Publication Year: 2019 Title: Appendix 4: Guideline for Simplified Distribution of Site Occupancy for LA-ICP-MS Data Abstract: This classification method is modified from Henry et al. (2011). The general chemical formula for tourmaline supergroup minerals is XY3Z6(T6O18)(BO3)3V3W. The atoms per formula unit (apfu) of hypothetical element R on a hypothetical site M is designated as MRapfu. However, element R can be present on multiple sites, so the total apfu of R is designated as totRapfu. We determine the site occupancy using the following method. The number of atoms of each element is determined using the calculation method above.
B-site: The B-site is fully occupied by B. Therefore, the equivalent weight percent for three B atoms in the tourmaline formula is calculated.
T-site: The T-site is occupied by six atoms of Si and Al (T-site B is not considered in this method). If the number of Si atoms per formula unit (Siapfu) is less than six, Al is added to fill the site. Cations with a +4 charge, such as Si4+, take priority in this site over those with a +3 charge, such as Al3+.
If total Siapfu (totSiapfu) is greater than 6, the T-site is only occupied by Si and TSiapfu is set to equal 6. Otherwise, TSiapfu equals Siapfu. TAlapfu equals 6 – Siapfu.
Z-site: The Z-site is occupied by six atoms of Al, Cr, V, and Mg. Cations with a +3 charge (e.g., Al3+) take priority over those with a +2 charge (e.g., Mg2+). Further, smaller +3 cations (Al3+) take priority over larger Cr3+ and V3+ cations. In shorthand form:
ZR3+ >> ZR2+
For ZR3+: Al3+ >> Cr3+ > V3+
The only common ZR2+ cation is Mg2+.
If totAlapfu – TAlapfu is greater than 6, ZAlapfu equals 6. Otherwise, ZAlapfu equals totAlapfu – TAlapfu.
If ZAlapfu + totCrapfu + totVapfu < 6, ZCrapfu equals totCrapfu. ZVapfu equals totVapfu. If ZAlapfu + totCrapfu + totVapfu > 6 and there is any deficiency in the Z-site occupancy from a total of 6 after assigning Al to the Z-site, the remainder is filled with Cr first, and then V if present. This gives ZCrapfu and/or ZVapfu.
If, after assigning Al, Cr and V to the Z-site, there remains a deficiency in the Z-site occupancy from a total of 6, and if totMgapfu is greater than 3, ZMgapfu equals 6– ZCrapfu – ZVapfu– ZAlapfu. Otherwise, ZMgapfu equals 0. Note that Z-site disordering in oxy species is not considered in this method.
Y-site: The Y-site is fully occupied by Al, Ti, Mn, Fe, Mg, Cu, Cr, V, Zn, and Li. The priority of ions with different valence states entering the Y-site is:
YR2+ > YR3+ > YR1+ > YR4+
For YR2+: Mg2+ ~ Fe2+ > Mn2+ >>> Zn2+, Cu2+, etc.
For YR3+: Al3+ >> Cr3+ >> V3+
The only common YR1+ cation is Li1+.
The only common YR4+ cation is Ti4+.
If totMgapfu is greater than 3, YMgapfu equals totMgapfu – ZMgapfu. Otherwise, YMgapfu equals totMgapfu.
YFe2+apfu equals totFe2+apfu.
After assigning Mg and Fe to the Y-site, any totMn2+, totZn2+, and totCu2+ is added to the Y-site.
After assigning Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu to the Y-site, if totAlapfu – TAlapfu – ZAlapfu is greater than 0, YAlapfu equals totAlapfu – TAlapfu – ZAlapfu. Otherwise, YAlapfu equals 0.
YCrapfu equals totCrapfu – ZCrapfu.
YVapfu equals totVapfu – ZVapfu.
After assigning all R2+ and R3+ ions above to the Y-site, the Li that was calculated in the data processing method described above is added. (Only low-Mg tourmaline contains substantial Li.) Finally, Ti is added to the Y-site.
X-site: The X-site is occupied by Ca, Na, and K or has vacancies (and any minor Pb, Ba, Rb, and Cs present). The priority of ions with different valence states entering the X-site is (R1+ > R2+ > □ (vacancy)). Any deficiency in the X-site occupancy from a total of 1 is equal to X-site vacancies (X□apfu); i.e., X□apfu equals 1 – XNaapfu – XCaapfu – XKapfu. X-site charge controls the amount of F in the structure—if it is an X-site vacant tourmaline, it will have low F (Henry and Dutrow, 2012), which eliminates fluor-species in the vacant subgroup.
V-site: The V-site is fully occupied by OH; i.e., VOHapfu equals 3.
W-site: The W-site is fully occupied by OH; i.e., WOHapfu equals 1. The species based on this anionic site occupancy cannot be definitively determined (i.e., oxy, hydroxy, or fluor species). The oxy component can be calculated based on charge balance. However, this is a topic for future work. @chapter:5


Publication Year: 2017 Title: Exceptional Freeform Tanzanite and Oregon Sunstone Rings Abstract: Figure 1. This ring is set with a spectacular 27.20 ct vivid blue freeform tanzanite. Photo courtesy of Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry.

At the Gem and Jewelry Exchange (GJX), we caught up with gem artist Alexander Kreis (Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry, Niederworresbach, Germany). As we’ve noted in previous Tucson reports, theirs is a family business: father Stefan buying the rough, mother Sonja designing the jewelry, and Alexander cutting the gems. Alexander and Sonja showed us a new ring (figure 1) set with a spectacular 27.20 ct vivid blue freeform tanzanite (figure 2). He explained that he had recently traveled to East Africa seeking a singular piece of gem rough to inspire an exceptional jewelry piece. He found his inspiration in Tanzania with a 65 ct rough tanzanite of remarkable color and clarity.

Figure 2. The gem was cut from a 13 g rough tanzanite of remarkable color and clarity.
Photo courtesy of Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry.
Even with such a top-quality piece, Alexander cautioned that success is never guaranteed. Unlike baseball—where you get three chances—with cutting, it’s “one strike and you’re out!” He added that the gem can never be its best if the cutter misjudges and makes it too flat. For this one-of-a-kind rough, classic cutting styles such as oval or cushion shapes might be counterproductive if too much weight is lost getting proportions right or if the deep blue color is lost.

For Alexander, cutting is an “intuitive adventure” in which it might take months to place the first facet. The finished stone is a nonsymmetrical shield shape with a mixture of large and small facets that catch the light and create a strong sense of movement. According to him, cutting a freeform allows more reflections so that the gem will exhibit maximum sparkle and display the best possible color from the rough.

	Alexander & Sonja Kreis - Kreis Jewellery

In this video, master cutter Alexander Kreis and his mother Sonja, the firm’s goldsmith, explain the design of the extraordinary 27.20 ct tanzanite and the ring specially fabricated to complement it.
The facet dimensions govern the size of the reflections from the gem’s surface, and a series of grooves on the base of the gem running at right angles to the facets on the top create sharp angles, heightening the sense of movement and drama (figure 3). For Alexander, this represents not just the movement of the earth, but also the volume of material the workers had to shift to recover the gems.

Figure 3. Angled grooves on the base of the 27.20 ct freeform tanzanite create a dramatic sense of movement. Photo courtesy of Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry.
He reminded us that mining in Merelani is a challenge, taking place at depths of up to 3,900 ft (1,189 meters). Miners can only work for short periods due to temperatures reaching 122°F (50°C), and they must take regular breaks in designated cooling areas.

As a goldsmith and jewelry designer, Sonja follows a 500-year family tradition. She explained that it’s not just attributes like size, shape, and color that drive the design of a jewelry piece to complement the stone. She normally starts thinking about the jewelry design when Alexander completes the stone, noting that it can change substantially from the rough crystal to the finished piece.

When Sonja saw the finished cut tanzanite, still wet from the wheel, she held it and examined it from every angle in front of a mirror to get a feeling for the gem and for the best type of jewelry mounting to accompany it. It’s not just the size and shape that influences the gem, she noted, but the story behind it, too. This aspect is increasingly important for clients who like to buy into the romance and unique attributes of a jewelry piece. In this case, the rose gold on the mounting represents the heat the miners endure to recover the gems at depth in the mine, while the white gold cradling the tanzanite stands for the designated cooling areas where the workers have a chance to recover. The diamonds along the edges of the center gem symbolize the many stones that have been moved out of the way to reach the tanzanite. The branching metalwork in the galleries at each end of the mounting represents the air that must be pressed into the mine depths to sustain the miners. The little trail of melee diamonds around the curve of the ring’s shank adds a final touch of elegance to a significant piece with a large center stone.

Sonja also shared with us a striking ring centered on a 28.21 ct freeform Oregon sunstone from the Dust Devil mine (figure 4). The organic outline of the mounting complements the smooth contours of the gem, which rests in an 18K rose gold “cup.” The cup is highly polished to reflect light back through the gem and amplify its rich orange color. The gem itself is shot through with an array of glittering copper particles that catch the light and add to the piece’s allure.

Figure 4. A 28.21 ct freeform Oregon sunstone from the Dust Devil mine is the centerpiece of this ring. Photo courtesy of Sonja Kreis Unique Jewelry. @chapter:25


Publication Year: 2013 Title: The Ellendale Diamond Field: Exploration History, Discovery, Geology, and Mining Abstract: The Ellendale diamond field in West Kimberley is one of only three hard-rock diamond mine locations in Australia. Though not the first Australian diamond mine, Ellendale was the country’s first hard-rock deposit. It holds a special place in world diamond history as it led in November 1976 to the recognition of a new host-rock for diamond, olivine lamproite. Up until that time, commercial-sized diamonds were considered to be sourced only from kimberlite. The Ellendale lamproites are geologically very young, only 22 Ma (million of years) old. Within several years of the initial discovery, some 46 lamproite pipes were found at Ellendale. By 1980, 38 of these pipes had been assessed for their diamond content.

	More than two decades later, geologists from the Kimberley Diamond Company (KDC) recognized eluvial diamond enrichment over these pipes. After a lengthy legal battle, they wrested the Ellendale mining lease from the Ashton Joint Venture and commenced mining there in May 2002. Ellendale is recognized as a source of high-value fancy yellow diamonds. These high priced stones have been marketed through a special deal with Tiffany & Co since 2009. But the future of mining there is tenuous. Ellendale 4 was closed in 2009, and the high Australian dollar, combined with dwindling reserves, may jeopardize the survival of Ellendale 9.

