Publication Year: 2022 Title: Unusual Glass-and-Quartz Triplet Imitation of Emerald Abstract: Figure 1. This 11.30 ct sample (18.9 × 14.0 × 8.8 mm) was found to be a triplet composed of colorless glass and quartz held together by green cement. Photo by Biqian Xing.
Recently, an 11.30 ct emerald-cut sample sold as an emerald (figure 1) was provided by an anonymous jewelry manufacturer, who suspected an imitation. It resembled a natural emerald with its vivid bluish green color, inclusion abundance, and a vitreous luster. However, examination identified it as a glass-and-quartz triplet, an occasionally convincing imitation of emerald.

Figure 2. Illuminated with diffused transmitted light with water immersion, the assembled nature of this 11.30 ct triplet was obvious in profile view (top image shows a slight downward view, and bottom image shows a slight upward view). The pavilion is nearly colorless (both top and bottom images) due to the refraction and scattering of the green cement by a large number of inclusions, while the crown is colorless and clean under a certain observation angle (bottom image). Photo by Biqian Xing.

Figure 3. Microscopic observation of the triplet revealed numerous cracks (A), fluid inclusions, and lace-like partially healed fissures (B) in the pavilion. C: The cement slice could be seen under reflected light (as shown by the arrow). D: A maze-like pattern in the cement slice. Photomicrographs by Biqian Xing; fields of view 2.51 mm (A), 10.37 mm (B), 2.71 mm (C), and 1.15 mm (D).
When examined via water immersion in a direction parallel to the girdle plane, one can observe that this triplet was made of two pieces of colorless material (crown and pavilion), with a green cement slice in between (figure 2). Using water for the immersion test to observe the internal characteristics did not corrode the sample and yielded better experimental results. No inclusions were observed in the crown. Microscopic examination revealed two-phase (liquid and gas) inclusions, cracks (figure 3A), and lace-like partially healed fissures in the pavilion (figure 3B). In the middle cement layer, no gas bubbles were observed along the separation plane in the assemblage, unlike doublets previously described (H.A. Hänni and U. Henn, “Modern doublets, manufactured in Germany and India,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 34, No. 6, 2015, pp. 479–482; Spring 2019 Lab Notes, p. 92). However, the very thin layer of solidified cement (approximately 10 μm thick; figure 3C) showed a maze-like pattern under the microscope (figure 3D).
This triplet had refractive indexes of 1.515 (crown) and 1.544–1.553 (pavilion) and a hydrostatic specific gravity of 2.59. Its fluorescence under long-wave UV radiation was green for the crown and blue-white for the pavilion (affected by the fluorescence of the cement) and inert for both the crown and pavilion under short-wave UV radiation. No obvious absorption was observed with a handheld portable spectroscope, and no reaction was observed with the Chelsea filter.

Figure 4. FTIR spectroscopy identified the crown of the triplet as glass (peaks at 1061, 968, 770, and 465 cm–1) and the pavilion as quartz (peaks at 1174, 1140, 1084, 800, 781, 693, 540, 488, and 454 cm–1). Spectra are stacked for clarity.
The EDXRF and FTIR results identified the crown as soda-lime-silica glass (69.97 wt.% SiO2, 15.25 wt.% Na2O, and 8.94 wt.% CaO) with characteristic peaks at 1061 (asymmetric vibration modes of the Si-O-Si network), 770 (symmetric vibration modes of the Si-O-Si network), 968 (stretching vibration of the Si-O non-bridging oxygen group), and 465 cm–1 (Si-O-Si and O-Si-O bending modes) (figure 4) (A. Agarwal and M. Tomozawa, “Determination of fictive temperature of soda-lime silicate glass,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 78, No. 3, 1995, pp. 827–829; S.I. Amma et al., “Specular reflectance (SR) and attenuated total reflectance (ATR) infrared (IR) spectroscopy of transparent flat glass surfaces: A case study for soda lime float glass,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, Vol. 428, 2015, pp. 189–196). The pavilion was identified as quartz, with 99.54 wt.% SiO2 and characteristic FTIR peaks at 1174, 1140, 1084 (antisymmetric stretching vibrations of the SiO4 tetrahedron), 800 (SiO4 symmetric stretching), 781 (SiO4 symmetric stretching), 693 (Si-O-Si bending transition modes), 540, 488, and 454 cm–1 (figure 4) (A. Hahn et al., “Using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to determine mineral phases in sediments,” Sedimentary Geology, Vol. 375, 2018, pp. 27–35). Unfortunately, the green cement was too thin to analyze with a micro-infrared spectrometer or Raman spectrometer.
The triplet was a typical imitation of emerald but surprisingly convincing when viewed table-up with the unaided eye. With its extremely thin cement slice, maze-like pattern, and lack of bubbles, even a jewelry manufacturer might mistake it for emerald. This investigation reminds us that the examination of potentially composite stones cannot be ignored. @chapter:9


Publication Year: 1982 Title: Cultured 3/4 Blister Pearls Abstract: More information is now available on the cultured 3/4 blister pearls that were recently introduced into the marketplace. Cultivated with both salt water and fresh-water nuclei, the material is attractive and durable. This article describes the method of culturing these "pearls" as well as the differences between this material and 3/4 South Sea cultured pearls or assembled cultured blister pearls (Mabe pearls). @chapter:14


Publication Year: - Title: Explore the Gem Encyclopedia Abstract: You may not have the time or means to go on a gem expedition, but GIA can guide you through one. This new website, which aggregates more than 80 years of gemology research, can help you explore the world of gems.

Whether you’re a consumer looking for information on a gem before you buy, a student considering a career in the gem and jewelry industry or someone who simply loves gems and minerals, you are sure to discover information here that reveals the beauty and wonder of gems.

This site features a comprehensive overview of gem information, starting with the GIA Gem Encyclopedia, a major new feature that highlights 21 of the most popular gemstones. Each has its own page with standout facts, information on treatments, synthetics and imitations, famous stones and a map of gem localities. It also includes eye-catching photography, video and a streamlined, content-rich format. The easy-to-navigate layout enables you to search by color or country of origin and toggle between rough and polished images of the stone.

Looking to buy a gem? Jump straight to a Buying Guide for tips on quality factors, gem care or how to find a jeweler. Whether you’re seeking advice on how to clean your diamond or the refractive index of tanzanite, you can find it in the Gem Encyclopedia.

“From someone in GIA’s Junior Gemologist program newly bitten by the gemology bug to researchers eager to tap into nearly 80 years of G&G  knowledge, the Gem Encyclopedia covers all levels of interest,” said Duncan Pay, editor-in-chief of G&G.

The gem pages also lead you to related articles on the Research & News section so you can easily browse from one topic to the next if you want more information.

“As you explore the pages you’ll find the more you learn, the more you can learn,” Pay said. “A consumer on the sapphire page will find useful, quick information, but they can also dig deeper and learn about fascinating research on new sapphire sources and see maps of where the gem is found.”

The new Research & News section is a quick reference to all G&G articles – dating back to 1934 – which are available to read on the website or download in a free PDF.  This section also features content from GIA global researchers and subject matter experts, including field reports, market analyses and the latest research updates.

	The Gem Encyclopedia overview provides broad information about each stone, but you
	can easily dig deeper with the embedded links. @chapter:7


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Book Review: Symphony of Jewels: Anna Hu Opus 2 Abstract: By Janet Zapata with Sarah Davis, hardcover, 192 pp., illus., publ. by Vendome Press, New York, 2019, US$75.00.

