figure 5). “The moose antler has been a really good substitute for the ivory,” he said. He also recently began carving vintage billiard balls. “We’ll carve anything that’s carvable,” he said.
Watch our video interview with Lee Downey.

	Interview with Lee Downey @chapter:25


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Hematite Crystals in Diamond Abstract: Several small brownish orange crystals found within the fracture of a diamond were identified as hematite. Photomicrograph by Abadie Ludlam; field of view 1.26 mm.
A 1.51 ct G-color diamond with I2 clarity recently caught the authors’ attention due to several brownish orange inclusions. These tiny crystals, only a few nanometers in size, were concentrated along two fractures in the stone (see above). They were identified using Raman spectroscopy as hematite (Fe2O3). Although it is common to find oxide staining within fractures in diamond, crystalline oxide inclusions such as these are a rarity. The concentration of the hematite crystals along the cracks suggests that, rather than being syngenetic inclusions, these are secondary (epigenetic) minerals. They likely precipitated inside the fractures when the diamond interacted with fluids while being stored in the crust. This rare sight offers a glimpse into the long and unique journey each diamond takes to the earth’s surface. @chapter:32


Publication Year: 2000 Title: Jewelry of the 1990s Abstract: This article provides an overview of the many changes that took place in how jewelry was designed, manufactured, and marketed during the last decade. Driven by a highly competitive market that favored the unique, designers created innovative cuts for diamonds and colored stones. The use of gem materials in the ‘90s was marked by a greater demand for fancy-color diamonds, colored stones in dramatic combinations, and large and multicolored cultured pearls. In precious metals, the emphasis shifted toward platinum and other white metals. Designer jewelry took on a variety of distinctive setting styles, textures, and motifs. As designers sought to distinguish themselves through name recognition, the branding of diamonds and finished jewelry became a major force. Jewelry worn by entertainers and promoted in the mass media touched off instant trends, which the new marketplace of television shopping networks and the Internet was able to accommodate directly. @chapter:36


Publication Year: 2013 Title: The Young Generation: Tom + Jutta Munsteiner Abstract: With this remarkable bilingual volume, Wilhem Lindemann presents the works of husband and wife Tom and Jutta Munsteiner, master gem cutters and jewelers. Second-generation gem cutter Tom Munsteiner followed in his father’s footsteps. Beginning in the 1960s and continuing through the mid-1990s, Bernd Munsteiner reinvented gemstone cutting with his unique edged, multifaceted gem carvings. Working near Idar-Oberstein, the mecca of the German lapidary and colored stone trades, he cut an abundance of “rediscovered” gemstones from Brazil’s pegmatites, particularly tourmalines, aquamarines, amethysts, quartzes, and topazes.
Tom and Jutta Munsteiner were classically trained as apprentices after showing early artistic promise. Today, they exhibit at venues such as the Tucson, Las Vegas, and Basel shows. Visiting the couple’s booth, one can only be struck by the strength and originality of their creations. Whether gem carving or sculpture, each work exhibits a fine combination of jewelry and art.
In the first part of the book, Lindemann retraces the evolution of lapidary art, from late third millennium bc cylinder seals to contemporary art movements such as Bauhaus. Tom Munsteiner’s influences, dating as far back as the Romantic era, have inspired him to envision the entire crystal as a landscape, with its inclusions and flaws. He rejects traditional gem cuts such as the round brilliant, which focuses on the reflecting quality of a diamond and is far too complex for human sight. For this reason he adopted a cutting style that is asymmetrical, inviting the viewer’s attention inside the crystal rather than on its reflective qualities.
The next section takes the reader on an inspirational journey through the work of Tom Munsteiner, whose most memorable creations include “Magic Eye,” “Ritmo,” and “Spirit of Nature.” The “Magic Eye” pieces have a sphere carved into the back of the gems at the interface of their axes to produce reflections on the face. “Ritmo” features geometric notches on the reverse side that re-create random asymmetrical imaginary structures. Of particular interest to gemologists is the “Spirit of Nature” series of gem carvings, which accentuates the inclusions in a wide range of materials. Some of the most striking pieces are an oligoclase with red hematite platelets, an elongated aquamarine prism with a helicoidal inclusion running through the length of the gemstone, and rock crystal carvings displaying phantom crystals. This section is one of the book’s strongest.
The third part focuses on Jutta’s jewelry designs, which feature her husband’s gem carvings. Her inspiration features sinuous curves, as evidenced by the “Personalities” neckpiece series. The imposing “Jeanne d’Arc” necklace shows a ridged, elongated rutilated quartz mounted on a custom-made snake chain.
The fourth part illustrates Tom and Jutta’s collaboration through images of their classic jewelry, such as the “Twins” series of rings, each featuring an original gemstone carving paired with a diamond. They incorporated a proprietary round cut called “Spirit,” as well as the square “Context,” which resembles a modern French cut.
The photos exhibit a precision that complements the Munsteiners’ cutting style. The rendering of color has not been artificially enhanced, which is often a treacherous temptation. Captions generally mention the carat weight of the gemstones, which is important since neither scale nor dimension are indicated. Given the impressive size of certain objects, this information helps the reader appreciate the quality and craftsmanship involved. Numerous illustrations show the variation of cutting, within each series and from one series to another. The many photos serve to distinguish the couple’s respective pieces: Tom’s unique gem carvings and Jutta’s minimalist jewelry designed with a sharp, powerful style.
The text speaks to the Munsteiners’ inspiration, but also describes how the gems were cut—a helpful feature since some of the gems were cut from the back to create a sense of volume and depth. Without those details, such techniques would be difficult to comprehend.
This magnificent opus would have benefited from the Munsteiners’ original sketches, which would have made the volume livelier and more personal. Some basic technical explanation of cut and lapidary work, being the couple’s craft and expertise, would have also provided some foundation. But these criticisms are minor considering the quality of gemstones and illustrations presented.
The illuminating text and the striking originality and craftsmanship of the Munsteiners’ work make this volume a real treat for students, gemologists, gem cutters, and jewelry enthusiasts. It offers an incomparable insight into Europe’s contemporary and cutting-edge creations.
Reviewed by Delphine A. LeBlanc
Hoboken, New Jersey @chapter:26


Publication Year: 2008 Title: A History of Diamond Treatments Abstract: Although various forms of paints and coatings intended to alter the color of diamond have likely been in use for almost as long as diamonds have been valued as gems, the modern era of diamond treatment—featuring more permanent alterations to color through irradiation and high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) annealing, and improvements in apparent clarity with lead-based glass fillings—did not begin until the 20th century. Modern gemologists and diamantaires are faced with a broad spectrum of color and clarity treatments ranging from the simple to the highly sophisticated, and from the easily detected to the highly elusive. The history, characteristics, and identification of known diamond treatments are reviewed. @chapter:31