Abstracted by Guy Lalous @chapter:29


Publication Year: - Title: Alumni: 2015 in Review, Anticipation for the Year Ahead Abstract: Sri Lanka chapter hosts GIA Field Gemology Team members in Columbo, Sri Lanka for talk on “Rubies from Zahamena National Park, Madagascar.” Photo by Didier Barriere Doleac/GIA

As we emerge from the blur of year-end and jump into the New Year, I like to take time to recognize the previous year’s accomplishments and successes. It’s also a great time to set the stage for new goals to support our alumni members around the world.

I am excited to say that 2015 was another stellar year of milestones and highlights − and is going to be hard to top. It would be nearly impossible to summarize all of the accomplishments of our global alumni and chapters, or the effect of their outreach as ambassadors supporting GIA’s mission, so I’ve highlighted a few to showcase the actions of our dedicated alumni around the world.

	2015 Retrospective

Highlights

		A new milestone: There are more than 110,000 active GIA Alumni members.

Global chapters: 72 GIA Alumni Association chapters exist on five continents.

Chapter Events exceeded 200, offering continuing education and networking opportunities for alumni, students and industry members worldwide.

		GIA connected with our alums at nearly 100 tradeshows in 2015!

Alumni Online Directory: More than 3,000 new members listed their information on GIA’s website to make their credentials and contact information available to the public. All alumni members can be included in this directory.

		Nearly 1,500 members took a moment to manage their alumni membership and let GIA know which alumni benefits are important to them.

	The Hong Kong chapter hosted a full session for a guest lecturer on “Intro to the World of Jewelry Photography.” Courtesy of the Hong Kong chapter
In Review

GIA chapters did not slow down − even in our industry’s busy fourth quarter. Chapters delivered education sessions, social events and gemological updates to their members. In fact, more than 22 events took place since my last report. It always amazes me to see just how much has occurred. Here are some of the chapter news and events that have occurred since early November:

		The Cincinnati winter social successfully gathered chapter members and affiliates from their event co-hosts: WJA and AGS.

Golden Gate hosted award-winning lapidary John Noel Soni, who shared his passion as a self-taught artist, travel experiences, sourcing and the importance of well-cut gemstones.

Golden Gate and Washington D.C. expanded their knowledge on watches by attending a special exhibition on Breguet, which was hosted watch expert Gary Lester.

Hong Kong hosted an “Intro to the World of Jewelry Photography.” More than 300 attended their annual banquet and chapter elections.

Johannesburg focused on the “Lure of Rubies, Emeralds and Sapphires” with attendees.

London and Louisiana gathered for socials and focused on growing their chapter’s leadership by asking members to become involved.

		The Los Angeles mega-mixer was attended by more than 200 industry members from four prominent industry organizations in Southern California.

		The Manhattan holiday gathering focused on charitable giving and featured David Rocha, executive director of Jewelers for Children.

Monterrey, Mexico chapter leadership presented chapter lectures on emeralds and birthstones.

Ontario, Canada and Switzerland meet and greet socials connected members of local alumni and industry networks.

San Diego hosted GIA’s Dr. Tao Hsu and Andy Lucas for an overview of Mine to Market in the colored gem trade. They also shared first-hand experiences from their field gemology research travels.

South Florida and Golden Gate meetings focused on educational presentations on archaeogemology by Dr. Cigdem Lule and the “History of the Diamond Market” by Jon Phillips.

Spain and Portugal alumni gathered in Lisbon for a presentation by GIA’s Edward Johnson, director of global business development (Europe).

Switzerland members had the rare opportunity to tour of the Gübelin Gem Lab and hear a lecture from its managing director Dr. Daniel Nyfeler on the age of gemstones.

Sri Lanka successfully hosted GIA Field Gemology Team representatives for an update on research news from recent excursions to colored gemstone localities.

		The Taiwan holiday gala included education, networking and sharing the chapter’s rich history.

Twin Cities continued their successful chapter “hands-on” lab study sessions.

Washington D.C.’s annual holiday party and auction raised more than $6,000 to support the chapter and provide opportunities to offer more than 10 education events each year.

	Washington D.C. members Martin Fuller and Joanna Athanasopoulos share their holiday spirit at the annual chapter auction and year-end celebration. Courtesy of the Washington D.C. chapter

	Looking Ahead in 2016

As you will see below, we are already on the path to an exciting and bright launch to 2016 with the activities and announcements below.

GIA Events
Tucson’s gem, mineral and jewelry fairs will soon take place and GIA’s presence and activities are extensive. Gem and mineral enthusiasts from across the globe gather at the more than 40 concurrent shows that take over the town. We hope to see you there!

Party at the GIA Gem Mine: Arctic Blast is coming up in early February and you’re invited. It is a guaranteed night of fun at this annual dinner, dance and auction. Hosting more than 350 alumni, students and industry friends, it’s a reunion celebration.

		GIA will be present at 14 trade fairs in the first few months of 2016. Visit our representatives at shows in Bangkok, Istanbul, Johannesburg, Tokyo and multiple shows across India and the U.S. to find out the latest on GIA education, offerings and news.

		Show Service Laboratories will be available at Basel, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Tucson, offering GIA laboratory colored gemstone identification services on site.

In summary - BRAVO! It’s exciting to see so many accomplishments and the actions of industry professionals who take advantage of the GIA Alumni Association’s network and benefits. And, a reminder to those who have haven’t made the most of their affiliation, it’s never too late to start.

I send a special thank you to the committed alumni member participants and volunteer chapter leaders around the globe for supporting GIA’s mission to promote education and integrity across the gem and jewelry industry.

I look forward to the year ahead and supporting the efforts and needs of our alumni across the globe. @chapter:34


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Recrystallization of Baddeleyite as an Indicator of PHT (“HPHT”) Treatment in Sapphire Abstract: Figure 1. This 7.11 ct oval blue sapphire, measuring 11.66 × 10.44 × 7.38 mm, exhibits eye-visible white mineral inclusions. Photo by Yizhi Zhao.

PHT (“HPHT”) treatment in sapphire has been a controversial topic the last few years. Recently, Guild Gem Laboratories in Shenzhen received a 7.11 ct blue sapphire (figure 1) for identification. The refractive index of 1.762–1.770 and hydrostatic specific gravity of 4.00 confirmed the stone’s identity. It was inert under long-wave and short-wave UV. Microscopic examination revealed several distinct features, such as diffuse color bands and melted white solid mineral inclusions surrounded by discoid fractures, indicating that this stone had undergone thermal enhancement (figure 2).

Figure 2. Blurred blue color zoning and melted white solid mineral inclusions surrounded by discoid fractures. Photomicrograph by Yujie Gao; field of view 5.26 mm.

Figure 3. FTIR spectra of conventionally heated sapphire and the HPHT sapphire in figure 1. The latter showed distinct bands centered around 3042 cm–1, accompanied by peaks at 2627, 2412, 2349, 2319, and 2096 cm–1.
Further UV-Vis spectroscopic testing specified a metamorphic geological origin, while energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis revealed low Fe content around 400–600 ppm. FTIR spectra (figure 3) showed a distinct 3309 cm–1 series at 3181 and 3373 cm–1, consistent with heated metamorphic sapphire. We also noticed a broad band centered at 3042 cm–1, accompanied by peaks at 2627, 2412, 2349, 2319, and 2096 cm–1. According to previous reports (S.-K. Kim et al., “Gem Notes: HPHT-treated blue sapphire: An update,” Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 35, No. 3, 2016, pp. 208–210; A. Peretti et al., “Identification and characteristics of PHT (‘HPHT’) - treated sapphires – An update of the GRS research progress,” 2018, http://gemresearch.ch/hpht-update), the ~3042 cm–1 series band is diagnostic of sapphire treated by a high-pressure, high-temperature process.

Figure 4. Discoid fractures were oriented in almost the same direction within the sapphire host. Photomicrograph by Yujie Gao; field of view 2.28 mm.
As shown in figure 4, the mineral inclusions melted and solidified within the surrounding discoid fractures, exhibiting a dendritic appearance. Micro-Raman spectra analysis on the white mineral and recrystallized dendritic inclusions using 473 nm laser excitation produced some interesting results. The white melted minerals and the recrystallized inclusion showed almost the same peaks in the region of 1000–100 cm–1, suggesting that they were the same mineral. Peaks at 641, 560, 541, 475, 334, and 221 cm–1 and a characteristic doublet at 188/178 cm–1 matched with the Raman spectrum for baddeleyite (a rare zirconium oxide mineral), according to the RRUFF database, as shown in figure 5.

Figure 5. Raman spectra of the white mineral and dendritic inclusion both matched with baddeleyite (ZrO2).
Zircon (ZrSiO4) is known as a common inclusion in sapphires, which may undergo solid state thermal dissociation to zirconia and silica at extreme conditions such as high temperature and/or high pressure as follows:

ZrSiO4 (zircon) → ZrO2 (baddeleyite) + SiO2

Baddeleyite, a monoclinic polymorph of zirconia, forms at relatively high pressure (up to about 7 GPa). W. Wang et al. (“The effects of heat treatment on zircon inclusions in Madagascar sapphires,” Summer 2006 G&G, pp. 134–150) confirmed the existence of baddeleyite with zircon in heated blue sapphire by detecting a 188/178 cm–1 Raman doublet of baddeleyite in melted zircon after heating at around 1400–1700°C and normal pressure. The results of Wang et al. (2006) suggest that when using conventional heating techniques, only a small fraction of zircon transforms into baddeleyite, while most of the zircon inclusions keep their crystalline structure intact without any phase transformation. Based on our Raman testing, however, no zircon was found in this 7.11 ct sapphire, and spectra of both the white mineral at the center and the recrystallized minerals in the fracture were consistent with baddeleyite.
Additionally, we also noticed several fractures filled with baddeleyite in a uniform orientation (again, see figure 4). Using a polariscope and a conoscope under a microscope, we confirmed that these fractures occurred along the basal plane (0001) of the sapphire.
One question is whether these flat fractures already existed from parting before treatment (which is commonly encountered in sapphire) or formed during treatment. It is known that parting may occur along the basal plane of sapphire under certain situations, such as twinning or exsolution of inclusions. Neither distinct twinning nor exsolved inclusions were found, and almost all of the fractures were fully filled, leaving no empty space within them. Thus, we believe that these fractures could have been triggered by treatment. The proposed occurrence and healing process of these fractures are illustrated in figure 6.