Seven years after Symphony of Jewels: Anna Hu Opus 1, New York–based jewelry designer Anna Hu is back with Opus 2. This collection of 100 of her designs from 2013 to 2018 is the second of ten planned Opuses that are a tribute to her idol, Beethoven. The Taiwanese-born designer calls her creations symphonies—she draws much of her inspiration from music. The daughter of a gem dealer, Hu was a cellist from ages 13 to 20, when an injury ended her musical career and she turned to jewelry design. She studied at GIA, the Parsons School of Design, Columbia University, and the Fashion Institute of Technology, and worked at Van Cleef & Arpels and Harry Winston, before founding Anna Hu Haute Joaillerie in 2007.
The years since Opus 1 have seen Anna Hu Haute Joaillerie grow in prominence. Hu now has boutiques in Shanghai and Taipei. In 2013, at Christie’s Hong Kong, her Orpheus jadeite ring broke the world record for a Chinese contemporary jewelry artist, with a final bid of $2.59 million, more than three times the high pre-sale estimate. At Christie’s Geneva that year, her Cote d’Azur brooch garnered the highest per-carat price for a Burmese sapphire ($78,400). In September 2017 she exhibited at La Biennale Paris for the first time, showing pieces from Opus 1. And in May 2018, Hu was the first modern Asian jewelry designer to not only exhibit at the State Historical Museum of Moscow but also have a piece in its permanent collection (her China Red Magpie Brooch, a version of Opus 1’s Blue Formosan Magpie Brooch).
Opus 2 begins with a foreword by François Curiel, chairman of Christie’s Europe and Asia. Curiel remarks on Hu’s transformations: from cellist to jewelry designer at the time of an internship at Christie’s, to successful designer with her own brand and multiple awards. He notes the evolution of her design from “bold and confident” in its first decade to one of “sophisticated aesthetics” and “contemporary elegance” in the second. “Her music never stops,” he writes.
The introduction, by jewelry historian Janet Zapata and jewelry expert Sarah Davis, describes the themes and symbolism of Hu’s jewelry: Chinese and Western art, music, and culture; water and sea life; the universe; and butterflies inspired by music and goddesses. (Hu has created one butterfly jewel annually since 2008; her last name means “butterfly.”) They note that the influence of music is evident in the sense of movement in her designs. Hu sees the jewelry that arises from her creation process like a phoenix rising from ashes, Zapata and Davis write, which to her symbolizes the creative fire of women.
In the preface, Hu describes her fascination with gemstones as a child—and a startling dream at ten years old in which a D-Flawless diamond was implanted in her heart, which inspired her to make jewelry to “bring happiness to people and brighten their souls.” Her jewels are not decorative objects, she says, but modern art with cultural relevance to both East and West.
Opus 2 is divided into five chapters: Ballerina Faeries, Chinese Inspiration, Duet and Trio, Contemporary Art, and Butterfly. Each one begins with an overview of the influences and inspirations for the jewelry within, with commentary on select pieces, along with a photo of a featured piece and several small photos of the craftsmanship process. The majority of the book consists of full-page photographs of Hu’s brooches, necklaces, bracelets, rings, and cuff links. The impression of movement is enhanced within the photos by shadows, reflections of light, mirror images of the jewels, and larger-than-life flowers and butterfly wings. Illustrations are used sparingly. The chapters close with details of each piece’s gemstones and metals, inspirations, and symbolism, along with its Chinese name; technique is only lightly touched upon.
Hu’s designs are exquisitely intricate. A 5.145 ct conch pearl “egg” rests in a nest of rose gold wire in the Red Magpie Brooch (the third in the series that began in Opus 1). The tiny diamond briolettes of the Enchanted Orchid Earrings move when worn, creating sound and reflections of light. A ribbon of diamond and white gold interweaves with petals of diamond and rose gold to create the effect of a flower in the Pétales de’Amour rings. The selection of gemstones is exceptional. Highlights include fancy-color sapphire and diamond, Golconda diamond, Kashmir sapphire, Burmese ruby, jadeite, Colombian emerald, Sri Lankan and Burmese star sapphire, tsavorite, Paraíba tourmaline, black and fire opals, pearls, and a 33.65 ct cat’s-eye alexandrite.
The index, while useful for its thumbnail-sized photos, lists only the page of each piece’s main photo rather than all pages where it appears. A second minor criticism also involves page numbers: they are absent except for on pages with substantial text. For example, page 63 shows the Pétales d’Amour Trio and directs the reader to pages 92–93 for more, but only one page in between is numbered, so the reader has to turn backward from page 98 or count the pages. This choice was likely intended to avoid detracting from the artistry of the full-page photographs—each one already has the piece’s name and number—but a better choice would have been to give the piece number rather than page number on page 63 and others like it.
Jewelry designers will enjoy Symphony of Jewels: Anna Hu Opus 2 for its extraordinary designs and modern East-meets-West aesthetic. Gemologists will appreciate the stunning gemstones. But the book is more than a study of beautiful jewelry. It also offers substance on the themes of her creations, from Greek mythology to Chinese culture and the Art Deco era. The reader could spend many hours with this book and find a new appreciation for the art, nature, and culture that are Hu’s muses. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 1987 Title: Infrared Spectroscopy in Gem Identification Abstract: Infrared spectroscopy is a powerful tool for gem identification and research. Absorptions of a gem material in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum are due to vibrations in the crystal structure; they can be used to help separate one gem material from another or to detect certain types of treatments. The authors describe the new Nicolet 60SX Fourier transform infrared spectrometer recently acquired by GIA's Research Department, and outline the detection of polymer-impregnation of opal as an example of the use of infrared spectroscopy in gemology. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 2023 Title: 2023 Market Report on Jewelry and Gemstone Products in Switzerland. Abstract: Report on the Gems and Jewelry Market in Switzerland for 2023
Import-Export Situation of Gems and Jewelry
1.1 Thai Exports to Switzerland
The export situation of Thai goods to Switzerland from January to October 2022 saw Thailand exporting gems and jewelry, such as cut and uncut gemstones, silver, and gold jewelry, ranking first with a growth rate in Q3 of 2022 increasing by 306.7% compared to the same period last year, totaling 2.7 billion USD or 83.76% of Switzerland's total imports from Thailand.
1.2 Imports and Exports of Gems and Jewelry in Switzerland
In 2021, Switzerland imported gems and jewelry globally worth a total of 110.713 billion USD, an increase of 5.35% from the previous year. The top trading partners were the United Kingdom (31.773 billion USD), followed by the United States (11.365 billion USD), the United Arab Emirates (8.4 billion USD), France (4.9 billion USD), and Italy (4.4 billion USD), respectively.
In 2021, Switzerland exported gems and jewelry globally worth a total of 106.312 billion USD, an increase of 23.23% from the previous year. The top trading partners were India (29.507 billion USD), followed by China (17.489 billion USD), the United States (13.216 billion USD), Germany (7.04 billion USD), and Hong Kong (6.3 billion USD), respectively.
Gem and Jewelry Industry Trends for 2023
2.1 Recovery of the Gems and Jewelry Industry
In 2022, Switzerland's gems and jewelry industry recovered after the relaxation of COVID-19 measures, as international tourism began to return to normal. This led to a higher demand for luxury jewelry brands. Additionally, the Swiss government’s allowance for social events, such as weddings, resulted in a significant increase in sales of wedding jewelry, especially rings. It is expected that in 2023, luxury jewelry sales will surpass fashion jewelry sales, as affluent consumers resume spending, and the wedding market has recovered since 2022. However, fashion jewelry is increasingly popular among fashion-conscious consumers. For example, the growth in Zara’s clothing sales has boosted the sales of its accessories, including fashion jewelry, due to its successful online platform and the shift of manufacturing closer to Europe, enhancing flexibility in transporting popular items to offline stores. Meanwhile, luxury brands like Gucci and Hermes are diversifying their jewelry designs by using alloys, leather, gemstones, and synthetic materials, maintaining a premium price.
2.2 Growth of Online Stores
As consumers spend more from home and many retail stores have closed, online stores have significantly grown as a sales channel for gems and jewelry, especially fashion jewelry. Online fashion retailers such as Zalando and About You are gaining interest. Online stores are increasingly important for luxury gems and jewelry as well, with mid-priced luxury jewelry brands like Christ and Rhomberg Schmuck opening online stores to boost consumer confidence. However, online channels cannot fully replace offline stores, as consumers still prefer to see and touch luxury jewelry before purchasing. Although the COVID-19 situation has relaxed, the trend of online retail is expected to continue growing in 2023 for both luxury and fashion jewelry, as consumers are more accustomed to online shopping.
2.3 Social Media Boosts Demand for Gem and Jewelry Products
Social media is boosting the popularity of gems and jewelry, with necklaces and earrings increasingly popular among Swiss consumers. This trend is driven by the growing number of consumers who want pieces that are easy to post on Instagram or TikTok. This trend has also led many consumers to prefer colorful gems and jewelry over gold or neutral tones.
Jewelry and Gem Consumption Trends
3.1 Post-COVID Economic Conditions Boost Demand for Luxury Jewelry
In 2022, retail sales of gems and jewelry recovered. However, these numbers are not expected to grow to pre-COVID levels (2019) until 2026. In 2022 and the forecast period, luxury gems and jewelry sales will remain higher than fashion jewelry sales, driven by the recovery of international tourism and the post-COVID economic recovery, leading to increased spending on luxury goods.
3.2 Online Stores Drive Growth for Digital-Native Brands
Online stores will continue to grow and become increasingly important for gems and jewelry, especially fashion jewelry, as Swiss consumers trust online shopping. Brands and retailers are investing more in this channel. In the fashion jewelry segment, digital-native brands will expand and lower unit prices, potentially capturing market share from retail chains like Bijou, Brigitte, and Claire's, as Swiss consumers are not very brand-loyal when it comes to fashion jewelry. Meanwhile, sustainability is becoming more significant in the gem and jewelry segment, especially among young consumers interested in sustainable products like Fairtrade gold and fashion jewelry made from recycled plastics. Brands like Chopard are increasingly introducing products that cater to these trends.
3.3 Younger Consumers Less Interested in Luxury Gems and Jewelry
Although luxury gems and jewelry are recovering, they struggle to attract younger consumers who prioritize experiential consumption or show more interest in gadgets. Additionally, expanding fashion jewelry lines from luxury brands has increased competition in the market. Moreover, the trend of renting gems and jewelry for special occasions, such as weddings, remains popular among price-sensitive Swiss consumers, reducing the purchase of luxury jewelry due to the lower cost, safety, and variety available for rent. Since 2022, the demand for synthetic diamonds has surged, with many brands selling such products, and technological innovations improving quality and affordability. Synthetic diamonds may cost just a tenth of mined diamonds and are highly appealing to consumers who cannot distinguish between the two types. Furthermore, jewelry using smaller synthetic diamonds is more popular than those with larger synthetic diamonds, as they give a more luxurious and classic feel.
Opportunities for Thai Gems and Jewelry in the German Market
4.1 Thailand is recognized as a key source of gems and components for jewelry, especially gold, silver, and colored gemstones, which are increasingly popular in the Swiss market. This presents opportunities for exporters who can meet market demands. Importers consider Thai products to be of good quality and reasonably priced, with Thai manufacturers being trustworthy. Importers prefer to source goods in Thailand during gem and jewelry trade shows and holiday seasons.
4.2 Importers recognize and appreciate Thai craftsmanship, especially in the meticulous and delicate production of jewelry settings. Many overseas jewelry companies currently order settings from Thailand and assemble them elsewhere or establish production bases in Thailand. Therefore, developing skills in the gem and jewelry sector will enhance the industry's quality and maintain high standards. @chapter:30


Publication Year: 2014 Title: Books: Damiani: Alchemy of Desire Abstract: By Cristina Morozzi, 240 pp., hardcover, illus., publ. by Rizzoli, New York, 2014. US$100.00.

              This special edition celebrates 90 years of history at Damiani, the Valenza-based jewel house established in 1924. Visually rich, the book presents the multigenerational evolution of this design house known internationally for its elegantly bedecked celebrity ambassadors and expressive, handmade designs.

To honor the landmark, the book introduces the Damiani 90th Collection early on, comprising 10 exceptional pieces that mark each decade from the 1920s to the 2010s. Period photographs and sketches enlivened by the artists’ comments—some with more exclamation points than a Facebook post—frame these magnificent pieces as reflections of their time, yet pulsing with a steady beat of contemporary energy and flair.

Woven throughout the book is the thread of an enduring family tradition that is now steered by three siblings who bring complementary skills and experience to the table. Edited by Cristina Morozzi, a writer and art director, the book presents the triumvirate in words and photographs as unified in strength, dedication, and dignity.

The family story begins with master goldsmith Enrico Grassi Damiani, who was said to create jewels for the leading families and wealthy patrons of his day, but about whom we learn little. With succession passing to Enrico’s son Damiano in 1953, the company entered a new period of growth marked by the younger Damiani’s innovations in design, research, and marketing, bringing expansion and heightened recognition to the brand. Although the book’s testimonials paint an incomplete picture of the man, the reader gains a sense of Damiano Grassi Damiani’s eye for perfection and his pursuit of it, embodied by a strong-willed, passionate leader who was able to successfully meld innovation with the new order of style.

Since Damiano’s sudden death in the mid-1990s, his three children, Giorgio, Guido, and Silvia Grassi Damiani, have continued the Damiani tradition. In 2007, the company went public.

The book offers a bird’s-eye view of Damiani’s other notable success: associating its brand with iconic ambassadors of style and glitz. Beginning with Isabella Rossellini as the face of Damiani in the 1980s, the house has also had brand ambassador and other connections with Sophia Loren, Sharon Stone, Gwyneth Paltrow, and Jennifer Aniston, all of whom are pictured in glorious Damiani jewelry. At awards shows and A-lister parties, the Damiani-adorned include other celebrities from Paris Hilton to Dita Von Teese.

Brad Pitt’s D.Side collection with Damiani is also featured, which, in a bizarre (and unmentioned) alchemy of its own, was the upside of a legal dispute between the company and the actor along with Aniston, Pitt’s former wife.