Figure 6. The occurrence and healing process of discoid fractures in the sapphire during treatment. A: Zircon inclusions and blue color bands in the sapphire. B: Under high pressure and high temperature, progressive decomposition of zircon results in the formation of baddeleyite and flat fractures. C: Baddeleyite penetrates into the discoid and fills the fracture with no space left. D: Baddeleyite recrystallizes in a dendritic pattern shown by the red line. Illustrations by Xueying Sun.
In conclusion, we can appropriately speculate that PHT (“HPHT”) treatment might cause flat fractures along the basal plane and facilitate the transformation from zircon to baddeleyite. The high baddeleyite content in heated sapphire may serve as a good indicator of PHT (“HPHT”) treatment. Further experiments are needed to support this argument. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 2000 Title: Ruby and Sapphire from Jegdalek, Afghanistan Abstract: This study provides detailed mining and gemological information on the Jegdalek deposit, in east-central Afghanistan, which is hosted by elongate beds of corundum-bearing marble. Some facet-grade ruby has been recovered, but most of the material consists of semitransparent pink sapphire of cabochon or carving quality. The most common internal features are dense concentrations of healed and nonhealed fracture planes and lamellar twin planes. Color zoning is common, and calcite, apatite, zircon, mica, iron sulfide minerals, graphite, rutile, aluminum hydroxide, and other minerals are also present in some samples. Although the reserves appear to be large, future potential will depend on the establishment of a stable government and the introduction of modern mining and exploration techniques. @chapter:1


Publication Year: 2023 Title: Bead Cultured Abalone Pearls from Chile Abstract: Figure 1. Twelve Chilean abalone cultured pearls and two red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) shells with attached cultured shell blisters, as well as three 7 mm traditional freshwater shell bead nuclei used to culture the pearls. Photo by Emily Lane.
Abalone is the common name of the marine mollusk species that belongs to the Haliotis genus. Various abalone species are distributed worldwide along cold coastal waters. They live in rocky habitats, attaching firmly with their muscular foot. Abalone is highly prized for its meat, shell, and pearls. Due to a marked decrease of abalone populations, harvesting wild-caught abalone is heavily regulated. Thus, approximately 95% of the global abalone supply comes from farms around the world, in countries such as China, South Korea, South Africa, Chile, Australia, Taiwan, Japan, the United States, and New Zealand (P.A. Cook, “Worldwide abalone production statistics,” Journal of Shellfish Research, Vol. 38, No. 2, 2019, pp. 401–404).
Abalone’s ear-shaped shells and pearls are known for their unique, vibrant iridescent nacre, which is sought after in jewelry and decorative items. The iridescence phenomenon is also known as “orient,” and it is attributed to interference and diffraction of light in the multilayered aragonite platelet microstructure and organic components. Due to the rarity of natural abalone pearls, most abalone products used in jewelry today are either abalone shells or assembled cultured shell blisters (also known as “mabe pearls”).
The culturing of whole pearls in abalone mollusks started around the same time as shell blister culturing for producing mabe pearl (assembled cultured shell blister), and various methods have been attempted over the years (C.Y. Wentzell, “Cultured abalone blister pearls from New Zealand,” Fall 1998 G&G, pp. 184–200; M. Monteforte and H. Bervera, “Abalone pearl culture on the west coast of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico,” World Aquaculture, 2010, pp. 12–17). However, due to abalone’s hemophilia and poor tolerance for chemicals and handling, any significant cut could cause major bleeding, and the nucleation and implantation procedures could induce infection that prohibits the mollusk from producing nacre. Therefore, the success rate of bead cultured (BC) abalone pearls was always low and the pearls were of unmarketable quality.

Figure 2. Abalone mollusks were grown in an aquaculture recirculation system in eight raceways of 5000 liters. A local kelp species (shown on the right) was used to feed the mollusks twice per week. Photos courtesy of Jorge Donoso Mena.
After 10 years of experimenting, scientists from the University of Antofagasta, Chile, have successfully created abalone BC pearls using a patented method for producing free pearls in abalone. Twelve of their cultured pearls and two abalone shells with a cultured shell blister attached (figure 1) were submitted to GIA for study in May 2022. They were the pilot crop of a new pearl culturing technique using traditional freshwater shell bead nuclei (5 to 8 mm) inserted into grafting channels in the visceral mass of Haliotis rufescens (red abalone) imported into Chile from Mexico in the 1990s (figure 2, left) for abalone farming. The BC pearl cultivation takes place during the last 24–28 months of the abalone culture process that usually takes 48–52 months, allowing the abalone meat and the pearl to be harvested at the same time. The facilities include an aquaculture recirculation system in eight raceways of 5000 liters, with continuous aeration by blowers and a culture water flow of 5000 liters per hour (figure 2, right). The local kelp species Lessonia trabeculata obtained from natural, sustainably managed sources is used to feed the mollusks twice a week. Despite a high rate of bead nucleus rejection, the survival rate of the mollusks after grafting has been 99% and is currently at 15,000 grafted mollusks per trial, according to the farm.

Figure 3. RTX images reveal 5–8 mm round shell bead nuclei in a majority of the abalone samples (ABL), with the nacre layer thickness surrounding the bead nuclei ranging from 0.10 to 1.20 mm. A bead nucleus was absent in sample 2, only showing layered growth with void-related features. While it is considered a non-bead cultured pearl, its internal structure resembled the internal structure commonly found in natural abalone baroque pearls. Image by Amiroh Steen.
The cultured abalone pearls produced using this method displayed multicolored nacreous surfaces due to strong iridescence, along with patches and stripes of dark brown organic materials. They exhibited a variety of baroque forms, and four samples possessed horn or tooth shapes often found in natural abalone pearls. A characteristic underlying botryoidal-like surface structure, usually observed on natural abalone pearls and shells, was also present (Fall 2015 Lab Notes, pp. 319–320). Real-time microradiography (RTX) revealed a round bead nucleus in the majority of samples, and the nacre layer thickness surrounding the bead nuclei ranged from 0.10 to 1.20 mm (figure 3). One sample lacked a bead nucleus and was identified as a non-bead cultured (NBC) pearl. Its layered growth with void-related features resembled the internal structure commonly found in natural abalone baroque pearls.

Figure 4. Raman spectra using 514 nm laser excitation showed high fluorescence background and weak peaks of aragonite displayed at 704 and 1085 cm–1. These results are consistent with 10 natural abalone samples selected for preliminary comparison study.

Figure 5. The cultured and natural abalone pearl samples were compositionally similar in trace element concentrations determined by LA-ICP-MS. However, the cultured samples contained lower boron and higher potassium than the natural pearls. All four tested spots of the NBC samples are clearly separated from natural samples in this plot.
Ten natural abalone pearls were selected for spectroscopic and chemical comparison with the cultured pearl samples, and both types of samples showed similar results. No specific patterns were observed in ultraviolet/visible reflectance and photoluminescence spectra, and Raman spectra showed high fluorescence background and weak peaks of aragonite at 704 and 1085 cm–1 (figure 4). Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis revealed all the samples had very low or below detection limit manganese content and high levels of strontium ranging from 1100 to 5000 ppm. High iodine levels were also detected in most samples, which is common in abalone. Trace element concentrations determined by laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) were compositionally similar in both sample types. However, the cultured samples contained lower boron and higher potassium contents. All four tested spots of the NBC samples could be clearly separated from natural samples in the plot of boron vs. potassium contents (figure 5). Since the one NBC pearl showed an internal structure similar to that of natural abalone pearls, the plot can potentially be used to differentiate NBC pearls from natural samples. However, further study on both sample types is required. Additionally, all abalone samples showed higher strontium concentrations than Pinctada species previously studied.
The success of abalone BC pearl production could be a promising addition to the gem and jewelry industry, and this study provided useful information for future reference. @chapter:14


Publication Year: 1982 Title: Gem-Quality Friedelite from the Kalahari Manganese Field near Kuruman, South Africa Abstract: Gem-quality friedelite was discovered by chance during shaft-sinking operations in a new, deep manganese mine near Kuruman. This article reports on the general geology and mineralization of the friedelite, speculates on the age and origin of the deposit, and describes the gemological properties of this material. @chapter:5


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Jeff Hapeman (Earth’s Treasury) Abstract: Figure 1. A 2.04 ct blue brilliant-cut unheated Rock Creek sapphire. Photo by Jeff Hapeman.

How does one prepare for a global pandemic on a scale unlike anything seen in recent history? While it would have taken an extraordinary act of foresight to predict how significantly the world has changed since March 2020, one trend was set in motion several years ago. Increased online presence, especially with social media, proved enormously beneficial to many in the gem and jewelry industry. Jeff Hapeman of Earth’s Treasury in Westtown, Pennsylvania, was at the forefront of this social media trend and shared his views on its impact on the trade since the pandemic and beyond. Mr. Hapeman got his start faceting gemstones (figure 1). However, he has grown his business over the last few years by hiring several designers and bench jewelers and developing what he calls his “mine to finger” approach. By building close relationships with the people producing rough material at gem mines around the world and moving the jewelry-making process in-house, he is able to capture more of the value-added chain in getting rough stones to the end consumer (figure 2).

Figure 2. A ring sourced, designed, and manufactured by Earth’s Treasury displaying a 2.14 ct heated Rock Creek sapphire alongside melee-sized unheated sapphires from Rock Creek. Photo by Jeff Hapeman.
In March, when Pennsylvania went into strict lockdown, all employees of Earth’s Treasury were sent home and asked to continue working on any projects they could. His bench jeweler sorted and graded melee stones, while his designer created new stock pieces. Fortunately, given Mr. Hapeman’s heavy online involvement, Earth’s Treasury was classified as an e-commerce retailer and allowed to open again after only about a month. Of course, there was an immediate plunge in sales in March and into April, but by May sales were picking up. In June, everything took off and business was much stronger than usual. This uptick in gem and jewelry sales is likely related to delayed purchases. As the uncertainty of the early days of the pandemic began to recede and the economy started coming out of the hard lockdown seen in much of the country, consumers had discretionary funds for jewelry purchases that would have ordinarily been set aside for travel or other luxuries. E-commerce jewelers did especially well last summer as the country slowly reopened with new safety restrictions that made in-person shopping at traditional brick-and-mortar shops more difficult.
Of course, this move to online jewelry sales did not happen in a vacuum. As social media continues to take an expanding role in our lives, modern consumers have become increasingly comfortable buying gemstones online at higher price points. Since the pandemic, Mr. Hapeman has noticed that customers are becoming more comfortable with the online purchasing process. Because Earth’s Treasury offers free returns for gems and jewelry by FedEx or UPS, customers are willing to purchase and try something before settling on exactly what they want. In fact, he has stopped private showings at his offices for now and is moving more toward video consultations with potential clients.
The pandemic has dramatically affected not only the way we buy and sell gems but also the supply chains for the colored stone industry. While Mr. Hapeman deals a lot in domestically sourced Montana sapphire, it has become increasingly difficult to source gem rough internationally. In particular, rough exports from Africa have apparently dried up recently, given difficulties in exporting this material to locations such as Bangkok where it could be further distributed around the world. Some major gem cutting centers have also seen a decline in business as their international buyers can no longer visit. As a result, it has become much easier to purchase Sri Lankan stones for recutting. Interestingly, he has seen an enormous amount of tanzanite become available recently, which he speculates may be related to the material being rerouted from the badly stricken cruise industry.
The biggest potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the industry concerns trade shows. While the rise of online sales had been felt by global gem and jewelry shows such as Tucson for several years, the ability of the industry to survive, and perhaps even thrive, for more than a year without a major gem show may cause many to question whether the events are crucial for their business. As we pull out of this pandemic world, it remains to be seen how major international gem shows will react and adapt. @chapter:33


Publication Year: - Title: Books: David Webb – The Quintessential American Jeweler Abstract: By Ruth Peltason, 367 pp., illus., Assouline Publishing, New York, 2013, $85.00.