While this is an upbeat book in which jewelry reigns as the stuff of dreams and glamour, it also highlights the company’s social responsibility efforts. This is shown by Damiani’s work with Sharon Stone and a nongovernmental organization that has helped bring drinking water to Africans in remote villages in diamond-mining regions.

Notwithstanding the numerous celebrity photos, nearly all in color, the real stars of this show are the pieces themselves. Following a chapter devoted to the unprecedented 18 Diamonds International Awards bestowed on Damiani jewelry, beginning in 1976 with the Shark bracelet designed by Damiano’s wife, Gabriella, the book concludes with a chapter titled “Masterpieces.” Among the pieces that pulse with emotion, boundary-pushing craftsmanship, and staggering beauty are the dreamy “Mediterranea” cuff bracelet, the “Cincillà” collier of diamonds set in burnished gold that evokes a fur neck wrap, the lava-inspired “Vulcania” that practically erupts on the décolletage of the glitterati, and the “Peacock” necklace aglow in sapphires, emeralds, and brilliant diamonds.

Jewelry enthusiasts, stylists, and historians interested in high-fashion jewelry design will be rewarded by this celebration of a remarkable entrepreneurial family and its eye-popping creations. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2000 Title: Spring 2000 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Chameleon Diamonds with Blue-to-Violet “Transmission” Luminescence
Evidence of another New Diamond Treatment
Light Blue Synthetic Diamond
Rare Gem Dumortierite
Massive Pink Hydrogrossular Garnet Carving
Black Cultured Pearls from Baja California, Mexico
Strand of Natural Coated Pearls

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:32


Publication Year: - Title: Milestones of 2014, Exciting Announcements for 2015 Abstract: View Gallery

The new year brings a time of reflection and anticipation for the future. As we all emerge from the blur of year-end, the alumni office is pleased to report that 2014 was a stellar year of milestones and highlights. It is impossible to summarize all of the accomplishments of our committed alumni around the world ‒ or the effect of their outreach as ambassadors supporting GIA’s mission ‒ but I’ve outlined a few below. Please take some time to view photos of alumni events in the gallery above.

The Numbers

The active number of GIA Alumni members reached 100,000 and continues to grow!
More than 25,000 members are listed in our Alumni Online Directory.
The GIA Alumni Association has 71 chapters on 5 continents.
More than 175 Alumni Events offering continuing education and networking opportunities worldwide were held.
GIA connected with our alums at nearly 100 tradeshows in 2014.
Nearly 1,500 members took a moment in 2014 to manage their Alumni Membership and let GIA know the alumni benefits that are most important to them.

Tribute

Susan Jacques was appointed GIA president and CEO on Jan. 1, 2014, the sixth leader in GIA’s 83-year history. Susan is a GG from the Santa Monica campus class of 1980 and proof positive that hard work, ethics and staying connected to GIA is a benefit for our alumni.
Robert “Bob” Earnest, who advocated for a GIA Alumni Association and was its first executive director, passed away in December. Learn more about his special relationship with GIA alumni.

Bob Earnest, left, with Richard T. Liddicoat’s support helped establish the GIA Alumni Association in 1982.
In Review
Here are some of the chapter news and events from 2014:

Travel excursions and alumni tours to China, Germany, the Gulf of Mexico, Malaysia, Burma, Taiwan and U.S. tradeshows were planned by various chapters.
Chapters continue to expand their collaborations and co-host events across the globe, including Shanghai and Taiwan; Africa’s Johannesburg, Cape Town and Botswana chapters; Hong Kong and mainland China; Malaysia and multiple southeast Asia chapters; Houston and North Texas; and southern California chapters in San Diego, Orange County and Los Angeles.
New York classmates organized a 40th reunion for the 1974 Graduate Gemologist class.

Top chapter meeting topics:

Technical instrumentation and hands-on events
Jewelry history, museum tours and visits to lapidary and diamond cutting houses
Gemstone buying, excursions and collecting from industry experts
Research news on treatments and synthetic diamonds and colored gems
Security, law enforcement seminars and understanding UL & Trade commission rulings
Mentorship from experienced alumni graduates for students and grads seeking refreshers

Looking Ahead in 2015
We’re excited to share a bright launch to 2015:
GIA Events

Tucson’s gem, mineral and jewelry fairs are quickly approaching Feb. 2-15. GIA’s presence and activities are extensive, but the Party at the GIA Gem Mine: Rocking Down Under is the most fun you’ll have. The annual dinner, dance and auction is really a large reunion party, where more than 250 alumni, students and industry friends gather to celebrate. We hope to see you there!

Please note: Jan. 15 is the deadline to purchase tickets early and save. It is also the deadline to submit auction items, with guaranteed donor recognition online and in print

Gemfest Basel is scheduled for March 22; global alums and industry members are invited to an afternoon of education followed by a reception.

Make Travel Plans

The Malaysia chapter is planning an international gathering for alumni in late August in conjunction with the Malaysia International Jewelry Fair, held Aug. 21-24, and all global alumni are invited to participate.

In closing, I would like to applaud all of our members around the globe for their support and attendance at alumni events and for following their commitment to educate and professionalize the industry. I most especially want to thank the dedicated chapter leaders who plan and execute these events to build camaraderie among industry professionals. Thank you.

Personally, I welcome 2015 and look forward to the advancements and opportunities that are sure to come! @chapter:34


Publication Year: 2015 Title: Diamond in Diamond Abstract: Figure 1. This 1.69 ct Fancy black round brilliant diamond contained an octahedral diamond crystal. Photo by Jian Xin (Jae) Liao.

              The New York laboratory recently examined a 1.69 ct Fancy black round brilliant diamond (figure 1). The type Ia diamond contained an abundance of tiny cloud inclusions and strong hydrogen-related absorptions, both common features for this type of diamond. We observed numerous etch channels with brown radiation staining, also normal features for diamonds of this type and color. But we also observed a sizable octahedral crystal inclusion that broke the surface of a pavilion facet (figure 2, left). The surface-breaking area was approximately 150 × 250 microns according to the Raman microscopic image. The actual dimensions of the entire included crystal could not be determined.

Figure 2. Left: This photomicrograph reveals natural etch channels with brown radiation staining, as well as an octahedral crystal inclusion (the inset shows the surface-breaking outline). Center: The Raman map of the 1332 cm–1 FWHM clearly outlines the surface break of the octahedral diamond inclusion. The inset in the left-side image represents the Raman mapping area. The image was taken in a grid pattern measuring FWHM of the diamond Raman peak at 1332 cm–1. More than 300 Raman spectra collected at multiple points on the grid were translated into this map by the software. Each colored pixel represents the FWHM value, and similar FWHM values will be shown in similar colors. Noticeably different colors outlining the inclusion indicate that it is not part of the host diamond and that it formed in a different geological environment. Right: DiamondView imaging shows that the diamond inclusion was captured during the second phase of growth. Photomicrographs by Paul Johnson (left and right) and Kyaw Soe Moe (center).
The exposed crystal inclusion had the morphology of a natural diamond crystal, and Raman analysis easily identified it as diamond. Both the host diamond and inclusion show sharp 1332 cm–1 Raman bands, indicating high crystallinity. The graphite peak at approximately 1580 cm–1 was not observed in either. Raman mapping showed that the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the inclusion’s 1332 cm–1 peak was different from that of the host diamond (figure 2, center). In the map, each colored pixel represents the FWHM value of the 1332 cm–1 Raman peak. The colored pixels of the inclusion were decidedly different from those of the host diamond, confirming that it formed in a different geological environment. We also observed differences between the photoluminescence (PL) spectra of the inclusion and the host diamond, evidence that the diamond inclusion formed in a different environment and was later incorporated as a protogenetic inclusion. This also suggests that this diamond may have traveled from its original formation environment to another geological environment after crystallization.

A DiamondView image shows the diamond crystal to have been captured in a second growth phase of the host diamond crystal (figure 2, right). This is the first documented case of a diamond crystal inclusion with a different origin than that of the host diamond. @chapter:11


Publication Year: - Title: Ruby Description Abstract: Ruby and sapphire are varieties of the mineral corundum. - Courtesy Hamilton Jewelers

Ruby is one variety of the corundum mineral species, which also includes sapphire. Ruby is highly regarded and can command high per-carat prices. It is arguably one of the most important gems in the colored stone market.
In its purest form, the mineral corundum is colorless. Trace elements that become part of the mineral’s crystal structure cause variations in its color. Chromium is the trace element that causes ruby’s red, which ranges from an orangy red to a purplish red.

The strength of ruby’s red depends on how much chromium is present—the more chromium, the stronger the red color. Chromium can also cause fluorescence, which adds to the intensity of the red color.

The most renowned rubies, like those from Myanmar, the Himalayas, and northern Vietnam, typically form in marble. They’re found in layers that are distributed irregularly within the surrounding marble. Marble forms as part of the metamorphic (rock-altering) process, when heat and pressure from mountain formation act on existing limestone deposits.

Rubies found in marble deposits often have a vibrant red glow.
Marble has low iron content, so the rubies that originate in marble (called “marble-hosted” by gemologists) lack iron. Because of this, many have an intense red color.

In addition, rubies found in marble typically fluoresce red under ultraviolet light—even the ultraviolet light in sunlight. Fluorescence can make a ruby’s color even more intense and increase its value.

In other locations, rubies can be found in basalt rocks. Rubies from these sources can have higher iron content, which can make the rubies darker and less intense in color. Higher iron content in the chemical makeup of a ruby can also mask the red fluorescence, eliminating that extra glow of red color seen in marble-hosted rubies. @chapter:8


Publication Year: - Title: Shane McClure Abstract: Many of GIA’s most influential leaders, past and present, have become synonymous with the world of gemology. Such is the case for Shane McClure, recently named the global director of colored stone services. In the 37 years since he joined GIA, McClure has become an internationally recognized authority in the field of gem identification.

	A native Californian, McClure began his career at the Institute as a staff gemologist in the downtown Los Angeles laboratory shortly after earning his GG at the Santa Monica campus in 1978. There, he co-founded the identification services department in 1980. He rose through the ranks, supervising and then managing identification services before assuming the role of director of West Coast identification services in 1999. Among the developments that took place under his tenure was the issuance of clarity enhancement reports in natural emerald (starting in 2000), the identification of new treatments and composite techniques, and steps toward clearer nomenclature for corundum, jade, turquoise, and many other gem materials.

	Over the past few decades, McClure has built a reputation as a knowledgeable speaker who lectures around the world on gemological issues. He has authored or co-authored numerous articles on topics such as the diffusion treatment of corundum, the identification of bleached and polymer-impregnated  “B” jade, Zachery-treated turquoise and classifying emerald clarity enhancement. To date, he has authored 29 articles for Gems & Gemology, 15 of which have won the journal’s Most Valuable Article award. Notable G&G articles include articles fracture-filled diamonds with Robert Kammerling, identification of lead-glass-filled rubies (winner of the AGS Liddicoat Journalism Award in 2006), and gemstone enhancement and detection in both the 1990s and 2000s. He has also served as the journal’s Lab Notes editor since 1997.