                      In this large-scale, impressive look at David’s Webb life and work, Ruth Peltason opens a window into the artist’s world.

A native of North Carolina, David Webb apprenticed as a jewelry manufacturer during his teenage years before moving to New York City. There he made his name and fortune creating unforgettable jewelry and objets d’art for the elite from the 1950s through the early ’70s. The women of style and glamour who wore his jewelry included the Duchess of Windsor, Elizabeth Taylor, Barbra Streisand, Jackie Kennedy, and Estée Lauder. Webb’s design style is unmistakable yet varied. His pieces are almost exclusively bold and substantial, with designs that range from geometric to naturalistic forms. Many feature bright, bold color in the form of gemstones and enamel, while many others are monochromatic. All share a fine attention to detail and amazing workmanship, serving to highlight the designer’s creative vision.

As famous as his jewelry became, the designer himself was rarely seen, seldom heard from, and almost never photographed. Webb allowed his jewelry to speak for itself, as his company continues to do almost 40 years after his death. Therefore, I found the writing notable for what is revealed about David Webb himself. As he often purposefully placed himself in the background, one seldom gets to read about his personal life. And with chapters such as “Crazy for Color,” “Elegance Supreme,” “Solid-Gold Fun,” and “Animals as Decoration & Heavenly Delight,” Ms. Peltason manages to capture every mood that Webb’s jewelry might convey. The large, high-definition images prove that no detail is too small to escape the fine attention of Webb’s present-day jewelers, who are all accomplished craftspeople in their own right.

David Webb – The Quintessential American Jeweler is highly recommended for followers of fine jewelry and design history in general. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 1982 Title: The Identification of Artificial Coloration in Diamond Abstract: Since Robert Crowningshield's discovery in the late 1950s that diamonds that have been artificially colored by irradiation and subsequent annealing could be identified by their characteristic absorption spectra (in particular, the band at 595 (592) nm), much more information has become available about the radiation-related bands seen in the visible spectra of diamonds. The introduction of cryogenics has made the observation by hand spectroscope or the recording by spectrophotometer of a diamond's visible spectrum less troublesome. But it has also opened the eyes of the gemologist to the fact that virtually any band that can be artificially induced in the spectrum of diamond by irradiation and subsequent annealing can also occur naturally. This makes identification of the source of color in some diamonds, particularly fluorescent green and some yellow stones, very difficult. @chapter:11


Publication Year: - Title: Books: Unique by Design: Contemporary Jewelry in the Donna Schneier Collection Abstract: By Suzanne Ramljak, 136 pp., illus., publ. by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2014, $25.00.

                      This book documents the eponymous 2014 exhibition organized by New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art. As the museum does not provide an exhibit booklet, this is the only available guide to the collection of art and jewelry dealer Donna Schneier. Now retired, Schneier donated her collection of significant studio jewelry pieces to the Met in 2007.

The core of this volume is a chapter titled “Seductive Tactics.” Rather than a systematically documented catalog, this chapter is actually a general essay on contemporary jewelry. Most of the examples and illustrations in the book are pieces from the collection. Maisie Broadhead’s three conceptual pieces, collectively titled “Which Weigh to Go,” are a notable exception. The first of the three pieces is a photo showing a pastiche of a Vermeer painting, depicting a young woman weighing a pearl.  The two other photos are the necklaces in the background of the previous, a gold link chain titled “Big Fake Little Real Chain” and a freshwater pearl necklace named “Big Fake Little Real Pearl.” The “Plates” chapter features more photos that highlight of the collection, such as “Brass Knuckles, a four-finger ring by Myra Mimiltsch-Gray. No explanation is provided as to the motive for this photo selection. The last chapter of the book is a very succinct bibliography on contemporary jewelry.

One strong point is the book’s use of clinically precise color photos, some showing appreciable texture and surface details. The rendering of those photos is uniform throughout the book, which is rare. The use of those pictures is partially illustrative, as this book is more art essay than a catalog. As is usual in this type of book, jewelry measurements and carat weight are not noted, and magnification is not mentioned. To properly catalog the exhibition, the book should have contained a section presenting the 132 displayed pieces, with thumbnail pictures, detailed descriptions, measurements, artist biographies, and details on how the pieces were acquired. The book gives very little insight on the collection itself and does not answer one legitimate question: If the collection was donated in 2007, why show it now?

Overall, Unique By Design reads like a general introductory art essay to studio jewelry rather than a guide to a specific exhibition. Therefore, it is more suited to jewelry students and art collectors with an interest in studio jewelry. @chapter:16


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Sapphire Inclusion with Rutile “Silk” in a Burmese Star Sapphire Abstract: A guest crystal located at the back of the star sapphire stands out under cross-polarized illumination, exhibiting concentric rings of interference colors when viewed along its optic axis (left). Examination with fiber-optic light revealed a group of needle-like rutile inclusions oriented along the basal plane of the sapphire inclusion (right). Photomicrographs by Xiaodan Jia; field of view 3.83 mm.
GIA’s Hong Kong laboratory recently examined a remarkable sapphire inclusion inside a Burmese star sapphire. Possessing the same refractive index as its host, the sapphire guest displays extremely low relief and is nearly invisible under transmitted light. Nevertheless, its outline became distinctive under cross-polarized illumination, showing strong interference colors (see above, left). Closer examination using fiber-optic illumination revealed a group of oriented rutile “silk” in this sapphire inclusion (see above, right). Although exsolved rutile needles are a common inclusion in Burmese sapphire, it is interesting to see two sets of dense silk exsolved from both the star sapphire host and a protogenetic sapphire inclusion, each aligned with the basal plane of its own host. @chapter:12


Publication Year: 1983 Title: Opal from Queretaro, Mexico: Occurrence and Inclusions Abstract: The Queretaro area, 200 km northwest of Mexico City, has been producing fine, unusually transparent opal with vivid red and green play of color for over 100 years. These opals occur largely in gas cavities in pink to brick-red, thinly bedded rhyolitic lava flows and are mined in open-pit quarries. After examining thousands of opals from this area, the authors selected 20 specimens containing excellent examples of both common and rare inclusions that seemed to represent the variety of inclusions found in gem-quality opals from this locality. The opals and their inclusions were then subjected to a battery of tests to ascertain their nature. These tests revealed both two- and three-phase inclusions and a variety of different mineral species. @chapter:39


Publication Year: 2010 Title: Developments in Gemstone Analysis Techniques and Instrumentation During the 2000s Abstract: The first decade of the 2000s continued the trend of using more powerful analytical instruments to solve gem identification problems. Advances in gem treatment and synthesis technology, and the discovery of new gem sources, led to urgent needs in gem identification. These, in turn, led to the adaptation of newer scientific instruments to gemology. The past decade witnessed the widespread use of chemical microanalysis techniques such as LA-ICP-MS and LIBS, luminescence spectroscopy (particularly photoluminescence), real-time fluorescence and X-ray imaging, and portable spectrometers, as well as the introduction of nanoscale analysis. Innovations in laser mapping and computer modeling of diamond rough and faceted stone appearance changed the way gemstones are cut and the manner in which they are graded by gem laboratories.

	DATA DEPOSITORY

Additional References
	August 15, 2010 @chapter:29


Publication Year: 2019 Title: Conichalcite in Quartz Chalcedony Abstract: Raman spectrometry identified the yellowish green inclusions in this chalcedony host as the copper mineral conichalcite. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro; field of view 7.20 mm.

An interesting greenish blue cabochon of chalcedony was examined to determine the identity of some peculiar yellowish green inclusions. The bodycolor offered some clues, as the greenish blue variety of chalcedony, known as “gem silica,” is commonly attributed to the copper mineral chrysocolla. Therefore, it was not a surprise when Raman spectrometry identified the yellowish green inclusions as another mineral that contained a significant amount of copper: conichalcite (see above).
Conichalcite, CaCu(AsO4)(OH), is a member of the adelite-descloizite group and occurs in colors from dominantly green to dominantly yellow, with either a yellow or green modifier. Conichalcite is reported to occur with chrysocolla from deposits in the United States (Utah, Arizona, and California), Germany, Peru, and Australia. This particular gem was reportedly from Concepcion Del Oro, Zacatecas, Mexico.
These vibrant inclusions were quite visually striking when seen along with their greenish blue host chalcedony. This is the first time the authors have identified inclusions of conichalcite in chalcedony. @chapter:13


Publication Year: 2002 Title: The Ultimate Gemologist:A Tribute to Richard T. Liddicoat Abstract: Figure 1. Since 1940, Richard T. Liddicoat’s contributions to gemological education, diamond quality grading, gem identification, and gemological research and instrument development have advanced the study of gemology throughout the world. As a former president of GIA, now Chairman of its Board of Governors, and chief editor of Gems & Gemology for five decades, he has had a profound influence on the gem and jewelry industry.

              On this occasion—the celebration of Richard T. Liddicoat’s 50 years guiding Gems & Gemology— it is fitting to review his enormous impact on the field of gemology. This includes the development of GIA’s education program, the creation of the quality-grading system for polished diamonds that is now accepted worldwide, numerous contributions to the gemological literature, involvement in new gem-testing techniques and instruments, and the establishment of a formal research program. His greatest achievement, however, has been his personal influence on the professionalism and ethical standards of the international gem and jewelry industry.

With this special issue of Gems & Gemology, we celebrate the 50th anniversary of Richard T. Liddicoat (figure 1) as editor and now editor-in-chief of GIA’s quarterly professional journal. This festschrift, or special celebratory issue, provides a welcome opportunity to review his contributions to gemology, especially in five main areas: education, diamond quality grading, gem identification, instrument development, and global information outreach. Following the lead of GIA’s founder, Robert M. Shipley, Liddicoat positioned GIA as a leading international educational institution, grading laboratory, manufacturer of gem instruments, and research center. Those who have had the privilege to know and work with him have been able to expand the frontiers of gemology “by standing on the shoulders” of this giant.