	McClure is also an exceptional gemstone and jewelry photographer who utilizes both macro- and photomicrography in his work. His work has illustrated numerous articles, including those on the Dresden Green diamond and lead glass–filled rubies. His photograph of an emerald rosary, recovered from the Nuestra Señora de Atocha shipwreck, graced the cover of G&G’s Winter 1989 issue.

	For his efforts in the field of gemology, he was named GIA’s Staff of the Year member in 1989, and presented with the AGA’s Antonio Bonnano Award for Excellence in 2007.  While his contributions to the industry are myriad, no one can doubt that his work is a labor of love. In his own words, “I love what I’m doing…it’s an ever-changing job, and it keeps me interested.” @chapter:20


Publication Year: 2022 Title: Blue Sapphire Lord of the Rings Pendant Abstract: Platinum pendant with a 19.30 ct unheated light blue Sri Lankan sapphire briolette and 177 round brilliant diamonds, 0.86 carats total. Photo by Robert Weldon; courtesy of Jeffrey Bilgore.
At the AGTA show, Jeffrey Bilgore of New York exhibited a sapphire, diamond, and platinum pendant (see above) inspired by The Lord of the Rings. From initial inspiration to delivery of the just-finished pendant midweek at the show, the piece was 15 years in the making.
“I read it in high school,” Bilgore said of the beloved trilogy. “I read it again in college. Then I read it to my son when he was little, and when he was older he read it to me.”
The 19.30 ct unheated light blue Sri Lankan sapphire briolette rotates within the platinum setting, accented by 177 round Flawless to VVS round brilliant diamonds (0.86 carats total). The pendant is modeled after the Phial (vial) of Galadriel, which the elf queen Lady Galadriel gives to hobbit Frodo Baggins for light and protection during his journey to Mordor. The vial contains water from her fountain, which holds the light and power of the elves’ cherished star Eärendil.
“The Star of Eärendil is the North Star at night and the star you see in the dawn,” Bilgore said. “It gives you hope in the darkness and brings you strength.” He said the pendant “symbolizes all the good energies of hope and faith that add light to the world and protect those that it shines on.”
The concept for the pendant came to Bilgore when he bought a diamond briolette in 2004, a year after establishing his own business. Prior to that, he spent 16 years as the primary gem buyer for Oscar Heyman. He began sketching the design but then sold the diamond. Over the next decade, he continued to refine the design. He eventually acquired a pair of light blue sapphires and began developing the piece with a jeweler about five months before the AGTA show.
“The Lord of the Rings is a story about our world, the power of faith, and good vs. evil,” Bilgore said after the show. “Today, with all that is going on in Ukraine, it seems even more meaningful. The story shows how wars destroy everything and put groups against groups for no good reason. That only trust and faith in each other and in the positive powers of love and respect can conquer all.” He added that the story—with its elves, dwarves, hobbits, and other beings—is also about diversity. “No matter your size, shape, color, or type, everyone has value and strengths.”
“Others have attempted to replicate the Phial of Galadriel, but not quite like this,” he said. “If you have anything going on in your life, put it around your neck and you’ll be protected. You’ll get through it.” @chapter:21


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Microscopic Observations of Blue Sapphires Treated with Heat and Pressure Abstract: Figure 1. This sapphire that was treated with heat and pressure contained small birefringent crystals (left) that were nearly invisible with unpolarized light, as seen in the brightfield image (right). Photomicrographs by Nathan Renfro; field of view 1.81 mm.
In recent months, sapphires treated under heat and pressure have been documented in the trade. This material is reported to be treated under pressure of 1 kbar at temperatures between 1200 and 1800°C by HB Laboratory Co. Ltd. of Korea (H. Choi et al., “Sri Lankan sapphire enhanced by heat with pressure,” The Journal of the Gemmological Association of Hong Kong, Vol. 39, 2018, pp. 16–25). This process is used to improve blue coloration and potentially heal any fractures within the stones.
GIA acquired from Sri Lankan gem dealer Imam Faris of Imam Gems (Pvt) Ltd. six samples that were said to have been treated under the conditions mentioned above. The samples were examined using a standard gemological microscope to look for any unusual features resulting from this type of treatment. Five of the six sapphires showed a feature that to our knowledge has not been reported before. Viewed in polarized light (figure 1, left), planes of small crystallites were observed as bright spots against a dark background when the host corundum was in the extinct position. But under unpolarized light (figure 1, right), the crystallites were either invisible or nearly so, and only visible from a low-relief interface between the crystallite and the host corundum. Due to the extremely low relief of these inclusions, the author speculates that these inclusions are corundum crystals that originated from fractures and were healed by recrystallization of the corundum. While it is certainly possible to have birefringent crystals of corundum in untreated corundum, the consistent observation of the planes of birefringent crystals by the author suggests that this feature could be a useful indicator for corundum treated with heat and pressure. These preliminary observations offer some interesting clues, but further research will be needed to fully characterize corundum treated with this technique. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 2012 Title: Identification of Irradiated South Sea Cultured Pearls Using Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy Abstract: Irradiated South Sea cultured pearls (SSCPs) from the Pinctada maxima mollusk typically show colors from light gray to silver. It is difficult to identify gamma-ray irradiation of SSCPs using standard gemological methods because of their thick nacre. Therefore, an advanced analytical technique such as electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy is needed to detect the treatment. ESR measurements of minute amounts of SSCP powders revealed the formation of CO2-radicals, and the parameter known as the g-factor was measured at 2.0015 ± 0.0005. Higher levels of CO2-radicals were detected in the pearl nacre than in the nucleus. Therefore, the existence of CO2-radicals is an indicator of irradiated SSCPs. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2022 Title: An Extraordinarily Large Cat’s-Eye Emerald Abstract: Figure 1. An unusually large cat’s-eye emerald weighing approximately 126 ct. Photo by Shunsuke Nagai.
Emerald in cabochon form sometimes displays a chatoyant effect, and comparatively large cat’s-eye emeralds are highly sought after. GIA’s Tokyo laboratory recently examined an extraordinarily large semitransparent green cabochon measuring 31.3 × 26.2 × 20.9 mm and weighing approximately 126 ct (figure 1). The stone had a spot refractive index of 1.58 and showed specific chromium absorption lines in the red through a handheld spectroscope, and standard gemological properties identified it as emerald.

Figure 2. Inclusions observed in the large cat’s-eye emerald. A: Rain-like inclusions; field of view 2.18 mm. B: Unknown whitish granular flake-like inclusions; field of view 5.70 mm. C: Aggregates of tiny whitish feldspar crystals confirmed by Raman spectroscopy; field of view 3.60 mm. Photomicrographs by Makoto Miura.
The emerald contained numerous reflective rain-like inclusions creating a chatoyant effect (figure 2A), whitish granular flake-like inclusions (figure 2B), and aggregates of tiny whitish crystals which were identified as feldspar by Raman spectroscopic analysis (figure 2C). The ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared absorption spectra showed two broad bands of Cr3+ at 430 and 600 nm, with a large Fe2+ band at around 850 nm and an Fe3+ broad band at 372 nm. Trace element chemical results using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry showed that this emerald had a high iron concentration (2800–2930 ppmw) and medium potassium range (67.8–74.3 ppmw), characteristics similar to the published data of emeralds from the Belmont mine in Minas Gerais, Brazil (e.g., S. Saeseaw et al., “Geographic origin determination of emerald,” Winter 2019 G&G, pp. 614–646). Inclusions observed in this emerald were also consistent with a Brazilian origin (again, see figure 2).
Brazil is a well-known source of large emerald crystals. One previous report (Summer 2015 Gem News International, pp. 200–201) described a 43 ct Brazilian cat’s-eye emerald. The cat’s-eye emerald examined here is notable for its size and transparency, and it is one of the largest examined by a GIA laboratory to date. @chapter:9


Publication Year: 2013 Title: Green Kyanite Abstract: Figure 1. These yellowish green kyanite rough crystals range from 1.4 to 5.1 grams, while the cushion cabochon weighs 4.84 ct. Photo by Don Mengason.

              At the Riverpark Inn show in Tucson, gem dealer Tom Schneider (San Diego, California) exhibited a parcel of kyanite displaying an unusual saturated yellowish green color (figure 1). Mr. Schneider said he purchased several kilograms of the material in Arusha, Tanzania, its stated country of origin. While greenish blue, blue, and orange kyanite from Tanzania have been previously documented (Winter 2004 GNI, pp. 341–342; Summer 2009 GNI, pp. 146–147), this would be the first vibrantly colored yellowish green material from there. Yellowish green kyanite from Brazil has been previously reported (Winter 2001 GNI, pp. 337–338), but it had a light color and lacked the strong saturation of the material from Tanzania.

A cushion cabochon fashioned from one of the rough crystals was examined in the Carlsbad laboratory and exhibited the following properties: an RI of 1.719–1.731, a hydrostatic SG of 3.70, and no reaction to short- or long-wave UV radiation. These physical properties were consistent with those published for kyanite. This identification was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy.

Microscopic examination revealed several transparent crystals, fine particles, numerous fractures, and cleavages. Trapped in several cracks was an epigenetic reddish brown mineral residue. It is also notable that a small percentage of the rough crystals examined showed narrow blue color zones.

	Figure 2. Visible spectroscopy revealed dominant absorption features at 432 and 445 nm, attributed to Fe3+ and consistent with the very high levels of iron measured in this yellowish green kyanite.
To determine the cause of the yellowish green color, we collected a visible spectrum using a UV-Vis-NIR scanning spectrophotometer (figure 2). This revealed prominent features located in the visible region at 432 and 445 nm. These features have been attributed to Fe3+ in kyanite (R.G. Burns, Mineralogical Applications of Crystal Field Theory, 2nd ed., 1993, Cambridge University Press). LA-ICP-MS measurements collected on the cushion cabochon confirmed a high concentration of iron—more than 20,400 ppmw, consistent with the saturated yellowish green color.

This new supply of vibrant yellowish green material from Tanzania presents an inexpensive option for unusual ornamental gem materials. @chapter:5


Publication Year: - Title: Positive Design With Negative Space Abstract: View Gallery

	Sometimes what you don’t see is as important as what you do.

	“Negative space” is the explanation to this curious statement. It is the empty area between two objects that gives shape and depth to a design.

	Minimalist painters and sculptors in the 1960s and early 1970s generously used negative space in their work. Their style was part of the “less is more” school – a philosophy that said that an object didn’t need to be ornate to be beautiful.

	Negative space is also a popular motif in contemporary jewelry design. Its hallmark is a clean, modern look.