	THE EARLY YEARS
Robert M. Shipley founded the Gemological Institute of America in Los Angeles, California, in 1931. His vision was to create an institution that would promote professional education in gemology for jewelers in the United States, allowing them to buy and sell with increased knowledge and confidence. At the time, no such organization existed in the U.S. In the early 1930s, Shipley—working in partnership with his wife Beatrice—stimulated interest among jewelers by traveling across the U.S. to retail stores, where he would preach the benefits of gemological education. In the evenings in his hotel room, Shipley would write courses for jewelers to take through correspondence. He established the beginnings of an educational institute in Los Angeles with a small staff that grew slowly over the next decade as resources allowed. Together, he and his staff created lessons, gave instruction on gemstones and their properties, and began the process of helping jewelers correctly identify the gem materials they handled (Gilbert, 1977).

By 1940, Shipley realized the need for additional leadership at GIA. His son, Robert Shipley Jr., who had worked closely with him in recent years, had signed up for military service. Shipley contacted Chester B. Slawson, a mineralogy professor at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor who was co-author of one of the leading gemology texts at that time, Gems and Gem Materials (Kraus and Slawson, 1939), as well as one of GIA’s educational advisors. In his letter, Shipley asked Slawson to recommend a mineralogist to join the GIA faculty. Dr. Slawson suggested one of his graduate students, Richard T. Liddicoat. As Liddicoat recalled, “Slawson thought that I was wedded to graduate school and headed for a Ph.D. in mineralogy, so he didn’t think I’d be interested. But he showed the letter to me anyway. After years of school, I was ready to do something else. The idea of gems and Los Angeles really had appeal” (Youngs, 1980, p. 40).

Liddicoat drove with his wife Mary Imogene (“Gene”) Liddicoat to Cincinnati, Ohio, for an interview with Robert Shipley and then-chairman of GIA’s Board of Governors, Edward Herschede. He found both men impressive, with Shipley especially charismatic in his passion for education and gemstones.

Richard Thomas Liddicoat Jr. was born on March 2, 1918, in Kearsarge, Michigan, the son of a professor of engineering at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and Carmen Beryl Williams Liddicoat. Both his grandfathers were miners from Cornwall, England, who had immigrated to the upper Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan in the latter half of the 19th century. These two men inspired their grandson to explore the geology of his surroundings. Liddicoat attended the University of Michigan, from which he received a bachelor’s degree in geology in 1939 and a master’s degree in mineralogy in 1940.

On June 28, 1940, Liddicoat joined the GIA staff as assistant director of education, beginning a 60+ year career of service to GIA and the jewelry industry (see highlights in the timeline). In those days, the Institute was a family affair: Beatrice Shipley managed the office, while Shipley Jr. focused on developing gemological instruments and techniques, as Shipley Sr. continued with education and attracting jewelers to the GIA programs. (Also involved was Beatrice’s nephew Al Woodill, who briefly worked at GIA in 1940 –1941. In 1947, Woodill became the executive head of GIA’s sister organization, the American Gem Society [AGS], which Shipley Sr. had established in 1934 as a professional guild of jewelers.)

Liddicoat’s first priority was to take the GIA courses, which he completed in less than three months. As an instructor, he was responsible for grading GIA correspondence exams—on average, 225 tests per week. “When I first came out here, I used to grade all the papers. They were all essay questions in those days. I would take all the papers home with me, one day a week, and just keep going until I finished them. Sometimes, it was pretty late when I got through with them all,” Liddicoat later recalled (Youngs, 1980, p. 40).

Within a year of his hiring, Liddicoat was named director of education, the first person outside the Shipley family to hold a major position within GIA.

Figure 2. Standing in the back of a February 1949 gemology class at GIA's New York office are G. Robert Crowningshield (in front of chalkboard) and Richard T. Liddicoat (back row, far right).

	CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEMOLOGICAL EDUCATION
One of Liddicoat’s first innovations in gemological education was an intensive one-week class that was launched at the AGS Conclaves in Philadelphia and Chicago in 1942 (Federman, 1985a). He developed this class to enable students to complete the prerequisite Diamond and Colored Stone training of Shipley’s original fundamental course in a one-week resident education format. This class also gave jewelers the opportunity to work with equipment in a classroom setting under the guidance of GIA instructors (figure 2). Liddicoat would become a mainstay as a speaker and instructor at these Conclaves, and in 1997 the AGS honored him for having attended 50 of them (“A special tribute…,” 1997).

During World War II, from August 1942 until January 1946, Liddicoat left GIA to serve in the U.S. Navy. After working for a few months in a shipyard, he eventually was assigned to the Pacific fleet as a weather officer on aircraft carriers and at Pearl Harbor (“Liddicoat resumes work at headquarters… ,” 1946).

Upon his return from military service in February 1946, Liddicoat was named director of research and, later, director of education and research. The March 1946 issue of the AGS magazine Guilds described him as “an extremely popular leader and instructor who proved his ability to project his personality into instruction in the mail courses” (“Liddicoat resumes work at headquarters…,” 1946, p. 5). In June 1946, he helped launch the first evening gemology class in Los Angeles, which allowed local GIA correspondence students to gain hands-on experience while continuing to work in their jewelry stores during the day.

Recognizing the need for an inexpensive handbook for GIA students, Shipley assigned Liddicoat the task of creating it. This new gem identification reference book was the first directed to the needs of the practicing gemologist. Closely tied to the GIA course work, it also was unique in organizing the gemstones by color. Liddicoat spent almost a year on the book, dictating sections to his wife Gene in the evening (R. T. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2002). In August 1947, the first edition of his Handbook of Gem Identification was published (figure 3). This book, one of the first to include photomicrographs of inclusions as identifying characteristics, supported GIA education classes that increasingly focused on gem identification and gem-testing instrumentation. It continues to be one of the most widely used textbooks in gemology, now in the fourth printing of its 12th edition.

Beginning in 1948, GIA granted the title gemologist to those students who had completed all of the home study courses, and awarded the title graduate gemologist (G.G.) when students completed the additional class training and passed the 20-stone exam. Since the inception of the graduate gemologist diploma, approximately 25,000 students have gained this important industry recognition. Later in 1948, Shipley turned over much of the day-to-day operation to Liddicoat (“Executive staff changes…,” 1948). GIA student enrollment grew substantially during the postwar years, influenced in large part by the G.I. Education Bill, by which the U.S. government gave financial support to its military veterans. To meet the needs of a growing student population, more instructors were added to the GIA staff to teach the students both in “extension” classes at the Los Angeles headquarters and through home study education. During the latter half of the 1940s, the GIA staff doubled from 20 to 40. When the G.I. Bill’s benefits ended in the early 1950s, however, enrollment fell off sharply, and GIA faced a financial challenge just as Shipley was planning to retire.

Figure 3. The first edition of Richard Liddicoat’s Handbook of Gem Identification, published in 1947, presented “simple and often conclusive” tests to identify gems. Now in its 12th edition (4th printing), it is one of the most widely read textbooks in gemology.

Liddicoat, Shipley’s handpicked successor, became executive director of GIA on April 1, 1952. He moved quickly to address the Institute’s financial problem by focusing GIA’s education on a key concern of jewelers: diamond grading.

In the early 1950s, jewelers were calling for a standardized diamond grading system to counter the fanciful and often inconsistent terminology then being used to describe polished diamonds. Such descriptions only made effective communication between dealers and customers more difficult. Liddicoat tackled the problem with Los Angeles colleagues Lester Benson and Joe Phillips, with input from the New York laboratory’s Bob Crowningshield (then director of GIA’s Eastern Headquarters and Gem Trade Laboratory and later vice president of GTL Gem Identification) and Bert Krashes (who retired in 1987 as managing director of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory). Together, they developed a diamond grading and evaluation appraisal program based on the color, clarity, cutting, and carat weight of diamonds. To unveil the class, they decided to go to the heart of the diamond district in New York.

Liddicoat and Crowningshield taught the first one-week classes on the new diamond grading system in April 1953 at the Roosevelt Hotel in New York City (figure 4 shows a one-week class from 1954). This diamond grading class became part of GIA’s regular gemology program in 1955. Liddicoat also established a new traveling one-week class, Diamond Evaluation, to bring an understanding of the benefits of this new diamond grading terminology to jewelers throughout the United States (Shuster, in press). Glenn Nord, who was then taking the new diamond course, recalls: “GIA was introducing an entirely new culture to the jewelry industry with its education, and it was Dick Liddicoat’s leadership that helped people accept these changes” (pers. comm., 2002).

Figure 4. GIA instructors Bert Krashes, Eunice Miles, and G. Robert Crowningshield stand in the center of a group of students taking a one-week class at GIA New York in June 1954, a year after the introduction of the GIA diamond grading system.

In 1955, 14 of the 45 lessons—or nearly a third of GIA’s home study diamond courses—were rewritten. Liddicoat personally revised 10 of them. During the same time period, he expanded the education program by adding a jewelry retailing home study course. The first jewelry design course, long presented in Brooklyn by Christian Jakkob, was turned over to GIA and reorganized by Lester Benson, a GIA educator and inventor. Liddicoat reflected, “I always had the feeling that once the gemology program was in place, we should offer a complete curriculum for the retail jeweler” (pers. comm., 2001).

To further meet the need for a standardized terminology for its students and members of the trade, GIA began working on a glossary of diamond terms. Out of these efforts came the first Diamond Dictionary (1960), by Lawrence Copeland with Richard Liddicoat and other staff members (see Copeland et al., 1960; figure 5). Later that same decade came Liddicoat and Copeland’s The Jewelers’ Manual (again, see figure 5). Published in 1964, it was an expansion of Shipley’s earlier Jewelers Pocket Reference Book (1947).

Liddicoat worked closely with Lester Benson to produce a revised course structure for the gemology program (“GIA courses to have new look,” 1958). In 1962, after providing a variety of supplemental classes for students to obtain additional training time, GIA began to offer a full-time resident G.G. program in Los Angeles. Before then, students could obtain this diploma only through home study, supplemented by short-term classes.

During this same period, Liddicoat (1962) wrote an article for Gems & Gemology on the “rapid sight” system for judging diamond cut quality. According to Nord (pers. comm., 2002), “After Dick developed the system, he and I would sit and trade diamonds back and forth for hours. We could judge so many factors, including proportions and angles, very accurately. It was an important teaching tool that is still a key part of the diamond program today.”

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Liddicoat oversaw Nord’s development of corporate training classes for Zales, one of the largest retail jewelry store chains in the U.S., a program that continues today with a number of major businesses.

Also in the late ‘60s, Liddicoat made several trips to Japan in an effort to glean the information necessary to develop a cultured pearl course and, ultimately, GIA’s first pearl grading system.

Richard Liddicoat took Shipley’s concept of home study (or “distance”) education beyond North America when, in 1970, he sent Nord to Israel to teach the first diamond course outside the U.S. A year later, with Liddicoat’s endorsement, GIA courses were being taught in Japan (figure 6). Yoshiko Doi, a former GIA staff member who had returned to Japan, and Kenzo Yamamoto established the Association of Japan Gem Trust (AGT), a non-profit organization with exclusive rights to administer GIA courses in Japanese (“Focus on: Kenzo Yamamoto,” 1984). Doi translated all course materials into Japanese, thus beginning GIA’s ability to offer courses internationally and in other languages. Currently, GIA programs are offered in 11 countries outside the U.S.

Figure 5. The Diamond Dictionary, first published in 1960 and now in its 3rd edition (1993), provides a standard reference for diamond terminology. The Jewelers’ Manual, a handy reference guide to gemology and jewelry for the working jeweler, was first published in 1964 and is now in its 3rd edition (1989).

Early GIA efforts to establish a system to describe the quality of polished diamonds can be traced back to the 1930s, when Robert M. Shipley Sr. and De Beers collaborated to develop the concept of the “Four Cs”: color, clarity, cut, and carat weight. In 1939, the AGS adopted this terminology for describing diamonds. A 1941 article in Guilds describes a nine-year process by GIA to develop a unit for color grading diamonds and efforts to standardize color grading (“Standardization of color grading…,” 1941). That same year, Shipley Sr. and Liddicoat published an article on diamond grading that described the use of a standardized light source (the Diamolite) and a prototype colorimeter for grading diamond color against a graduated color scale (Shipley and Liddicoat, 1941). This same research by Shipley, Dorothy Jasper Smith, and Liddicoat led to the creation of the first master set of color comparison diamonds for diamond grading in 1941 (R. T. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2002).

Nevertheless, as indicated above, ongoing confusion and inconsistency in diamond grading terminology brought about the demand for a new vocabulary to more clearly express the color, clarity, and cut of individual diamonds. As Bert Krashes (pers. comm., 2001) notes, “There was a lot of ambiguity and confusion when it came to trade grading of diamond color and clarity, so there was a significant need for GIA to create this system.”

Liddicoat became the architect of the GIA diamond grading system, developing a practical approach to quality grading colorless to light yellow polished diamonds on the basis of color, clarity, and cut. A central feature was the D-to-Z color grading system for faceted, colorless to light yellow diamonds, which comprise the vast majority of diamonds seen in the trade. The letter D was chosen as the starting point (colorless) to avoid confusion with other, more loosely defined classification systems being used, which typically began with the letter A (King et al., 1994). Liddicoat remembers that at the time the diamond companies had their own descriptions, which included A and AA, so it was felt that D would be less confusing (R. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2001).

Having discussed quality grading of diamonds at earlier AGS Conclaves, Liddicoat introduced the GIA diamond grading system at the 1953 Conclave in Philadelphia. “Richard Liddicoat deserves the credit for developing the diamond grading system. He had some assistance from Lester Benson, but it was mainly Liddicoat” (B. Krashes, pers. comm., 2002).

Beginning in 1953, GIA instructors taught this grading system to hundreds of students so they could evaluate their own diamonds. Subsequently, many of these students requested that GIA set up a procedure whereby they could submit their grading worksheets, and eventually the diamonds themselves, for an independent assessment.

Bert Krashes recalls the transition (pers. comm., 2002): “It began as a service we offered students. After they took the courses, whether correspondence or one-week classes, we agreed to double-check their grading of their own diamonds. We would make our comments on the diamond worksheets. Eventually, word reached the industry that we were capable of doing this work, and soon there was a demand for a more formal presentation.” Liddicoat teamed with Crowningshield, Krashes, and Eunice Miles to design and develop the Diamond Grading Report (Christie, 1988), the first of which was issued in 1955.

Figure 6. One of GIA’s early global outreaches was in Japan, where Kenzo Yamamoto (second from the left, next to his wife) and Yoshiko Doi (third from the left, next to former GIA president Glenn Nord) began teaching GIA courses in 1971. Since its inception, nearly 3,000 graduate gemologists have been trained at the Japanese affiliate. In the inset photograph, Richard Liddicoat is shown with a group of Japanese students.

	UNLOCKING THE MYSTERIES: GEM IDENTIFICATION AND GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Gem Identification. When Robert M. Shipley set up his Los Angeles laboratory in the early 1930s, the Institute’s resources were devoted to identifying gems and to documenting the properties and techniques that would aid in their separation (Jasper, 1948). Late in 1948, following the unexpected resignation of Dr. Mark Bandy as director of the fledgling New York laboratory, Shipley assigned Liddicoat to New York to lead the expansion of that new branch. Liddicoat and his wife Gene drove across the country and arrived there in early January 1949. While Liddicoat and Crowningshield took care of the gem identifications and taught classes at night, Gene was the office administrator (R. T. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2002). The resources of the New York operation were further enhanced when the Gem Trade Laboratory, which had been established by A. E. Alexander, was turned over to GIA in October of that same year. As director of GIA New York and the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Liddicoat was responsible for integrating the facilities of the two labs (“Richard T. Liddicoat Jr.appointed…,” 1952). The early identification work was typically a group effort among staff members who became known as the “Liddicoat brain trust” (Federman, 1985a).

By the 1970s, the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory staff was examining large numbers of gemstones, including the grading of diamonds and the identification of colored stones and pearls. Sensing the need for a group of scientists who would focus on the many emerging technical challenges in gemology, Liddicoat formally established the current GIA Research Department in 1976. Dr. D. Vincent Manson, formerly curator of gems and minerals at the American Museum of Natural History, was named its director.

Figure 7. Along with G. Robert Crowningshield and Lester Benson, Richard Liddicoat pioneered the Gem Trade Lab Notes section of Gems & Gemology. These reports of new findings from the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory first appeared as “Highlights at the Gem Trade Lab” from both New York and Los Angeles. Today, the Lab Notes section remains one of the journal’s most popular features.
Gems & Gemology. Robert Shipley’s early efforts in gem testing and characterization were incorporated not only into updates of the GIA courses, but also (starting in 1934) into the pages of Gems & Gemology, GIA’s quarterly journal. Richard Liddicoat continued this legacy through articles that he wrote and co-authored in G&G, reporting on his activities to improve the ability of jewelers to properly identify gems. (An extensive bibliography of his publications is provided at the end of this article.)

Liddicoat became editor of Gems & Gemology on Robert Shipley’s retirement in 1952, with Jeanne G. M. Martin as his associate editor. Liddicoat himself led a procession of notable mineralogists, gemologists, and other scientists who contributed groundbreaking articles to the journal. Subsequent associate editors included Dr. Robert Gaal (1973–1977) and John I. Koivula (1978–1980). In 1981, Alice Keller was brought on as the journal’s managing editor to oversee its redesign; she was subsequently promoted to her current position as editor and director.

Liddicoat encouraged Crowningshield and Benson to write their “Highlights at the Gem Trade Lab” columns—Crowningshield in New York and Benson in Los Angeles—which debuted in the Winter 1958–59 issue of Gems & Gemology (R.T. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 2002). Liddicoat took over the Los Angeles column in 1962 (figure 7). “Highlights at the Gem Trade Lab” later became the Gem Trade Lab Notes section, which continues to describe interesting gem materials that have been seen in the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory.

Five times in the last decade, Gems & Gemology has won the American Society of Association Executives Gold Circle Award for best peer-review journal in America. Liddicoat continues to serve as editor-in-chief, writing editorials, reviewing books and articles, and setting editorial policy for the award-winning publication.

	CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTATION
Liddicoat presided over four decades of innovation in gem instrument development at GIA, and established gem instruments as one of the Institute’s highest priorities (Federman, 1985b). In addition to his early work with Shipley to develop the Diamolite (figure 8), Liddicoat worked with various GIA scientists on a number of other instruments. Liddicoat’s own scientific background enabled him to foster the development of instruments such as the prism spectroscope and the ProportionScope (GIA Diamond Grading course, 1994). His objective throughout instrument development at GIA was to provide jewelers with practical tools that could help them in the day-to-day operation of identifying gemstones.

Figure 8. Richard Liddicoat, shown teaching the use of the Diamolite in 1946, helped develop the instrument in 1941.

	GLOBAL INFORMATION OUTREACH
In the early 1980s, Liddicoat championed the use of computer networks to connect jewelers and gemologists to a vast array of knowledge. In a 1985 interview in Modern Jeweler, he predicted that one day jewelers across the country would be connected to GIA through such a network: “Imagine not having to leave your store or business to consult with GIA” (Federman, 1985c, p. 56). That idea became reality in 1986 with the creation of GIA-Net under the leadership of Dennis Foltz, then director of education and operations at GIA, and has evolved today into GIA Virtual Campus (for students) and the GIA Web site: http://www.gia.edu. Approximately 150,000 people access the GIA Web site monthly.

Liddicoat’s contributions to spreading gem and jewelry knowledge were immortalized with the creation of the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center in 1989. Although Robert Shipley had built the beginnings of a library from the very first days of GIA, Liddicoat was the one who envisioned a world-class, state-of-the-art library that would serve not only GIA staff and students, but also jewelers, gemologists, and consumers worldwide. This repository was greatly expanded under the direction of one of the authors (DMD) with the purchase of the 15,000-volume John and Marjorie Sinkankas Gemology and Mineralogy Library in 1988 (figure 9). Located at the Institute’s headquarters in Carlsbad, California, the Liddicoat Library is now the largest gemology and jewelry library in the world. At almost 836 square meters (9,000 square feet), it houses over 30,000 volumes and journals as well as extensive collections of photos, videotapes, and other media resources.

Figure 9. The world’s largest collection of gemological books and articles, the Sinkankas Collection, was acquired for the GIA library in 1988. Photo by Shane McClure and Robert Weldon, © GIA.