	Mark Schneider’s MJSA American Vision Award winning design, a convertible ring/pendant, is a study in negative space. The interlocking platinum bands make quarter moons, creating slivers of emptiness. When worn as a ring, the black Tahitian cultured pearl looks like it is suspended above the finger – another use of negative space.

	This ring by Mark Schneider features a 12.3 mm black South Sea pearl with .47 ct black and .32 ct white pavé diamonds. It may be worn as a ring in open position or worn upside down as a pendant. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA

	The rising price of precious metals has also driven jewelry designers to incorporate more negative space into their work. With the technique, designers can make stunning-but-affordable pieces by using less metal. So the inclusion of negative space in a design is ultimately a blend of necessity and style.

	The future of negative space? Many consumers yearn for simple shapes as a remedy for complex times and the price of precious metals is not likely to fall, so negative space will continue to have a positive influence on jewelry design.

	Holly K. Croft’s necklace, which won an AGTA Spectrum Award and Platinum Honors, cleverly uses negative space. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2018 Title: Irradiated and Annealed Blue Type Ia Diamond Abstract: Figure 1. This 0.36 ct fancy deep green-blue diamond is a multi-step treated diamond. Photo by Wenqing Huang.

Many diamonds are subjected to artificial radiation, usually with subsequent annealing to create attractive colors. Most blue diamonds in the market are treated by artificial irradiation, yet irradiated blue diamonds with a multi-step treatment process are rarely seen in the lab. The National Center of Supervision and Inspection on Quality of Gold and Silver Products (Nanjing, China) recently examined such an example.

Figure 2. The DiamondView image showed a characteristic ring-like natural growth pattern. Image by Wenqing Huang.
The 0.36 ct round brilliant, graded as fancy deep green-blue (figure 1), had natural mineral inclusions under the table and a fracture near the girdle. The DiamondView image showed a ring-like natural growth pattern (figure 2). The infrared spectrum revealed the diamond was type IaAB, with absorptions at 1282 cm–1 and 1175 cm–1 (A-aggregated nitrogen and B-aggregated nitrogen, respectively); the spectrum also revealed a radiation-related peak at 1450 cm–1 (figure 3). The H1a center reflected by the 1450 cm–1 band, involving a single nitrogen atom and two equivalent carbon atoms, was formed by irradiation and annealing above 300°C for diamonds with aggregated nitrogen (type Ia) (I. Kiflawi et al., “Nitrogen interstitials in diamond,” Physical Review B, Vol. 54, No. 23, 1996, pp. 16719–16726). The UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum showed absorption from a GR1 defect at 741.2 nm and revealed weak absorptions from a defect of uncertain structure (594.4 nm), H3 (503.2 nm), and H4 (496.2 nm) centers (figure 4). The GR1 center, believed to be a neutral vacancy (V0) defect, is a typical radiation-induced defect; the vacancies begin to move at 500°C and the GR1 center begins to decrease until it disappears, at around 800°C (A.T. Collins, “Investigating artificially coloured diamonds,” Nature, Vol. 273, No. 5664, 1978, pp. 654–655). The 595 nm center is also a typical radiation-induced center, which appears at temperatures above 300°C after radiation (Collins et al., 1978). The presence of the H3 and H4 centers was confirmed with photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy (figure 5). The combination of all the above defects, especially the strong H1a center, indicates that the diamond was subjected to irradiation followed by annealing.

Figure 3. The FTIR spectrum of the 0.36 ct irradiated diamond revealed the sample was type IaAB, with absorptions at 1282 cm–1 (A-aggregated nitrogen) and 1175 cm–1 (B-aggregated nitrogen). The H1a absorption at 1450 cm–1, associated with irradiation and subsequent heating, was also detected. In addition, the spectra showed peaks at 1405, 1096, and 1010 cm–1, all of which are usually seen in type Ia diamond.

Figure 4. The UV-Vis-NIR spectrum of the 0.36 ct irradiated diamond, collected at liquid nitrogen temperature, showed a clear GR1 center defect at 741.2 nm, and weak absorption lines at 594.4 nm, 503.2 nm, and 496.2 nm.

Figure 5. The PL spectrum of the sample excited with a 405 nm laser showed weak emissions at 496.2 nm (the H4 center) and 503.2 nm (the H3 center). A peak at 491.7 nm was also detected.
Natural near-colorless type Ia diamonds are known to be artificially irradiated to introduce blue to green color by displacing carbon atoms in the lattice to create vacancies. Annealing could be used to change the lattice defect configuration, especially GR1, to achieve a purer blue (C.M. Breeding, “A spectroscopic look at green and blue gem diamonds colored by artificial irradiation treatment,” presentation at Geological Society of American 2014 annual meeting). After annealing above 500°C, the vacancies start to migrate, and can be captured by nitrogen centers to create the H1a center (B. Dischler, Handbook of Spectral Lines in Diamond, Volume 1: Tables and Interpretations, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2012, pp. 315–316). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first diamond examined in China that has been irradiated and annealed to introduce a blue color. @chapter:11


Publication Year: 2020 Title: Uncommon Inclusion of Lazurite in Ruby from Mogok, Myanmar Abstract: Lazurite inclusion in Mogok ruby from Myanmar (transmitted light and oblique illumination). Photomicrograph by Kyaw Thu; field of view 0.25 mm.

A parcel of small rubies was received for identification at the S Gemmological Institute (SGI) gem lab in Yangon, Myanmar. Based on chemical, spectroscopic, and standard gemological testing, they were determined to originate from the Mogok Stone Tract in Myanmar. One faceted ruby contained a small blue crystal inclusion with what appeared to be a pyritohedron shape but an uncommonly seen bright blue color (see above). This inclusion was identified by Raman spectroscopy as lazurite.
A blue lazurite inclusion was previously reported to have been found in a 5.09 ct Burmese ruby and a 1.40 ct ruby from Namya, Myanmar (Spring 2012 Lab Notes, pp. 51–52). Also, blue lazurite mineral has previously been detected in 1.02 ct light gray Burmese spinel (Spring 2019 Micro-World, pp. 112–113).
According to the literature and our knowledge of inclusions in rubies from Mogok, this blue mineral is rare as an inclusion in Burmese rubies. @chapter:5


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Diamondiferous Mantle Eclogite: Diamond Surface Features Reveal a Multistage Geologic History Abstract: Figure 1. Mantle eclogite xenolith (2.8 cm in longest dimension) consisting of clinopyroxene (green) and garnet (red-orange), with a partially exposed octahedral diamond. Photo by Annie Haynes. Gift of Mark Mauthner, GIA Museum no. 37511.
More than 99% of diamonds originally formed in the lithospheric mantle, the cold, rigid mantle that underlies continents, generally <300 km deep (T. Stachel and J.W. Harris, “The origin of cratonic diamonds – Constraints from mineral inclusions,” Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 34, No. 1-2, 2008, pp. 5–32). In the lithospheric mantle, the two major rock types—and host rocks for diamond—are peridotite (>95 vol.%), composed predominantly of olivine, and eclogite (<5 vol.%), composed of iron-magnesium-calcium garnet and sodium-rich clinopyroxene. Eclogite is a high-pressure and high-temperature metamorphic rock that can form when dense oceanic crust subducts into the mantle beneath continents at convergent margins.
We cannot directly study the deep portion of the earth where diamonds form. Instead, geologists study diamonds themselves, as well as pieces of mantle rock that are transported to the surface as xenoliths by volcanic magmas such as kimberlite or lamproite. The authors have studied one such mantle eclogite xenolith, part of the GIA Museum collection (figure 1). This sample was recovered from a kimberlite in Russia and contained a partially exposed octahedral diamond. The exposed portions of the diamond had visible surface features, including trigons (figure 2).

Figure 2. Partially exposed diamond embedded in an eclogite xenolith, with positive and negative trigons on the octahedral face. A mineral is included within the diamond, visible through the octahedral face. Photomicrograph by Matthew Hardman; field of view 5.74 mm.
Trigons are inferred to be etch features that form after diamond crystallization, through interaction with fluids or melts either in the mantle source region or during transport to the surface (J.W. Harris et al., “Morphology of monocrystalline diamond and its inclusions,” Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, Vol. 88, No. 1, 2022, pp. 119–166). Trigons form exclusively on the octahedral faces of diamond and can have several different orientations. Positive trigons are oriented in the same direction as the octahedral face, and negative trigons have opposing orientation (figure 2). Positive trigons are very rare and may relate to interaction with carbon-oxygen-hydrogen-rich fluids at temperatures between ~800° and 1000°C at near-surface pressures (Z. Li et al., “Positively oriented trigons on diamonds from the Snap Lake kimberlite dike, Canada: Implications for fluids and kimberlite cooling rates,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 103, No. 10, 2018, pp. 1634–1648). Trigons with negative orientation are much more common. It has been shown experimentally that increasing water content in melts could be one cause for the change of a trigon from positive to negative (e.g., A.F. Khokhryakov and Y.N. Pal’yanov, “The dissolution forms of diamond crystals in CaCO3 melt at 7 GPa,” Russian Geology and Geophysics, Vol. 41, No. 5, 2000, pp. 682–687). Diamonds with coexisting positive and negative trigons are extremely rare (e.g., Harris et al., 2022) and may indicate that the diamond experienced a complex multistage history related to thermal or fluid changes after its formation.
Using the acquired infrared absorption spectrum, the authors identified the diamond as type IaAB, containing nitrogen in the A- and B-aggregated forms. When the entire xenolith was exposed to ultraviolet light, the diamond fluoresced blue due to N3 defects (three nitrogen atoms surrounding a lattice vacancy), consistent with the presence of nitrogen impurities.
The diamond also contained an unidentified mineral inclusion with visible iridescence (figure 2). Minerals included fully within diamond (which itself is an impermeable time capsule) represent pieces of the mantle source region present at the time of diamond formation. For this sample, the mineral was too deep within the diamond to conclusively identify it nondestructively. However, if the mineral inclusion could be extracted, its chemical composition might be very useful in reconstructing the geologic history of the host diamond, as well as that of the mantle rocks in which the diamond formed. @chapter:29


Publication Year: - Title: A Study on Improving the Surface Appearance of Low-Quality Pinctada maxima Bead Cultured Pearls Abstract: Five low-quality Pinctada maxima bead cultured pearls showing dull surface lusters, yellowish brown imperfections, and residual organic-rich features. Photo: Nuttapol Kitdee

Pearls are evaluated based on seven value factors, which include size, shape, color, luster, surface, nacre quality, and matching. Manufacturers often increase the perceived value of low-quality pearls by improving the appearance of one or more of these factors. In this study, the Bangkok laboratory examined five low-quality bead cultured pearls sourced directly from a local pearl factory and characterized their features before and after processing. Real-time microradiography (RTX), energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), and Raman spectroscopy were utilized to check potential differences in nacre thicknesses, fluorescence reactions, and chemical and mineral compositions.