As director of education and later president, Richard Liddicoat was GIA’s ambassador to many gemology and jewelry associations. As indicated earlier, he was a mainstay at AGS Conclaves for more than 50 years, frequently accompanied by GIA’s finest gemologists (figure 10). He attended industry meetings and then incorporated the information he gathered into Gems & Gemology and the education program. He actively participated in the International Kimberlite Conferences and the International Gemmological Conferences (IGC), as well as a variety of trade association events. In 1983, Liddicoat retired as president of GIA, but was subsequently named chairman of GIA’s Board of Governors, a position that he still holds. Liddicoat is a founding member of the International Colored Gemstone Association (ICA) and the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA). In recent years, he has continued to attend trade shows and visit gem mines, in addition to his involvement with GIA and Gems & Gemology (figure 11).

Figure 10. Since the inaugural American Gem Society Conclave in 1937, GIA educators have taught gemological courses and seminars to AGS jewelers. In this photo, Glenn Nord, Chuck Fryer (then head of Gem Identification in Los Angeles), Richard Liddicoat, Bert Krashes, and G. Robert Crowningshield participate in a GIA panel at the 1972 AGS Conclave in Washington, DC.

Figure 11. Richard Liddicoat has remained an active figure in the gemological community. In this 2001 photo, Liddicoat is seen touring the historic Tourmaline Queen pegmatite mine in the Pala district of San Diego County, California, with mine owner Ed Swoboda. This mine has produced large amounts of gem tourmaline, for cut stones and mineral specimens. Photo by Brendan Laurs, © GIA.

	THE “FATHER OF MODERN GEMOLOGY”
In recognition of his more than 60 years of service to the gem and jewelry industry, Liddicoat has received many awards and commendations. Among the most prestigious are:

		American Gem Society Honorary Certified Gemologist (1947)

		American Gem Society Robert M. Shipley Award (1976)

		Honorary Fellow of the Gemmological Association of Great Britain (1981)

		American Gem Trade Association Honorary Member (1983)

		Consolidated Jewelers Association of New York’s Man of the Year (1984)

Modern Jeweler’s Lifetime Achievement Award (1985)

		The Morris B. Zale Lifetime Achievement Award (1987)

		Honorary Lifetime Membership of the Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain (1987)

		National Home Study Council’s Hall of Fame (1991)

		GIA Board of Governors’ Chairman for Life (1992)

		GIA League of Honor Lifetime Achievement Award (1995)

		American Gem Society Lifetime Achievement Award (2001)

Liddicoat received special recognition in 1977 with the naming in his honor of a new gem species of tourmaline (figure 12). Dr. Pete J. Dunn and his colleagues from the U.S. National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution; Dunn, 1977) named “the mineral liddicoatite [the calcic lithiumtourmaline end member], in recognition of his contributions to gemological knowledge and education.” Liddicoat is one of only a few gemologists ever to be so recognized (Federman, 1985a).

When Liddicoat was honored as Man of the Year by the Consolidated Jewelers Association of New York in 1984, National Jeweler publisher Milton Gralla said of him, “There is not a community of any size anywhere in the United States where one or many jewelers have not been touched, influenced, educated, upgraded or professionalized by the thinking of this particular industry leader—Richard T. Liddicoat” (“Liddicoat honored . . . ,” 1985).

In 1994, GIA established the Richard T. Liddicoat Award for Distinguished Achievement to acknowledge those GIA staff members who have provided unique talent and demonstrated unparalleled commitment to the Institute.

During his 60-plus years with the Gemological Institute of America, Richard Liddicoat has brought practical gemology to hundreds of thousands of students and industry colleagues. Just as GIA has touched the lives of thousands in the industry, so has Liddicoat with the wisdom he graciously shares. When Liddicoat received the AGS Lifetime Achievement Award on July 31, 2001 (figure 13), more than 300 jewelry industry professionals stood in ovation. GIA president Bill Boyajian said, “Richard Liddicoat’s achievements and contributions to the world of gemology and jewelry have been monumental. The living title ‘Father of Modern Gemology’ pays tribute to his success, yet only begins to describe the extent to which his efforts on behalf of an entire industry and the consuming public have changed the course of history.”

Figure 13. Richard T. Liddicoat, the “Father of Modern Gemology,” was honored with the American Gem Society’s Lifetime Achievement Award on July 31, 2001. @chapter:29


Publication Year: - Title: Romancing the Source: Cambodia Abstract: Cambodia

	Mining for sapphire in Cambodia requires hard physical labor and exposure to deadly malaria and extreme heat and humidity.

	This series of articles and videos follows a team of GIA Field Gemologists on their travels from the mountains of Afghanistan to the jungles of Sri Lanka in search of the sources of colored gemstones and the people who pursue them. This thrilling journey will take you to remote gemstone-mining areas, where you’ll witness the extreme effort required to wrestle nature’s treasures from the earth.

In a river in Cambodia, an artisanal miner searches for sapphire. Photo by Andrew Lucas/GIA.

	The romance of a colored gemstone arises from its beauty, the exotic qualities of its source’s location, the adventure leading to its discovery, and the stories of the people who seek it. These factors have united to create the allure of gemstones through the ages, and continue to do so even in modern times.

	Pailin, Cambodia, is located right next to Thailand, and this area has known more than its share of hardship. As a major battleground during the wars with the Khmer Rouge, the amount of civilian suffering is almost unimaginable. Today, there are still numerous reminders in the form of citizens, including miners, with legs lost to the Khmer Rouge mines that were planted all over the area. Drug-resistant malaria also plagues locals, especially miners working in the jungles.

	The rubies and sapphires brought to the surface by volcanoes are a source of income for this struggling area. Although production has decreased, hard-working individuals can still be found in the jungle, working small pit-mining operations and mining the rivers to search for treasure that will provide revenue for their families and perhaps even significantly change their lives. @chapter:25


Publication Year: 1990 Title: Winter 1990 G&G Lab Notes Abstract: Azurite
Cubic Zirconia Simulating a Fancy Yellow Diamond
Fancy Intense Yellow Diamond
Treated Green Diamond
Dyed Black Cultured Pearls
Uncommon Cultured Pearls
Unheated Ruby with a Glass Filling
Synthetic Ruby with a Glass Filling
Synthetic Sapphire: Flame Fusion with Needle-Like Inclusions
Orange or Yellow Sapphire
Imitation Turquoise

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:17


Publication Year: 2022 Title: The Discovery of Davemaoite, the CaSiO3 Perovskite, in a Diamond from Earth’s Lower Mantle Abstract: Figure 1. A typical coated diamond from Orapa. This is not the stone studied, but rather one from the same batch and locality with approximately the same color and size. Photo by George Rossman.
Common silicate minerals such as olivine and garnet convert to other phases when brought to great depths in the planet, where they are subjected to extreme pressures. It has long been thought that two of the most common phases at depth in Earth have the perovskite structure. They have long been known from experimental studies in which they have been called magnesium silicate perovskite (MgSiO3) and calcium silicate perovskite (CaSiO3). Only recently has the magnesium silicate perovskite been found in nature, in a meteorite, where it was characterized and named bridgmanite (O. Tschauner et al., “Discovery of bridgmanite, the most abundant mineral in Earth, in a shocked meteorite,” Science, Vol. 346, 2014, pp. 1100–1102). More recently, the calcium silicate perovskite has been found in a diamond and sufficiently characterized to be given a mineral species name (O. Tschauner et al., “Discovery of davemaoite, CaSiO3-perovskite, as a mineral from the lower mantle,” Science, Vol. 374, 2021, pp. 891–894).
Diamonds are one of the few minerals that bring us samples of the minerals found in the deep earth. Diamonds serve as chemically inert and nearly volume-conserving hosts for these minerals, thereby allowing them to retain their composition and in some cases even their original structure. The examination of the inclusions in an 81 mg (~0.405 ct) octahedral diamond from Orapa, Botswana, has resulted in the discovery of the high-pressure form of CaSiO3 in the perovskite structure occurring as a natural mineral in the diamond (figure 1). This phase has been approved by the International Mineralogical Association with the name davemaoite, named in honor of Dave (Ho-kwang) Mao, for his contributions to understanding the deep-mantle geophysics and petrology of our planet.
Experimental studies in the laboratory have indicated that CaSiO3 assumes the perovskite structure at depths between 420 and ~2700 km. This phase, first synthesized in 1975 (L. Liu and T. Ringwood, “Synthesis of a perovskite-type polymorph of CaSiO3,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 28, 1975, pp. 209–211), is only thermodynamically stable at pressures greater than 200,000 atmospheres (20 GPa). Furthermore, the rate of back-conversion to low-pressure polymorphs is rapid if the pressure is lowered. Consequently, the natural mineral is unlikely to survive transport from the deep earth to the surface.

Figure 2. The polished slab of the diamond containing davemaoite showing the round spots where the grains were excavated for LA-ICP-MS analysis. Photo by Aaron Celestian.
Davemaoite was first identified and characterized within a diamond studied at the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois, where an X-ray beam was focused to a 0.5 × 0.5 μm spot. Calcium-rich inclusions in the diamond were first located. Two inclusions, 4 × 6 μm and 4 × 16 μm in size, were examined with X-ray diffraction. They both produced a perovskite pattern. Their identity was further confirmed by infrared spectroscopy. Theoretically, a cubic perovskite has no Raman pattern, and none was obtained from these inclusions. The inclusions were next excavated from the surrounding diamond and analyzed with laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) (figure 2). Their composition corresponded to the calcium silicate perovskite.
Davemaoite is significant in Earth’s deep mantle because it acts as a host to many elements that are incompatible with upper-mantle minerals, fulfilling a role that garnet plays in the upper mantle. Davemaoite may be the most geochemically important phase in the lower mantle because it will act as a repository in which the radioactive, heat-generating elements thorium and uranium become concentrated. Calculations suggested that davemaoite was entrapped in the host diamond at pressures of at least 290,000 atmospheres and temperatures of at least 1400 K. These diamonds from Orapa are also noteworthy because in addition to davemaoite, a high-pressure form of ice was found as a solid inclusion within them where the diamond’s internal pressure was great enough to maintain the ice in the solid form, allowing it to be characterized as the new mineral species ice-VII (O. Tschauner et al., “Ice-VII inclusions in diamonds: Evidence for aqueous fluid in Earth’s deep mantle,” Science, Vol. 359, 2018, No. 6380, pp. 1136–1139). @chapter:35


Publication Year: - Title: Pre-Holiday Gem Orders ‘Encouraging,’ Mixed Results for Auctions Abstract: The 2.11 ct Argyle Everglow is the largest Fancy red diamond ever sold by Argyle at its yearly tender sales. The Everglow was the cornerstone of Arglye’s 2017 Pink Diamond Tender that consisted of 58 stones totaling 49.39 cts. Photo courtesy of Rio Tinto/Argyle

Diamond and gemstone dealers report that pre-holiday orders from U.S. and Chinese retailers are “encouraging,” with good demand for affordable qualities and higher-end stones. Requests for so-called “bread and butter” middle-quality goods are also improving after sagging for the past several years.
In the U.S., diamond traders reported that orders began to pick up in late November as retailers gained confidence in Christmas season sales. Diamonds from a half to two carats were moving well in the mid-quality ranges and affordable colored gems in fashionable settings are popular. Tiffany & Co., which reported a small increase for the third quarter, is predicting a modest single digit sales increase for the season. Signet Group, however, is predicting a single digit decline as consumers are trending away from shopping malls.
Black Friday weekend and Cyber Monday online sales were strong from retailers in general. The National Retail Federation reported that the average spend was up 15% and analysts say online purchases are running at record levels. Most retail jewelers, however, do a majority of their Christmas sales in the week before the holiday.
In China, the world’s second largest diamond and gemstone market, retailers reported the first upward trend in sales in two years, with Chow Tai Fook and Luc Fook registering strong gains.
PINK DIAMOND TENDER
Argyle reported (undisclosed) record prices for diamonds in its annual pink diamond tender, which featured 58 polished red, pink, violet and blue diamonds. The “Argyle Everglow,” a 2.11 ct Fancy red, the cornerstone of the collection, was purchased by David Shara of Optimum Diamonds in New York. Graff acquired the 2.42 ct pink Avaline diamond, the largest stone.
While the prices in the 2017 edition were strong, many of the diamonds from the 2015 and 2016 Argyle tenders are still with their original buyers.

The 14.93 ct “Pink Promise” Fancy Vivid pink diamond sold at Christie’s Hong Kong for $32.16 million on Nov. 28. The $2.15 million per carat price was a record. Photo courtesy of Christie's Images.
AUCTIONS
The first major auctions of the fall season produced decidedly mixed results.
At Sotheby’s Nov. 15 Geneva sale, several top gems went unsold. The 37.3 ct “Raj Pink” was the largest pink diamond ever to come up for auction, but buyers showed little interest and bidding stopped at less than half its top estimate of $29 million. A 7.41 ct Fancy Vivid blue diamond also failed to meet its reserve, as did the Donnersmarck diamonds, a pair of Fancy Intense yellow gems with European royal provenance.
The two bright spots at Sotheby’s were a 33.63 ct Fancy Light pink diamond from Winston that drew a high bid of $12.8 million and a 18.86 ct Burmese ruby ring that sold for $5 million.
The story was much different at Christie’s a day earlier. The top lot was the well-publicized “De Grisigono Creation 1,” an emerald and diamond necklace featuring a 163.41 ct D fl rectangular cut diamond pendant that went for $33.7 million. This was the most expensive D flawless diamond ever sold at auction, according to Christie’s vice president, Francois Curiel.
That diamond was cut from the 404 ct. “February 4” rough found at the Lulo Mine in Angola in 2016. The record price works out to $209,000 per carat, which was much higher than most large D flawless diamonds have been getting in the past year, though nowhere near a record. The high per carat price was notable because the loftiest bids usually go toward faceted shapes – ovals, rounds, etc.
At the same sale, “Le Grand Mazarin,” a 19.07 ct Fancy Light pink diamond, went for $14.46 million. The diamond had been part of the French crown jewels.
Another major fancy pink diamond, the 14.93 ct GIA-graded Fancy Vivid pink “Pink Promise” sold at Christie’s Hong Kong for $32.16 million on Nov. 28. The $2.15 million per carat price was a record. At the same auction, a jadeite, ruby and diamond necklace went for $12.3 million and an 8.8 ct Fancy Intense pink diamond sold for $9.7 million.
On Dec. 5, a 5.69 ct Fancy Vivid blue diamond drew a winning price of $15.1 million ($2.7 million per carat) at Sotheby’s New York sale. A 110 ct. L color, VS1 clarity, which Sotheby’s claimed was the largest round brilliant cut ever offered at auction, failed to sell.
MINE FINDS
It’s been a good month or two for mining 100-plus carat diamonds.
Alrosa’s Jubilee pipe yielded a 108.34 ct yellowish diamond and a 163.11 ct colorless stone. It also found an 82.8 ct gem, also yellowish.
In Sierra Leone, a small mining company unearthed a 476 ct stone in the country’s Kono area, its primary diamond producing locale. Earlier this year, a digger discovered a brownish 709 ct diamond that Rapaport auctioned on Dec. 4 for $6.5 million ($9,167 per carat) in New York. The buyer, London jeweler Laurence Graff, said the proceeds from the stone will be used to help some of the poorest people on Earth. About $1.1 million from the sale will be distributed to local diamond diggers in the district where the diamond was found.
Lucapa Mining in Angola reported finding a 129.58 ct diamond in early November and Gem Diamonds, a majority owner of the Letseng Mine in Lesotho, has discovered six 100-plus carat diamonds through the first nine months of the year. @chapter:30


Publication Year: 2017 Title: HPHT Synthetic Diamond Melee Found In Mounted Jewelry Abstract: Figure 1. Among the 70 melee diamonds mounted in this ring, one was confirmed to be an HPHT synthetic diamond. Photo by Johnny Leung.

Separation of treated and synthetic diamond melee from natural diamond is challenging work. Diamond melee, which weigh less than 0.2 ct, are often submitted to gemological laboratories in parcels containing hundreds (or more) loose stones. GIA’s automatic screening device, introduced in 2016, can separate synthetic and treated diamond melee from natural diamond melee. Identification becomes more challenging when the melee are mounted, due to their small size and the difficulty of accessing them.

In late February 2017, GIA’s Hong Kong laboratory received a ring containing 70 melee in addition to a marquise-cut diamond center stone (figure 1). Using a prototype of GIA’s new screening device for mounted gems, 69 of the melee passed the test for natural diamond, and one was referred as possible treated or synthetic diamond. The stone in question, which was set next to the center marquise diamond (figure 2, left), had no apparent inclusions. Infrared absorption spectroscopy identified it as a type IIb diamond with an absorption band at 2800 cm–1, indicating the presence of boron as a defect, forming a local vibration mode. Using photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, a very strong doublet peak at 882/884 nm related to nickel impurity was recorded under laser excitation and low temperature. The NV– center was more prominent than the NV0 center. Strong blue phosphorescence was also detected (figure 2). These observations confirmed that this was an HPHT synthetic diamond, very similar to melee we have previously tested that were manufactured in China.

Figure 2. Set near the center marquise diamond, one melee diamond (left, in red circle) showed the blue fluorescence (center) and phosphorescence (right) characteristic of HPHT synthetic diamond. Photos by Johnny Leung (left) and Terry Poon (center and right).
How to screen jewelry items with mounted diamonds for quality control is a concern in the industry. GIA’s robust instrument for rapid and accurate screening of small diamonds set in mountings will be available in late 2017. @chapter:15


Publication Year: - Title: Summer 2012 G&G Book Reviews Abstract: “Cartier at Prague Castle: The Power of Style”
By the Prague Castle Administration, 322 pp., illus., publ. by Flammarion, Paris, 2010. US$49.95

“Lapis Lazuli: In Pursuit of a Celestial Stone”
By Sarah Searight, 228 pp., soft cover, illus., publ. by East and West Publishing Ltd., London, 2010. US$42.00

“Russian Alexandrites”
By Karl Schmetzer, with contributions from George Bosshart, Marina Epelboym, Lore Kiefert, and Anna Kathrin Malsy, 141 pp., illus., publ. by Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany, 2010. US$49.90

“Sacred & Symbolic: Ancient India and the Lure of Its Diamonds”
By Hugh Durey, 190 pp., illus., publ. by the author, www.hughdurey.com, 2010. US$79.00

“Understanding Rough Gemstones”
By Shyamala Fernandes and Gagan Choudhary, 213 pp., illus., publ. by the Indian Institute of Jewelry, Mumbai, 2010. US$25.00

To view the full section, download the PDF above. @chapter:26


Publication Year: 2021 Title: Color-Zoned Cat’s-Eye Chrysoberyl Abstract: Figure 1. A color-zoned cabochon measuring 16.33 × 16.07 × 10.27 mm set in a ring. Left: Distinct zoning with cloud-like inclusions is visible as a white band in the middle. Right: The stone displays chatoyancy when illuminated with fiber-optic light. Photos by Shunsuke Nagai.
Chatoyancy occurs when light is reflected from certain oriented inclusions in a cabochon-cut gemstone. To be chatoyant, a group of fibers or needles or other reflective inclusions must be oriented parallel to the cabochon base. Usually these fibers and/or needles are dense and included throughout the stone, but occasionally there are cases with localized distribution of such inclusions.
GIA’s Tokyo laboratory examined a brownish green cabochon set in a ring with numerous near-colorless round and marquise brilliant cut accent stones. The center stone showed pleochroism and a spot RI reading of 1.75. The spectrum observed with a handheld spectroscope clearly showed the 444 nm band, consistent with green/yellow cat’s-eye chrysoberyl. Natural inclusions were observed under the microscope, as described later. For confirmation, an FTIR spectrum was collected; it showed peaks at 2163, 2403, and 4150 cm–1 that are characteristic of natural chrysoberyl (C.M. Stockton and R.E. Kane, “The distinction of natural from synthetic alexandrite by infrared spectroscopy,” Spring 1988 G&G, pp. 44–46).

Figure 2. Dense clouds containing minute fibrous inclusions create the cat’s-eye phenomenon. Larger blurry needles are visible within the cloud inclusions in the white portion. Photomicrograph by Yusuke Katsurada; field of view 3.0 mm.
In this stone, we can see obvious color zoning with a fixed whitish band in the middle between transparent brownish green portions (figure 1, left). This white part is semi-transparent/translucent due to dense clouds with minute fibrous inclusions (figure 2)—these features typically cause chatoyancy in cat’s-eye chrysoberyl. The cloud inclusions were not only on the cabochon surface but also located below the surface. As shown in figure 1 (right), this stone displayed distinct chatoyancy in the white zone. Even when viewed from an off-center direction, reflected light striking the clouds below the surface created the weak chatoyancy in the brownish green portions, which had no clouds or fibrous inclusions.
For the purpose of showing phenomena, stones with such localized inclusions can sometimes be oriented to place the inclusions at the base of the cabochon (Winter 2017 Lab Notes, pp. 459–460). Uneven distribution of included zones requires careful observation of the inclusion to likewise produce a good chatoyancy effect. This type of localized inclusion can sometimes lead cutters to be creative to maximize the appearance of the stone and the phenomenon. @chapter:19