The results are available in a study titled “A Study on Improving the Surface Appearance of Low-Quality Pinctada maxima Bead Cultured Pearls.” The authors concluded that methods used to improve the appearance of low-quality pearls were not always successful, and the level of success might not be economically viable for manufacturers. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Chromophore Behaviors (Including the 880 nm Absorption Band) in an Irradiated Pink Sapphire Abstract: Figure 1. Color-calibrated photo of a 0.664 ct pink sapphire from Madagascar before and after irradiation, and after fade test using fiber-optic light for 6 hours. Path length/thickness: 1.514 mm. Photos by Sasithorn Engniwat.
Irradiation is a known process for enhancing color in corundum, particularly yellow and pink sapphire. Recently, some rubies and pink sapphires with bluish tint were reportedly treated with radiation (“LMHC makes progress on laboratory report harmonisation, discussed current challenges in detection of corundum treatments,” LMHC press release, March 14, 2023). However, chromophore behaviors in irradiated ruby/pink sapphire have not been fully investigated. This report shows preliminary results of an experiment involving irradiated pink sapphire. An untreated Madagascar pink sapphire with a blue modifier (figure 1) was fabricated as an optical wafer with two polished faces perpendicular to the c-axis for ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectroscopic study. Trace element chemistry was analyzed in the UV-Vis-NIR measurement area using laser ablation−inductively coupled plasma−mass spectrometry. This information can be used to link the visual color and the color-causing trace elements listed in figure 1.

Figure 2. Polarized UV-Vis-NIR spectra comparisons of the pink sapphire before and after irradiation with a gamma irradiation dose of 500 kGy. The difference spectrum revealed a significant increase in trapped hole paired with Cr3+ and the 880 nm band in the irradiated pink sapphire.
The spectrum of the untreated sample displayed broad absorption bands at ~400 and ~560 nm together with weak peaks at ~470 and at 693 nm, demonstrating that the Cr3+ chromophore was responsible for the pink color (blue line in figure 2; see E.V. Dubinsky et al., “A quantitative description of the causes of color in corundum,” Spring 2020 G&G, pp. 2–28). This sample also showed a weak broad band at around 580 nm related to Fe2+-Ti4+ pairs, which produced a blue color, modifying the pink color from Cr3+ to purple-pink. Weak Fe3+-related absorption features were also observed, represented by a broad band at ~330 nm and narrow peaks at 377, 388, and 450 nm. The iron-related chromophore only causes significant yellow color at relatively high iron concentrations (greater than ~1000 ppma) due to Fe3+ chromophores’ weak color strength.
For our radiation experiment, the sample was treated with a gamma irradiation dose of 500 kGy at the Irradiation Center at the Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (public organization). After irradiation, the pink sapphire changed to a padparadscha-like coloration in which the subtle blue color was partially removed (figure 1). The UV-Vis-NIR spectrum after irradiation showed a significant increase in absorption intensities at wavelengths shorter than ~560 nm or longer than ~660 nm (red line in figure 2). To observe changes in chromophore behavior caused by irradiation, the spectrum after irradiation was subtracted from the pretreatment spectrum. The difference spectrum (green line in figure 2) revealed that this acceptor-dominated corundum with an atomic concentration of magnesium greater than the sum of titanium and silicon concentrations created a strong absorption feature below ~560 nm to the UV region, which matches well with the trapped hole associated with the Cr3+ spectrum for causing orange coloration (Dubinsky et al., 2020). Using the absorption cross section information provided in Dubinsky et al. (2020), the concentration of trapped hole-Cr3+ chromophores induced by irradiation was approximately 0.8 ppma in the sample. This chromophore had very high color strength, and therefore a noticeable color change could be observed with only a tiny concentration of the trapped hole paired with Cr3+ created after treatment. The Fe2+-Ti4+ chromophore also reduced by approximately 0.7 ppma in the treated sample, resulting in less blue color modification. This slight lightening in blue color after irradiation is possibly due to the change in oxidation state of iron (which would reduce the number of Fe2+-Ti4+ pairs). In addition, the creation of orange color (trapped hole-Cr3+) masked a certain portion of remaining blue color after treatment, as blue and orange are complementary colors. The change in UV-Vis-NIR spectrum corresponded with the change in color appearance caused by irradiation.
When studying absorption features in the UV-Vis-NIR spectrum of corundum, a broad band centered at around 880 nm in the red to near-infrared region is typically associated with basalt-related blue sapphire (e.g., A.C. Palke et al., “Geographic origin determination of blue sapphire,” Winter 2019 G&G, pp. 536–579). This band has little or no impact on color. In addition to basalt-related blue sapphires that are exposed to heat naturally, the 880 nm band can be induced in the spectrum of a metamorphic-type sapphire that has been heat treated, such as heated Madagascar sapphire (E.B. Hughes and R. Perkins, “Madagascar sapphire: Low-temperature heat treatment experiments,” Summer 2019 G&G, pp. 184–197) or heated Rock Creek sapphire (J.L. Emmett and T.R. Douthit, “Heat treating the sapphires of Rock Creek, Montana,” Winter 1993 G&G, pp. 250–272). This feature can also be found in Mozambican ruby after heat treatment (S. Saeseaw et al., “Update on “low-temperature” heat treatment of Mozambican ruby: A focus on inclusions and FTIR spectroscopy,” GIA Research News, April 30, 2018). The origin of this band is not fully understood but may be related to iron clusters.

Figure 3. Polarized UV-Vis-NIR spectra comparisons of the pink sapphire after irradiation with a gamma irradiation dose of 500 kGy and after the fade test. The difference spectrum between after irradiation and after fade test obviously shows the reduction in the trapped hole paired with Cr3+ chromophore when exposed to intense light for several hours.
The 880 nm band was absent in the UV-Vis-NIR spectrum of this sample before treatment. Interestingly, this pink sapphire developed the 880 nm band after irradiation, with a significant intensity around 1.2 cm–1. Color stability testing is usually performed in gem laboratories for yellow to padparadscha sapphires that may contain unstable color centers (e.g., A.C. Palke et al., “An update on sapphires with unstable color,” GIA Research News, December 12, 2022; Summer 2022 GNI, pp. 259–260). After the color stability test (figures 1 and 3), the orange coloration introduced by irradiation faded away after exposure to intense incandescent light due to the dissociation of the trapped hole paired with Cr3+, whereas the 880 nm band remained. This preliminary observation suggests that the 880 nm band can be produced by an irradiation process, and this feature could provide some interesting evidence of treatment, either heat or irradiation, in pink sapphires and rubies. However, further studies would be needed to understand the development of the 880 nm absorption band. @chapter:12


Publication Year: - Title: Kathryn Kimmel Abstract: In Kathryn Kimmel’s nearly 30 years as head of GIA’s marketing and public relations efforts, she radically improved the Institute’s visibility in the trade and the public eye. Kimmel established the annual GIA Jewelry Career Fairs and the consumer outreach program on the Institute’s gem identification and grading reports and the 4Cs. She was the first woman on GIA’s executive team, beginning as director of marketing in 1990 and retiring as senior vice president and chief marketing officer in 2019.
A third-generation jeweler, Kimmel learned repair and sales at her parents’ Los Angeles store. She visited GIA as a child—while her father was taking the Institute’s courses—and met Richard T. Liddicoat and Robert Shipley Jr. She even spent her birthdays at the California Jewelers Association’s annual shows. Yet she resisted going into the family business and took a detour to major in theater arts in college and work in entertainment production.
By 1990, when Kimmel met GIA’s then-president Bill Boyajian, she had returned to the industry, managed the family store, and risen to vice president of marketing for manufacturer Nova Stylings. At Nova she learned marketing principles from renowned expert Guy Kawasaki. Boyajian was looking for a new director of marketing and was impressed by her background and drive. She joined GIA that summer.
Kimmel established a public relations department, streamlined and modernized GIA’s brand identity and marketing materials, and revamped the advertising strategy. She directed the launch of the Institute’s first website and with Boyajian wrote the Institute’s first mission statement. When she found herself advising students about how to transition into the trade, she recognized the need for a career fair. With the support of the Jewelers 24 Karat Club of Southern California, GIA’s first career fair was held in Santa Monica in 1991. As the industry’s largest recruiting event, it has expanded to five GIA locations and been an avenue for countless GIA graduates to begin their careers.
“My heart will forever be with the students—seeing them study at GIA, coming to GIA’s Jewelry Career Fair and becoming industry leaders has been one of the most rewarding parts of my job,” Kimmel said.
In the years since, Kimmel increased the Institute’s participation in international trade shows and industry events, co-chaired its International Gemological Symposiums, and steered GIA’s marketing activities in an ever-evolving industry. Echoing her first visit to GIA decades prior, she grew to see Liddicoat as a mentor and father figure and refers to Shipley as one of her heroes.
In 2006 GIA honored Kimmel with the Richard T. Liddicoat Award for Distinguished Achievement, its highest tribute. Other recognition includes the American Gem Society’s Triple Zero and Distinguished Service awards, the Jewelers 24 Karat Club Excellence in Service Award, the YWCA’s Tribute to Women in the Industry (TWIN) award, and the Women’s Jewelry Association Award for Excellence in Promotion. In 2016 she was named one of Luxury Daily magazine’s 25 “Luxury Women to Watch.” Kimmel is a founding member and past president of the WJA’s Los Angeles chapter, and has served on the boards of WJA, the Jewelers 24 Karat Club of Southern California and the Jewelry Information Center. @chapter:36


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Black Non-Nacreous Pearl Imitations Made of Beads Cut from Shell Abstract: Figure 1. Two near-round beads cut from shell, 9.22 × 9.15 × 8.67 mm (left, 5.04 ct) and 9.51 × 9.44 × 8.69 mm (right, 5.45 ct). Photo by Hasan Abdulla.

DANAT (Bahrain Institute for Pearls & Gemstones) recently received a 5.04 ct bead (9.22 × 9.15 × 8.67 mm) and a 5.45 ct bead (9.51 × 9.44 × 8.69 mm), both of near-round shape (figure 1). Under the microscope, both beads presented columnar structures in some areas, similar to those observed in some non-nacreous pearls (N. Sturman et al., “Observations on pearls reportedly from the Pinnidae family (pen pearls),” Fall 2014 G&G, pp. 202–215), as well as elongated structures due to fibers reaching the surface (figure 2). Raman spectra with a 514 nm green laser were difficult to acquire, as they revealed high luminescence possibly linked to their high organic matter content; however, there was enough Raman signal to be able to identify calcite and aragonite. The calcium carbonate identification was confirmed by acquiring FTIR reflectance spectra. In the Raman spectra, weak bands linked to polyenic pigments were also observed.

Figure 2. Columnar structures observed in the smaller bead made of calcite (left, reflected light) and elongated structures made of aragonite (center, reflected light) due to fibrous crystals of aragonite (right, reflected and transmitted light). Similar structures were also observed on the larger bead. Polish lines are observed in all images. Photomicrographs by Hasan Abdulla; fields of view 1.5 (left), 1.1 (center), and 2.4 mm (right).
Chemical analysis of the beads using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) did not show any measurable manganese. Strontium was above 800 ppmw, and they remained inert under X-ray imaging, similar to saltwater pearls. Digital X-ray microradiographs and micro-CT did not show any internal structures.

Figure 3. Reaction of the beads under long-wave UV (top) and short-wave UV (bottom). Note the luminescence distribution in the different zones. Photos by Hasan Abdulla.

Figure 4. Under transmitted fiber-optic illumination, the 5.04 ct bead displayed a banded structure reminiscent of beads cut from the inner part of a shell. Photo by Hasan Abdulla.
Under long-wave and short-wave ultraviolet light, zoned/banded/layered fluorescence was observed (figure 3). Using transmitted fiber-optic illumination, banded structures and fibrous structures were visible with the unaided eye (figure 4). These characteristics were similar to those observed in imitation pearls made of non-nacreous shell material. Most of the imitation pearls described previously had a light color or were artificially dyed. The beads examined in this study, though, presented no evidence of any color treatment under the microscope or using EDXRF and Raman spectroscopy. The “zoned” fluorescence reaction under UV light was linked with different structures and not with the artificial colorants.
Large white beads with fibrous aragonite supposedly cut from bivalves from Tridacna species, which contain thick inner layers, have previously been used to imitate pearls (Summer 2004 GNI, p. 178; Summer 2006 Lab Notes, pp. 166–167; M. Krzemnicki and L. Cartier, “Fake pearls made from Tridacna gigas shells,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 35, No. 5, 2017, pp. 434–429). These beads were sometimes dyed to alter their coloration. A salmon-colored bead of about 10 mm, supposedly cut from the inner part of Lobatus gigas, was used to imitate coral (E. Disner and F. Notari, “Gastropod shell beads disguised in a coral necklace,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 34, No. 7, 2015, pp. 572–574). The beads we examined were of natural black color, and we are still looking for a mollusk that might have a non-nacreous inner shell layer where beads of that size could be cut.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to extend their appreciation to Mr. Saud Bin Rajab (Manama, Bahrain) for allowing us to publish the study on these beads. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 2012 Title: Citrine from Zambia Abstract: Figure 1. These citrines (3.38–43.86 ct) showing the range of color from the new Zambian deposit are reportedly untreated. Photo by Robert Weldon.

              In September 2011, GIA was informed by gem and mineral dealer Dudley Blauwet about a new find of citrine, which was represented to him as natural-color material from the Kitwe area of Zambia. He obtained ~1 kg of the rough at the 2011 Tucson gem shows from a regular supplier of African rough. Faceting of 208.5 grams of rough yielded 29 stones totaling 268.08 carats. Four of the stones were concave cut, and the largest one weighed 48.69 ct.

	Figure 2. Hazy clouds and bands are common features in the Zambian citrine. Photomicrograph by D. Beaton; image width 2.7 mm.
Mr. Blauwet loaned seven of the cut citrines to GIA for examination, ranging from 3.38 to 43.86 ct (figure 1). Concave facets on the three largest pieces accentuated their brilliance. The color of the citrine ranged from pale slightly brownish yellow to brownish orangy yellow, and the seven stones showed the following gemological properties: RI— no = 1.542, ne = 1.552; birefringence—0.010; hydrostatic SG—2.65–2.66; UV fluorescence—inert to both long- and short-wave UV radiation, except for one pale yellow sample that fluoresced very weak white to long-wave UV; and no features seen with the desk-model spectroscope. Microscopic examination revealed straight and angular color zones, as well as a general haziness and bands of hazy particles (figure 2), which proved natural origin and were similar to those described in citrine from Sri Lanka (E. J. Gübelin and J. I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 2, Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, 2005, p. 573). The 3.38 ct stone also contained a plane of parallel tubules and two-phase inclusions (figure 3). Viewed with cross-polarized light, minor areas of Brazil-law twinning were seen in only the two smallest samples.

	Figure 3. The 3.38 ct triangular modified brilliant in figure 7 contains a plane of elongated
	tubules and two-phase inclusions. Photomicrograph by D. Beaton; image width 1.5 mm.
FTIR spectroscopy revealed the absence of a 3595 cm–1 band. This feature is sometimes used as confirmation of natural quartz, especially amethyst, when it is well resolved and there are no diagnostic natural inclusions (S. Karampelas et al., “Infrared spectroscopy of natural vs. synthetic amethyst: An update,” Fall 2011 G&G, pp. 196–201). In citrine this feature is often absent, so proper identification must rely on inclusion observation, or the analysis of trace elements (C. M. Breeding, “Using LA-ICP-MS analysis for the separation of natural and synthetic amethyst and citrine,” www.gia.edu/gia-news-research-nr73109a).

Natural-color citrine is less common than other quartz varieties such as amethyst and smoky quartz. Assuming that the coloration of this citrine is natural—as represented by the supplier—this large, clean material makes a nice addition to the gem market. @chapter:0


Publication Year: 2003 Title: Winter 2003 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Chrysocolla “Owl” Agate
Interesting Red Coral
Coated Diamonds
Natural Emerald with Abundant Nail-Head Spicules
Emerald With Strong Dichroism
High-R.I. Glass Imitation of Tanzanite
Large Clam “Pearl”
Blue Sapphires with Unusual Color Zoning
Spinel with Filled Cavities

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 2019 Title: 2019 Jewelry Industry Summit Abstract: The third Jewelry Industry Summit, held in Tucson February 2–3, revealed the successful implementation of several initiatives mapped out since the conference’s inception in 2016.
Opening remarks by summit chair Cecilia Gardner and AGTA’s Doug Hucker were followed by a session on mining communities. In a presentation on sustainable mining, Assheton Stewart Carter (The Dragonfly Initiative) discussed incentivizing improvements while managing environmental, social, and governance risks and needs at artisanal and small-scale mines. He explained how the Dragonfly Initiative creates partnerships with other organizations that can provide research, funding, and other assistance on the local level. This was followed by the Dragonfly Initiative’s Vivien Johnston, Fiona Wellington of Myne, and Mahumood Alam Mahsud (Fine Cut Lapidary)—all by video chat—describing their efforts to create an emerald cutting and polishing center to employ and empower Pakistani women. Tom Cushman (Richfield Investor Services) recounted issues with sourcing gold in Madagascar, while Toby Pomeroy provided insights into the Mercury Free Mining Challenge, a quest to create a safe and effective alternative to the use of mercury by artisanal and small-scale gold miners. The Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance, or IRMA, an organization dedicated to creating and sharing financial value for mines that achieve best practices, was introduced by consultant Christina Miller and Lara Kortizke of IRMA. Two breakout sessions occupied much of the first afternoon: one on creating an industry-accepted glossary (see www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2019-gemnews-jewelry-summit-glossary-initiative), and the other on building a business with responsible sourcing principles. This was followed by a lively discussion on the benefits and drawbacks of blockchain between Mike Pace (Connected Jewelry), Robin Gambhir (Fair Trade Jewellery Co.), Carrie George (Everledger), and Mark Hanna (Richline).
Day two provided a synopsis of the Jewelry Development Impact Index by Patricia Syvrud of the University of Delaware’s Minerals, Materials and Society program, as well as a discussion with Doug Hucker and Patricia Syvrud on the silicosis abatement program sponsored by GemHub, AGTA, and the Minerals, Materials and Society program. Steven Benson (CIBJO) reported on the release of CIBJO’s Blue Book on the responsible sourcing of gemstones and precious metals, available as a free download from www.cibjo.org. Brian Cook (Nature’s Geometry) provided an update on the Bahia Brazil Golden Initiative, a cooperative of rutilated quartz miners in the Chapada Diamantina region of Bahia State, Brazil. Patricia Syvrud spoke with Charles Lawson (Lawson Gems International) on the outcomes from four years of gem and jewelry training for women sapphire miners in Sakaraha, Madagascar. The day ended with a screening of the gold mining documentary River of Gold, with a speaker panel consisting of producer Sarah duPont,Torry Hoover (Hoover and Strong), Toby Pomeroy, and Tom Cushman. @chapter:33


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Accredited Gemologists Association (AGA) Conference Abstract: The AGA conference, held February 6 in Tucson, was attended by 138 participants from 11 countries. The program was diverse and engaging, as evidenced by the audience questions after each presentation. During the break, participants were invited to a hands-on demonstration of traditional gemological and advanced spectroscopy equipment.
The first talk was by Jeffery Bergman of Primagem, who detailed the mine-to-market effort for emeralds from the Shakiso mine in southern Ethiopia. He described some of the material as similar to Muzo’s in color, and some as having a “Paraíba-like glow.” To ensure that the finest material can receive grades of “no clarity enhancement,” mineral oil is never used on the rough. For material that warrants clarity enhancement, only high-grade cedarwood oil is used. A variety of inclusions have been identified, most commonly biotite mica. Other inclusions are growth tubes, blocky two- and three-phase inclusions, horsetails, dendritic magnesium oxide, chromite, and tourmaline. Color zoning in this material can be very strong.
Gina Latendresse of the American Pearl Company gave a fascinating overview of natural pearls from the Western Hemisphere. She described the vast quantities collected by Native Americans from the coast of Venezuela that made their way to Spain in the 1500s, establishing the New World as a source. She then covered the pearl rush between 1850 and 1900 in New Jersey and the Tennessee Valley following the discovery of many impressive specimens. David Howell found the largest American freshwater pearl, 400 grains (100 ct) in size, in New Jersey in 1857. Shortly after, an attractive 93 grain (13 ct) pink pearl was found nearby and sold to Charles Tiffany. Unable to find a U.S. customer, he sold it to Empress Eugénie, resulting in the name “Queen Pearl.” By 1901, the lakes and rivers in the Tennessee Valley had developed pearl fisheries, with production peaking in 1904. Latendresse introduced U.S. natural pearls of many shapes and colors originating from a variety of mollusk species.
Claudio Milisenda presented an overview of tourmaline, including Idar-Oberstein’s efforts to promote the material, localities, and the roles of chemistry and heat treatment in tourmaline color. He walked the audience through the varieties verdalite, indicolite, chrome tourmaline, rubellite, red tourmaline, canary tourmaline, and Paraíba tourmaline. The talk also reviewed various tourmaline treatments and imitations encountered today.
To complement the Gübelin Gem Lab’s launch of “Provenance Proof Blockchain” by Gübelin Labs at Tucson this year, managing director Daniel Nyfeler gave a presentation on the traceability of gemstones. The talk addressed the lack of transparency in the gemstone supply chain and Gübelin’s solutions for this issue. Reasons cited for the lack of transparency included the mines’ remoteness and restricted access, the informal nature of mining, frequent changes of custody, trading based on relationships and trust, a complex and fragmented value chain, and the lack of an established method for traceability. The problems arising from this lack of transparency include unreliable information provided to consumers (gem labs try to fill this gap with provenance determination), the dilemma for ethically conscious consumers—particularly millennials—who are willing to pay for sustainably sourced products, and the lack of independent audits within the industry. Stakeholders who would benefit from greater transparency are governments (for legal and tax purposes), insurance agencies, financial institutions, and consumers.
Two solutions that would work in tandem were presented: a physical tracer embedded in the stone at the mine, and a digital tracker. The physical tracer would involve Gübelin embedding 100 nm silica spheres that hold synthetic DNA programmed to include information such as the mine location. These permanently implanted spheres, which require openings of at least 400 nm, are designed to survive all cutting and cleaning processes. Gübelin would have the ability to later extract the DNA, sequence it, and verify the stone’s origin. This tracer is designed for emerald, and the present design would not survive the more physically punishing corundum processing. The digital tracker, meanwhile, would allow a stone to be tagged all the way back to the mine using blockchain so that each time the stone changed hands, a logbook entry would be made, allowing for permanent storage of encrypted information at each step of the journey from mine to market. The Provenance Proof Blockchain system was released February 8 at the AGTA show. It is free and open to the industry for all gemstone types. The benefits touted for this tracking included new avenues of storytelling for retailers, reduced costs as gem reports would not be needed, and less inflated prices as non-value transactions would be eliminated. And with the ability to audit the supply chain, more aspects of the business could be properly insured. Following the presentation, a spirited question-and-answer session touched on privacy for dealers and consumers, the impact on artisanal miners, the logistics of implanting the encapsulated DNA, and resistance from gem dealers over security concerns.
The last scheduled talk, an overview of the new FTC rules, was canceled due to the recent U.S. government shutdown. A substitute talk graciously given by Jon Phillips (Corona Jewellery Company, Ltd.) covered Canadian diamonds. He noted Canada’s place as the world’s second-leading producer of diamonds and reported on the significant mines, the types of material coming from them, and notable stones found. The Ekati mine has both surface and underground components, and has produced numerous vivid and intense yellows as well as pinks and colorless. Within the mine, 53-million-year-old wood that had been perfectly preserved in the oxygen-free environment was found and brought to the surface. The Renard mine was plagued by the hardness of the kimberlite, making diamond separation extremely difficult. De Beers is showcasing its “Future Smart” mining process with the Chidliak project in Nunavut, Baffin Island, where there are no roads, environmental impact is minimal, and power is supplied by wind energy. Notable stones from the Diavik mine include the 177.71 ct Vega, the 24.82 ct Capella, the Fancy Vivid yellow 30.54 ct Arctic Sun, and a recently discovered 552.74 ct yellow diamond that is likely the largest diamond ever found in North America.
Following the conference, the AGA presented its 20th annual Bonanno Awards. For the first time, three categories were recognized in the same year: education, gemological instrumentation, and gemological research. The award for gemological education went to Donna Hawrelko, a gemology and jewelry educator at Vancouver Community College. Hawrelko’s 27 years of teaching has touched thousands of individuals, and she was key in developing the educational program offered by the Canadian Gemmological Association. The award for gemological instrumentation was given to the cofounders of Magilabs, Alberto Scarani and Mikko Aström. Scarani and Aström have made advanced spectroscopy accessible and affordable to a wide range of gemologists by developing portable tools such as the GemmoRaman system. These allow appraisers and gemologists access to technology that was recently available only through major laboratories. The award for gemological research went to Karl Schmetzer, a renowned researcher and author, for his more than 50 years of gemological and mineralogical work documented in over 400 publications, two books, and 12 new mineral discoveries. Dr. Schmetzer has shared his research with the community and strived to improve professional standards in the industry through work with CIBJO and other organizations. @chapter:2


Publication Year: 1988 Title: Summer 1988 Gem News International Abstract: Diamonds
            Diamond Dredging in a Big Way
            Diamond Brings Largest Per-Carat Price at Auction
Colored Stones
            More on Mexican Andradites
            Ruby from North Carolina
            Sri Lanka Update
            Clarification
Synthetics and Imitations
            Plastic Imitations of Lapis Lazuli and Malachite
            Clever Marketing
Announcements
            Colored Diamond Exhibit at Natural History Museum
            Journal of the History of Minerals
            Sixth Jewel and Diamond Fair in Antwerp
            Hong Kong Jewelry and Watch Fair Scheduled

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:24


Publication Year: 2023 Title: GIA Alumni Collective Abstract: Deeta Thakural, Mélanie Matthes, Yolette and Briana Hodge, and Aldis Hodge are some of GIA’s featured graduates on the Alumni Collective website.
The GIA Alumni Collective offers an exciting new networking platform for GIA graduates. The online community at collective.gia.edu allows a diverse group of users to access both live and self-paced continuing education seminars, join virtual chapters, connect with global alumni, and more. The site also puts GIA alums in the spotlight (see above), celebrating those who uphold the highest standards of GIA’s consumer protection mission.
Deeta Thakural earned her Graduate Gemologist diploma at GIA’s Mumbai campus. As a fourth-generation jeweler, Thakural was drawn to design. Her award-winning collections blend organic shapes and rich hues that reflect the natural world.
Mélanie Matthes studied at GIA’s Carlsbad campus, receiving Graduate Gemologist, Pearls Graduate, and Applied Jewelry Professional diplomas. Her education, fascination with gemology, and love of history led to her career with a well-known auction house, handling some of the world’s most extraordinary jewelry pieces.
Learning from GIA guided each member of the Hodge family down a different path. Aldis, a self-taught watchmaker and business owner, and his sister Briana, a visual specialist and photographer, encouraged their mother, Yolette, to explore her childhood fascination with diamonds and earn a Diamonds Graduate diploma.
Visit https://collective.gia.edu/meet-the-collective.html to read stories from these alumni and more. @chapter:36


Publication Year: - Title: Diamond Market in Recovery, Top-end Auction Results Abstract: This GIA-graded Fancy Deep blue 7.03 ct diamond from London jeweler Moussaieff drew a top bid of $11.6 million ($1.65 million per carat) at Christie's Nov. 12 Geneva auction. Photo courtesy of Christie's Images Ltd.

Diamond Mining Industry
De Beers and Alrosa, the world’s two largest diamond producers, say the diamond market is stabilizing after several months of severe cutbacks in rough sales and are expecting reasonably strong demand during the U.S. holiday season and Chinese New Year.
Both companies cut sales more than 25% as inventories of rough and polished diamonds increased earlier in the year and prices of both softened. The banks also continued their tight credit policies for the industry.
At the Nov. 4-8 cycle, De Beers increased rough allocations by about $100 million to $390 million, but reduced prices by 5% or more. This was an extraordinary move, because De Beers rarely lowers prices by such an amount, especially on larger, better quality rough diamonds. The company usually “adjusts” prices - raising them on a few of the more than 5,000 rough categories and lowering them on others, or it simply disguises decreases by shifting better quality rough into lower categories.
De Beers never lowers prices across the board, as it did in this last cycle. But a 5% reduction is impossible to disguise. Some reports indicate that small, less expensive qualities were lowered much more. De Beers also increased its buy-back allowance from 10% to 20% for larger goods, which permits clients to sell goods back to De Beers, which it cannot absorb or cut profitably.
De Beers was likely forced into lowering prices after the September announcement by ABN Amro Bank that it would no longer provide credit for rough purchases that cannot be cut profitably, which included almost all categories of diamonds at that time.
Russia’s Alrosa announced that its third quarter rough sales fell 37% by value compared to the same period last year. The drop would have been larger if not for a recovery in October that saw an increase in revenues from the same month in 2018. One reason for the precipitous drop is that the company shifted its focus to smaller diamonds, thus sales by volume were down only 5%.
Alrosa said that October’s sales increase of 7% meant that demand was stabilizing as excess supplies in the market are being drawn down.
The ultra-large diamond market has slowed as well: Gem Diamonds, which operates the Letseng Mine in Lesotho, said the average price of diamonds recovered this year is down 23% to $1,417 per carat. Letseng’s production is small – about 110,000 carats yearly – but it routinely produces diamonds over 50 carats.
RETAIL JEWELRY MARKET
Global diamond jewelry demand increased 1.9% to a total of $76 billion, De Beers reported in its “Diamond Insight” survey released this month.
The U.S. remained the world’s largest market for diamond jewelry, accounting for $36 billion in sales; just over 47% of the world total. The diamond content in jewelry sold in the U.S. totaled $12.3 billion.
China’s retail diamond demand just topped $10 billion, with diamond content totaling $3.47 billion. Japan, at $5 billion ($1.16 billion), and India, at $3 billion ($1.3 billion), are the other top retail diamond markets.
The report noted that female self-purchase is the fastest growing category of diamond jewelry worldwide, but that gifts from men to women still represent 52% of non-engagement ring sales.
The report also noted that, because De Beers changed how it evaluates the diamond content in jewelry, the company revised previous downward estimates of total diamond sales.

A 46.93 ct GIA-graded D IF step cut cushion shape diamond sold for $3.1 million, ($66,800 per carat) at Christie's Nov. 12 Geneva auction. Photo courtesy of Christie's Images Ltd.
JEWELRY AUCTIONS
After a calm spring season, demand and prices at the extreme top end have again strengthened.
Christie's Nov. 12 Geneva auction was 93% sold by lot and 88% by value. The top lot of the sale was the GIA-graded Fancy Deep blue 7.03 ct diamond from London jeweler Moussaieff, which drew a top bid of $11.6 million ($1.65 million per carat), within the pre-sale estimate.
Other large gems that sold were:

A 46.93 ct GIA-graded D IF step cut cushion shape diamond for $3.1 million, ($66,800 per carat), just under the pre-sale estimate
A 25.2 ct GIA-graded D VVS rectangular cut diamond for $2.53 million ($100,595 per carat)
A 42.97 ct Burmese octagon cut sapphire for $2.5 million ($59,000 per carat)
A 13.53 ct Colombian emerald for nearly $1.1 million, a very strong $91,575 per carat

Interestingly, all of the buyers chose to remain anonymous, which is unusual for large gems.
The following day, Sotheby’s Geneva auction house sold 80% of the lots offered. The top lot was a Cartier bracelet containing a 47.07 ct Burmese cabochon sapphire, accompanied by two pear shaped diamonds of 9.27 and 8.6 cts for $6.1 million, doubling its pre-sale estimate. The bracelet was made in 1927 and sold to an “Asian female collector,” according to the auction house.
Another buyer paid $3.4 million for a 6.03 ct GIA-graded Fancy Intense purple pink diamond ($563,847 per carat) mounted into a pendant, while a 14.97 ct Kashmir sapphire mounted into a diamond necklace sold for $1.4 million. @chapter:30